Electrical Theory

Crane Systems Theory
Electrical Theory
Electrical Basics
To begin your study of electrical systems, it is important that you understand

the fundamental concepts of what makes electricity work. These concepts are
vital to an understanding of electrical systems and provide a basis on which to
learn more about electrical power.
In this course, you will learn the terminology, principles, and laws that
explain how electricity reacts in electrical circuits. A strong foundation in
these areas is important for understanding the physical laws and concepts
that govern electrical systems.
1 Electrical Theory Grove Manitowoc National Crane Potain

Electrical Basics
When learning to understand a physical system, there are generally two

parameters involved in the analysis. Constants and Variables
A constant is a parameter in a system that does not change. Constants include

parameters such as mass and length. In an electrical circuit, the constant
parameters include resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
A variable is a parameter in a system that can change or be adjusted.

Variables can also include parameters such as temperature and pressure.
In an electrical circuit the variable parameters are charge, current, voltage,
power, and time.

Electrical Basics
Constants and variables are often expressed in powers-of-ten notation.

Powers-of-ten notation also has a condensed form known as SI prefixes,
SI means Standards International.
The table below shows common prefixes with their specific power-of-ten
multiplier. For example, 9 kilo-ohms is equal to: nine times ten raised to the
third power, or nine thousand ohms.

Electrical Basics
Voltage, (V) is the force that pushes charge through a circuit to produce
current. Often, voltage is compared to pressure.
Voltage is also referred to as EMF, which stands for electromotive force.

Voltage is represented by the letter V and measured in units of volts. Voltage
can be schematically illustrated in various ways.
In electrical circuits, batteries are often used to produce a constant voltage.

Electrical Basics
You could view a battery as a kind of pump. But instead of pumping oil
through hoses, the battery moves electrons through a wire (and through the
things that the wire is connected to).
The electrons at the negative terminal want to go to positive terminal, they

just need a way to get there. The way to get there is through the wire. The
number of the electrons the battery can push through the circuit will depend
on the resistance in the circuit.
Because the electrons flow in one direction only, batteries produce direct
current (DC).

Electrical Basics
Current, (I) is defined as the rate at which electrons flow in an electrical

circuit.
Current is the circuit variable represented by the letter I and measured in

units of amperes. The letter A or Amps is used to abbreviate amperes.
REMEMBER?
A current exists if electrons are flowing.

Electrical Basics
Current is categorized as either AC (Alternating) or DC (Direct). In AC

systems the movement (or flow) of electric charge periodically reverses
direction. An electric charge would for instance move forward, then
backward, then forward, then backward, over and over again. In DC systems
the movement (or flow) of electric charge is only in one direction.
Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to

businesses and residences.
DC is commonly found in many low-voltage applications, especially where

these are powered by batteries, which can produce only DC.

Electrical Basics
Current density, (J), is a term used to express the degree of electron crowding. The
need for the expression comes from the fact that the temperature of a wire will go up as
the current density is increased. Sufficiently high temperatures can damage insulation
and even cause a fire.
Formula:
I - Current 2 3000
J (Current Density) = 1500A/in =
A - Area 2
It is recommended Copper be held to a current density of less than 1000 A/in2.

Electrical Basics
Wire Gauge Chart
The following chart

list wire diameter in
inches and mm along
with resistance rating
and maximum
amperage ratings.

Electrical Basics
Resistance, (R) is the opposition to electron flow. All electrical circuits have
some form of resistance, this can be in the form of a light, motor or solenoid
just to mention a few.
Resistance is represented by the letter R and measured in units of ohms.
The Greek letter Ω is used to represent ohms. A resistor is schematically
illustrated with a zigzag line.
DID YOU KNOW?
The larger the cross sectional area of a wire is, the less the resistance.
The longer the wire is, the greater the resistance.

Electrical Basics
An example of resistance in an electrical circuit would be a light bulb.

Imagine that you're holding a garden hose with no nozzle attached. With
nothing to obstruct the water, it pours out of the hose's end freely. But if
you place your thumb over the end of the hose, the water's going to squirt
out. The reason it does is because of the resistance created by your thumb.
It works much the same way for a light bulb. Electrons move relatively freely
through the wire, then they come to the bulb's filament, which resists the
flow of electrons.
The electrons can get through, but not as easily as they can through the
wire. The work done overcoming the resistance causes the filament to heat
up and to give off light.

Electrical Basics
Resistors are devices fabricated for the purpose of restricting current in a

circuit. Schematically resistors are typically drawn with a series of zigzag
lines.
A resistor’s value is determined by a standard color code. Each resistor has

colored bands, which represents its resistance in ohms. On a resistor with
four color bands, the first two color bands combine together to give the first
two significant digits of the resistance. The third band is a power of ten
multiplier. The fourth band gives the tolerance of the resistor value.

Electrical Basics
You can determine the current through a

resistor by measuring the voltage on
bought sides of the resistor, calculating
the difference and dividing it by the
resistance the resistor. This resistance is
written on the resistor in letters or
frequently by a color code. Current
calculated in this manner tells the
troubleshooter how much is in this
branch or a circuit.
Resistor Color Code Tool
4 Band Color Code

Electrical Basics

Electrical Basics
George S. Ohm (a German Physicist) in the early eighteen hundreds

discovered the basic relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance.
His basic formula used in electrical circuits is know as Ohm’s Law. It states
that current varies directly with voltage and inversely with resistance.
The current in a circuit is

directly proportional to the
voltage applied to the circuit
OR
As the voltage in a circuit
increases or decreases the
current will increase or
decrease

Electrical Basics

Electrical Basics
V I
R I

Electrical Basics

Electrical Basics
A simple way to remember Ohm’s Law is to use the Ohm’s Law triangle. To
solve for resistance, simply cover the R with your finger and you are left with
the equation.
Formulas:
Voltage = Current x Resistance
Voltage
Current =
Resistance
Voltage
Resistance =
Current

Electrical Basics
Example: A 10 Ω resistor has 12 A of current passing through it. What is

the voltage across the resistor?
Formula:
Answer:

Electrical Basics
Use Ohms Law to answer the following questions.
A. What is the current for the

example to the right?
V = 12 R = 8Ω
I = 1.2A
B. What is the voltage supply for the

R = 20Ω
I = 0.8A
C. What is the resistance value for the
V = 24

Circuit Components
Components are placed in a circuit to either control the flow of electricity or

to harness its power for some kind of work. Some components direct the
flow of electrons, and other components convert electrical energy into
another form of energy, such as light, heat, sound, linear force, or rotary
force.
These components include: switches, diodes, transistors, integrated circuits

or IC’s, solenoids, relays, transformers, resistors, fuses, circuit breakers, and
display elements.

Circuit Components
There are numerous kinds of switches. Some are strictly switches. However,
some electrical components with other primary functions, such as solenoids,
can also work as switches. On a circuit diagram, a switch may be
abbreviated as S or SW.
Disconnect Switch Rocker Switch
Limit Switch Proximity Switch

Circuit Components
A Relay is a type of electric switch through which one electrical circuit is

enabled to control another electrical circuit. It consists of a control circuit
and a power circuit. A relay can be used either to use a small current to
control a larger current, or to multiply the available output contacts.
There are two basic types of relays: Electromechanical and Solid State.
Bosch Relay Micro Relay Siemens Relay Solid State Relay

Circuit Components
In an electromechanical relay, a small current is applied to a coil, which

creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts a mobile contact,
moving it to a stationary contact.

Circuit Components
A Solid-State relay has no moving parts. The coil is replaced by an input

circuit. The contacts are replaced by a solid-state switching component, like
a transistor.
Advantages of Solid State relays:

• Faster than electromechanical relays; their switching time is dependent on
the time needed to power the LED on and off, on the order of microseconds
to milliseconds
• Increased lifetime due to the fact that there are no moving parts, and thus
no wear
• Clean, bounce less operation
• Decreased electrical noise when switching
• Smaller than a corresponding mechanical relay

Circuit Components
A Solenoid is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical

movement. Two types are commonly used, switching and proportional.
A solenoid has three basic parts: a coil, a spring, and an armature, or

plunger. When current is applied to the coil, it produces electromagnetic force
concentrated at the center of the windings. The iron or steel armature is
either drawn into the magnetic field of the coil, or pushed out of the magnetic
field, depending on the polarity. When the current to the coil stops, a spring
returns the armature to its previous position.

Circuit Components
The amount of linear force a solenoid can develop depends on two factors:
the number of coil turns and the amount of the current applied to the coil.
The more turns in the coil of a solenoid, the greater the linear force.
Likewise, the greater the current applied to the coil, the greater the linear
force. However, solenoids are rated for particular voltage, and increasing the
voltage beyond the rating can cause a solenoid to overheat and burn out.
Outrigger
Solenoids

Circuit Components
Some solenoid style valves are Proportional. This means by varying the
current to the solenoid, the amount of spool movement can be varied and
hence the amount of flow through the valve can be controlled. So unlike a
conventional solenoid valve, the electrical current flowing through the coil of
a proportional valve needs to be regulated not just switched on or off.

Circuit Components
A Resistor is a device that resists, or limits, current flow. When an

electrical component resists the flow of electricity, heat or light is generated
from the resistance. All electric wires, lamps, and electric heaters have
some resistance, but they are not called resistors because resistance is not
their main function. A resistor’s main function is resistance.
There are two main types of resistors: fixed and variable.

Circuit Components
Variable resistors can be either adjustable or tapped.
An adjustable variable resistor can adjust resistance in a circuit from its

minimum rating to its maximum rating, or any resistance in between.
A tapped variable resistor can adjust resistance in a circuit from its

minimum rating to it maximum rating, or to preset stages in between.
A rheostat is a variable resistor with two terminals. One terminal is fixed.

The other terminal is sliding. Rheostats are often used with higher currents.
A potentiometer is a variable resistor with three terminals. The third

terminal is used to adjust voltage.

Circuit Components
Some of today’s electrical systems use

resistor boards for the purpose of monitoring
switch integrity. Based on the law of voltage
drops, the system can detect a switch state
and in some cases identify and report system
errors.

Circuit Components
Potentiometers can be either rotary or linear, rotary potentiometers are more

common in most applications. Linear potentiometers are often used as
sensing devices. Most sensing potentiometers are designed to vary their
resistance in proportion to their mechanical movement. Potentiometers are
used as a component in such things as boom length sensors and throttle
position sensors.
Rotary Linear

Circuit Components
A diode is a device that allows electricity to flow through it in only one

direction. It acts much like a check valve in a hydraulic circuit. A diode has
two terminals. The positive terminal is the anode. The negative terminal is
the cathode.
When a diode is connected in the proper polarity, current passes through it.
This is called forward bias. When a diode is connected in opposite polarity,
current flow is blocked. This is called reverse bias.

Circuit Components
Diodes have many applications. For example, diodes are used in alternators
to change alternating current into direct current. Changing alternating
current into direct current is called rectification. That is why diodes are also
known as rectifiers.
Batteries provide direct current and are charged with direct current. If the
alternating current of an alternator is connected directly to the positive
terminal of a battery, electricity would flow into and out of the battery with
each cycle. The battery could not be charged. But if diodes are properly
connected between the battery and the alternating current power source,
the electricity will only flow into the battery, and charging will occur.

Circuit Components
There are many types of diodes. Some of the common types are small signal
diodes, arc suppression diodes and light-emitting diodes.
A common diode is used to prevent reverse flow of electrical current.
Arc suppression diodes absorb electrical spikes in relays and solenoids when
the magnetic fields are collapsed.
LED’s or light emitting diodes are used today mainly as indicator lights.
Common Diode Arc Suppression Light Emitting

Circuit Components
Integrated Circuits are microelectronic circuits with resistors, diodes, and

transistors. These circuits are usually fabricated on a chip of silicon. There are
many various types of ICs, and an individual integrated circuit on one small
chip may contain dozens or even millions of resistors, diodes, and transistors.
ICs can have different functions, like arithmetic, memory, or code conversion.

Circuit Components
Today's cranes are using CAN-Bus technology and are equipped with these
integrated circuits that can communicate analog, digital, or PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) style signals.
Analog ICs operate on variable voltage values. Temperature, speed,

frequency, voltage, and current are infinitely varying quantities measured in
analog circuit displays. An electronic voltage regulator is an example of an
analog IC.
Digital ICs operate on two voltage values, usually voltage and no voltage, or
on and off. Digital ICs therefore measure in discrete steps, such as counting
seconds on a digital watch. Calculators and computers operate with the
binary, or on and off, processing of digital ICs.
Pulse Width Modulation ICs operate on the technique of controlling power

to inertial electrical devices. The average value of voltage (and current) fed
to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on
and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on compared to the off
periods, the higher the power supplied to the load is.

Circuit Components
Transistors are three-terminal semiconductor devices. They are used as

switches and amplifiers in electronic circuits. The three terminals on a
transistor are base, collector, and emitter.
Transistors are the most widely used components in modern electronic

circuits. In digital circuits, transistors are extremely fast electrical switches,
and arrangements of transistors function as logic gates and RAM memory. In
analog circuits, transistors function mainly as amplifiers.

Circuit Components
The base can be thought of as a switch because a small base current can
control much larger current through the collector and emitter. The collector
can be thought of as the input of the transistor, and the emitter can be
thought of as the output of the transistor.
A transistor works in electronic circuits in a way similar to the way a relay

works in higher voltage electric circuits, a small electrical current is able to
control a larger electrical current, much like a pilot switch. However, a
transistor is more versatile than a relay because it can both switch and
amplify. The amount of collector-emitter current flow is controlled by varying
the current flow to the base.

Circuit Components
Fuses are devices that protect circuit components from the damage that
could be caused by short circuits or overloads. Sometimes fuses are referred
to as OCPD’s, meaning Over Current Protection Devices.

Circuit Components
A fuse is a low-resistance device connected in series with the circuit’s

conductors. It acts as a normally closed switch. Inside the fuse is a metal
strip designed to carry electrical current up to a specified amperage. As
current passes through the fuse, the metal strip, or fusible link, heats up.
The higher the current, the higher the temperature. When the current and
resulting temperature exceed the amperage rating of the fuse, the metal link
melts and opens the circuit. When a non-time delay fuse detects an overload
or short circuit it will open the circuit almost instantaneously.

Circuit Components
Slow Blow or Time Delay fuses have two elements and are sometimes called
dual-element fuses. When a time delay fuse detects a short circuit, one of the
elements reacts and opens the circuit almost instantly. However, when
subjected to an overload, a time delay fuse will not react for a short period of
time, usually a few seconds. Time delay fuses are commonly used in circuits
subjected to temporary, low-level overloads. For example, time delay fuses
are often used in motor circuits, since motors generally draw an overload
current when started. Once the motor has reached operating speed, current
drops to the normal level.

Circuit Components
A Circuit Breaker is a mechanical over-current protection device. Like a fuse,

a circuit breaker is connected in series with the circuit’s conductors. Many
circuit breakers allow you to manually open the circuit.
Inside a circuit breaker is a bi-metal band bridging two contacts. Current

passing through the circuit heats up the band. When the current exceeds the
amperage rating of the circuit breaker, one of the metals in the two-metal
band, heats up and expands faster than the other metal in the band. This
causes the band to bend away from one of the contacts, stopping the flow of
current through the circuit.

Circuit Components
A cycling circuit breaker is designed to automatically reset when the band has
cooled. A cycling circuit breaker will continue to open and close the circuit
until the circuit problem is fixed. Non-cycling circuit breakers must be
manually reset. A short circuit creates a higher current arc than an overload.
Therefore, a circuit breaker that has been tripped by numerous short circuits
may be damaged and need replacement.

Circuit Components
Fuses and circuit breakers are important for your safety and the safety of the
equipment. The following tips should be adhered to when diagnosing a
electrical system malfunction.
• Always turn of power supply to electrical system prior to replacing a blown

fuse.
• When a fuse blows or a circuit breaker trips, always determine the cause
before replacing or resetting.
• If a replacement fuse blows immediately upon installation, the problem is

probably a short circuit in the system.
• Never replace a fuse with a larger capacity fuse, and never rig a temporary
bypass for a blown fuse.

Circuit Components
Years ago, mechanical gauges provided the information needed for operating
mobile hydraulic equipment. Now, mechanical gauges are often replaced by
electronic displays. Electronic displays can be more exact. They are also more
durable because they do not have moving parts.

Circuit Fundamentals
Electrical components function when they are connected in a circuit. In this

section you will learn what an electrical circuit is and how to recognize
different sections of a circuit. You will also learn some of the laws governing
voltage and current throughout a circuit. These concepts are essential in
understanding and analyzing electrical systems.
Heaters, lighting equipment, and power lines are resistive circuit elements.
Motors and transformers contain coils of wire that have inductance. Batteries
and generators are voltage sources.
When various electrical components are networked together, an electric

circuit is formed. Each component in the circuit is diagrammed with its
respective symbol. The magnitude of current in the circuit is limited by all
components that oppose the flow of current.

The circuit elements shown include a power source, a switch and a resistor.
Any device that passes a current can be modeled or represented in a diagram

by a circuit element or symbol. By connecting this group of elements together
end-to-end, a circuit is formed.
Battery Switch Resistor

A connection point or junction for circuit elements in any location along the
path of current is also known as a Node.
There are two types of nodes: A Major node, also called a junction, is made
up of three or more wires. A Minor node, sometimes called a point, is made
up of only two wires.

A direct current, or DC, electrical circuit generally consists of a battery or DC

generator connected to other circuit elements such as lighting systems,
heaters, and DC motors.
These elements can be connected in series, parallel, or a combination of the

two. How they are connected depends on the supply voltage, resistance of
each element, and the power requirements of each element.

This illustrated electrical circuit components include a battery, V, a switch, S,

and a load. Current, I, will exist depending on the status of the switch.
Switches are used to control whether current exists in a circuit.

A Open circuit means there is no current. This renders the circuit devices to
be inactive. The circuit under this condition is said to be OFF and no current
exists.
A Closed circuit means there is a current present. All devices in the circuit
become active when this condition occurs. The circuit is now said to be ON,
and current is present.

Short Circuit describes what happens when electric current takes a shortcut
to complete the circuit. Just as water seeks the lowest level, so also electricity
usually seeks the path of least resistance.
A short circuit happens when two exposed wires or when another conductor,
such as water, makes a bridge between conductors or component
connections. The current then bypasses the load and returns to the source.

Generally, in electricity, a ground is an electrical connection to the earth. This

provides a direct path for faults, or unwanted current, to pass to the earth
without harming people or equipment.
In mobile equipment, grounding means that the chassis is part of the circuit.
One of the battery terminals is connected directly to the chassis. Today, that
is generally the negative terminal.

When a circuit switch is closed, there is electron flow between the chassis,
the components, the switch, and the positive terminal of the power source.
Sometimes in mobile equipment, wire insulation breaks, or some other

abnormal connection is made between the circuit and the chassis. The
current then takes a shortcut between the chassis and the power source,
bypassing the load of the components. Since there is minimal resistance in
this short circuit, excessive current flow and overheating result.

Circuit Analysis
As circuits become more complex, circuit analysis is used in understanding

the overall effects of circuit components on an electrical system. "Kirchhoff"
provided us with two laws for analyzing electrical circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law deals with current in an electric circuit.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law deals with voltage in a circuit.

Circuit Analysis
Kirchhoff’s Current Law has been expressed several ways depending on the
level of mathematics being used. The simplest form, which says, “The sum of
currents going into a node is equal to sum of the currents going out of the
node.” In the below example, there are six branch currents stemming from a
single node “a”. I1 and I5 are going into the node and I2, I3, I4 and I6 are
going out of the node.
By applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law, we get Equation I1+I5=I2+I3+I4+I6

Circuit Analysis
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in its simplest form states: “The sum of voltage rises
going around a loop is equal to the sum of voltage drops.”
20Ω 30Ω
V2 V3
V1=12V 50Ω
V4
In the above example current, I, passes through all devices in the circuit.
There is one active elements, V1, whereas V2, V3, and V4 are all passive
elements. The direction of current goes from negative to positive through the
battery and therefore the battery cause a voltage rise. The three passive
elements will have a voltage drop. By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law here
we get Equation V1 = V2 + V3 + V4

Circuit Analysis
Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected in

many different ways. The two simplest of these are called series and
parallel and occur very frequently.
Components connected in series are connected along a single path, so the
same current flows through all of the components.
Components connected in parallel are connected so the same voltage is
applied to each component.

Circuit Analysis (Series)
3 Laws of Series Circuits:
1. Individual resistance in a series circuit add up to the total circuit resistance.
2. Current has the same value at any point in a series circuit.
3. The individual voltage drops across resistance add up to the total system
voltage.

Series Circuits have circuit devices that are connected end to end or in
tandem. There is only one branch in a series circuit and therefore, all nodes
are minor nodes.
*In a series circuit , The current through each of the components is the
same, and the voltage across the components is the sum of the voltages
across each component. Series circuits are sometimes called Current-coupled
or Daisy Chain-coupled. The current that flows in a series circuit will flow
through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a
series connection carry the same current.
As an example, consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs
and one 6 V battery. If a wire joins the battery to one bulb, to the next bulb,
to the next bulb, to the next bulb, then back to the battery, in one continuous
loop, the bulbs are said to be in series. The same current flows through all of
the bulbs, and the voltage drop is 1.5 V across each bulb.
In a series circuit, every device must function for the circuit to be complete.
One bulb burning out in a series circuit breaks the circuit.

*The voltages across batteries in series add and subtract according to the
polarity of each battery.
When current enters the negative post and leaves the positive post, the
voltage across the battery is positive and gives a voltage rise. When current
exits the battery through the negative post, the battery gives a voltage drop
and has a negative voltage.
In the below example, all of the batteries have positive polarities and
therefore give voltage rises. Thus the voltage will increase across each
battery for this circuit.

Mathematically, the total voltage of batteries in series with the same polarity
can be represented by the equation; Total Voltage = V1 + V2 + V3
= 12V = 12V
= 12V
Total Volts = _____
If battery V3 is connected in reverse polarity, what would be the total voltage?
= 12V = 12V
= 12V
Total Volts = _____

*Resistors in series add together directly. Because they are non-polar

devices they can be connected with either terminal leading or lagging with
the same results.
Mathematically, total resistance for resistors in series can be represented by
the equation. Total Resistance (ohms) = R1 + R2 + R3
Total Resistance = _____

Using Ohms Law, answer the below examples:

What is the Total Current for example A?
= 12V A
Total Current = _____
What is the Voltage Drop across each resistor for example B?
R1 Voltage Drop = _____ R2 Voltage Drop = _____
= 12V
B
R3 Voltage Drop = _____

Circuit Analysis (Parallel)
3 Laws of Parallel Circuits:
1. The total resistance in a parallel circuit is always equal to or less than the
smallest resistor in the circuit.
2. The voltage across all branches of a parallel circuit are the same as the
source voltage.
3. The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the current
flowing in the individual branches.

Parallel Circuits have circuit devices that are connected across each other.
All load devices are connected to the same nodes.
*In Parallel circuits the voltage is the same in all branches because all
components are connected to the same major node.
*The Total Current, I ,is the sum of the currents through the individual
components, in accordance with Kirchhoff's circuit laws. The current in each
individual resistor is found by Ohm's law.
As an example, consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs
and one 6 V battery. If the light bulbs are connected in parallel, the current
flowing through the light bulbs combine to form the current flowing in the
battery, while the voltage drop is 6 V across each bulb.
In parallel circuits, each light has its own circuit, so all but one light could be
burned out, and the last one will still function.
*Resistors in parallel add by one over the sum of the reciprocals

*Batteries in parallel must be rated at the same voltage and have the same
polarity. Opposite polarity in parallel would represent a short circuit and both
batteries would quickly expend all their energy on the opposite battery.
With the batteries in parallel, the voltage in the circuit will remain the same
but the current will be equally distributed among each battery.
In the example below, all three batteries V1, V2, and V3 are 12 V each, and
there is a load with a resistance (R) of 4 Ω. The total voltage, is simply 12 V.

Total current in a parallel circuit is the sum of the currents flowing in each
individual branch, we can use Ohm’s Law to calculate these currents and add
them together for total current.
12V 3Ω 4Ω 6Ω
Solution: Since each branch of the circuit has the same voltage supply
(12V), using Ohm’s Law we simply calculate current flow of each branch.
12V / 3Ω = 4A, 12V / 4Ω = 3A, 12V / 6Ω = 2A, Total Current = 9A

Total resistance in a parallel circuit is always equal to or less than the smallest
resistor in the circuit. Two formulas can be used to find total resistance in a
parallel circuit, based on whether the parallel circuit has two resistors in parallel
or three or more resistors in parallel.
R1 = 10Ω R2 = 20Ω

Two resistors in parallel formula to calculate total resistance.
Formula:
R1 x R2
=Total Resistance
R1 + R2
R1 = 10Ω R2 = 20Ω
10 x 20 200
Solution: = = 6.667 Ohms
10 + 20 30

Three or more resistors in parallel formula to calculate total resistance.
Formula: 1
= Total Resistance
1 1 1
( R1 + R2 + R3 )
1 1 1
Solution: = = = 2.857 Ohms
1 1 1
( 5 + 10 + 20 ) ( .20 + .10 + .05 ) .35

Using Ohms Law, answer the following examples:

What is the Total Resistance for example A? Total Resistance = _____
A
V = 12V R1 = 100Ω R2 = 300Ω
What is the Total Resistance for example B? Total Resistance = _____
B
V = 12V R1 = 1kΩ R2 = 350Ω R3 = 1.5kΩ

What is the Total Current for example C? Total Current = _____
C
V = 12V R1 = 30Ω R2 = 70Ω
Current = _____ Current = _____
What is the Total Current for example D? Total Current = _____
D
V = 12V R1 = 40Ω R2 = 80Ω R3 = 120Ω
Current = _____ Current = _____ Current = _____

Circuit Analysis (Combination)
Any time we combine series circuits with parallel circuits we form what are
called combination circuits or series/parallel circuits.
The key to combination circuits is to reduce the circuit into its simplest form.
• Combine common series elements into one equivalent element.
• Combine common parallel elements into one equivalent element.

When trying to calculate total resistance of a combination circuit it is helpful

to redraw the circuit in another form. By doing this, it may be easier to see
which components are in parallel and which are in series.

We can reduce combination circuits to its simplest form by following a series

of reduction steps.
Circuit reduction should usually begin at the branch farthest from the battery.
In this case, branch three containing R4, R5, and R6 is the farthest.
20 100
24 200 140
30 160

Since elements R4, R5 and R6 are in series, we can simplify this branch by
adding their resistance and replacing the branch with its equivalent resistance
value and we'll name this resistance Re1.
20
24 200 400
30

Now we see that the new equivalent resistor (Re1) is in parallel with R2. We
can now use the formula for two resistors in parallel to give us a second
equivalent resistance which we’ll name Re2.
20
R2 x Re1
R2 + Re1
24 133.33 Ω 200Ω x 400Ω

200Ω + 400Ω
80000Ω
= 133.33Ω
600Ω
30

We have now reduced the circuit to three elements R1, Re2, and R3, which
are in series. We can simply add them together to get a total resistance.
We have taken the original circuit and reduced it to its simplest form.
183.33 Ω
20Ω + 133.33Ω + 30Ω = 183.33Ω

Using Ohms Law, answer the below example:

What is the Total Resistance for example A? Total Resistance = _____
40Ω 100Ω
24V A 150Ω 200Ω
60Ω 120Ω
What is the Total Current for example A? Total Current = _____

Using Ohms Law, answer the below example:

What is the Total Resistance for example B? Total Resistance = _____
R1 = 100Ω
24V B
R3 = 60Ω R2 = 80Ω
What is the Total Current for example B? Total Current = _____

Electrical Testing
A visual inspection of an electrical

system can reveal the causes of some
problems within the system. However,
since electricity itself is invisible, it takes
instruments and electrical test
equipment to give you a vision into that
invisible world of electricity.
The development of digital testers has
greatly advanced the ability to measure
and work with electronics and electricity.
Perhaps most important though, is that
you learn safety precautions to follow
when testing electricity.

Electrical Testing
Electricity is one of the most intense forces in nature, and it is unforgiving,

any voltage of twelve volts or more, should be treated as potentially lethal.
Transient voltage aka power surges are brief but powerful over-voltages and
over-currents in an electrical circuit.

Electrical Testing
Always respect potentially hazardous

energy situations, and consider these
precautions to help you avoid human
errors that could lead to injury or death.
Use extreme caution when working with:
• voltage of twelve volts or greater
• current of ten milliamperes or greater
• AC power lines with inductive loads or
during an electrical storm
• CRT equipment (Cathode Ray Tube)
computer and television monitors

Electrical Testing
When working around high voltage, avoid

working alone. There should be a person close
by who can render aid if necessary.
Always measure current with the load, and
never measure current across the voltage
source. Make certain no body parts contact a
live circuit. Do not touch the probe tips when
they are connected to a component or system.
Use insulated tools.
If you must work on a live circuit, always hook
the ground clip first, then make contact with
the hot lead; remove the hot lead first, and
remove the ground clip last. Hang or rest the
multimeter if possible. Avoid holding the meter
in your hands. This will reduce your exposure
to possible transients.

Electrical Testing
Never wear metal jewelry when working on electricity. Use safety goggles
and rubber insulated gloves. Wear flame retardant clothing. Use insulated
mats. Never operate a multimeter in explosive situations. Avoid taking
measurements in humid or damp conditions. Make sure your hands, feet, and
work areas are dry.
Also, remember the one-hand rule. Use only one hand to attach the probes to
the circuit or component, and keep the other hand in your pocket. This
greatly reduces the chance of engaging a closed circuit through your chest
and heart.

Electrical Testing
A variety of test equipment are available

with a wide diversity of functions, ranges,
accuracies, and abilities among multimeters.
It is important to study the instruction manual
of your digital multimeter to understand its
specifications, operating features, ranges, and
limitations
Know the rating and limits of your meter:
CAT I: used where current levels are low.
CAT II: used on residential branch circuits.
CAT III: used on permanently installed loads such as distribution panels,

motors, and appliance outlets.
CAT IV: used where current levels are high, such as main panels, and house
meters.

Electrical Testing
The International Electrotechnical Commission, or IEC, has set standards for

low-voltage test equipment. IEC defines low voltage as one thousand volts or
fewer. You should not use a meter to test voltage higher than that for which
it is rated.
The four categories are CAT I, CAT II, CAT III and CAT IV. The category and
voltage rating of a meter should be marked on the front of the meter. A
higher category number on a meter means it has been tested for use in
electrical systems where there is greater danger possible from more powerful
transients.

Electrical Testing
Know the safety standards of your multimeter. Some multimeters emit a tone
when they are put in a potentially dangerous configuration. If a test lead is
plugged into the current jack and the range switch is set to measure a
different function, the alert tone sounds, because, even if the tester has fast-
acting fuses, if a tester is connected to a voltage source in this configuration,
dangerous current could result.
Never try to measure voltage if the leads are plugged into the amp jacks!

Electrical Testing
Test leads may seem simple, but good test leads are a critical part of safety
in testing. Inspect the leads before each use. Fatigued and worn leads may
fail or have high voltage leakage.
Test your leads by first setting the dial to continuity then touch your lead tips
together. If you show continuity, your leads are working. You can also test
your leads with a resistance test in the low ohms range. When you test the
resistance on your leads, you should typically get a resistance between 0.2
and 0.5. If you get a reading greater than 1.0, the leads need to be replaced.

Electrical Testing
Make sure the voltage rating of the fuses on your multimeter are greater than
the maximum voltage you expect to measure. A meter with a 20 amp, 250
volt fuse should not be used for measurements in a 480 volt circuit. For a
480 volt circuit, you should use a meter with at least a 20 amp, 600 volt
fuse.
Never replace a fuse with a fuse of a different rating. Keep spare leads and
fuses handy so that no one will consider using inappropriate leads or fuses.
Replace the battery immediately when the low battery indicator comes on. A
low battery can cause faulty readings, and in some cases a low battery can
cause safety problems.

Electrical Testing
An Analog Meter is an electromechanical tester. It uses magnets and

springs to move a needle in reaction to the electricity being tested. Because
they have moving parts, analog meters are more delicate than digital meters
and they must be calibrated frequently. A precise analog meter is generally
accurate within two or three percent of the measured reading.
The electrical value tested by an analog meter is measured against a scale.

Analog displays use either a linear scale, or a non-linear scale. A linear scale
is divided into equal segments and a non-linear scale is divided into unequally
spaced segments.

Electrical Testing
A Digital Multimeter uses solid state

microprocessors to make electrical
measurements.
• Digital multimeters are much more
accurate than analog meters. A typical
digital multimeter can be accurate within
one one-tenth of one percent of the
measured reading.
• Digital multimeters are generally much
more compact than analog meters.
• Digital multimeters are more rugged
than analog meters.
• Digital multimeters are more versatile
than analog meters. For example, digital
multimeters can capture near
instantaneous information, record trends,
or download information to a computer.

Electrical Testing
A digital multimeter has either an LED, or a liquid crystal display. The display
shows exact numerical values. The digital numbers on the display are easy to
read.
The numbers on a digital display are updated from one to four times per
second. If the numbers were continually updated, they would be unreadable
in some measurements.

Electrical Testing
Depending on the style of the digital multimeter, how you select functions or
ranges may be done with a dial or pushbuttons.
The range determines where the decimal point will appear in the number. The
position of the decimal point determines how refined or precise the reading
will be, some meters auto range while others use a dial to pre-select the
range. The lowest possible range will provide the highest resolution.

Electrical Testing
The port panel is the area on your meter

where you plug in your test leads. The Red
lead must be switched to one of the amperage
ports when measuring circuit amps, the black
lead will always be plugged into the Com port.
Consult the instruction manual of the meter for
the specific use of the ports.
Voltage
Resistance
Diodes
Continuity
Milli-Amps
Amps

Electrical Testing
Dial Symbols
OFF = No Power in Meter
V = AC Voltage
V = DC Voltage
mV = DC Milli Volts
= Ohms or Resistance
= Diode or Continuity
A = AC Amperage
A = DC Amperage

Electrical Testing
To get the most precise reading, your meter

must be set to the lowest range possible
without overloading. Therefore, set your meter
to the range just higher than the expected
reading.
The accuracy of your meter should be checked
periodically by taking test readings on a
device with known voltage, current and
resistance values. In addition to periodic
checks, all meters should be calibrated by
using the manufacturers recommended
calibrating procedure.

Electrical Testing
An OL reading on the display of your digital

multimeter is a warning. It means overload
or over range. If you are testing voltage or
current and OL shows on the display,
immediately adjust your range upward until
you get a reading. If the highest range does
not eliminate the OL reading, stop the
measurement and disconnect your
multimeter.
An OL indication is not always a warning of
a problem. An OL reading on the display can
be normal for some functions, such as
testing continuity.
When you measure a diode, an OL reading
means that the diode is open or you have a
reverse bias.

Testing DC Voltage
When checking DC Voltage the meter must

be set to the proper DC voltage setting and
the leads must be hooked in parallel to the
circuit.

Testing Resistance
When checking Resistance the meter must

be set to the Ohm setting and component to
be tested should be removed from the
circuit if possible. If component can not be
removed, circuit power must be off.

Testing Diodes
When checking Diodes the meter must be

set to the Continuity/Diode setting and
component to be tested should be removed
from the circuit if possible. If component can
not be removed, circuit power must be off.
Anode
Cathode

Testing Diodes
Forward Bias = .500 to .800 = Good

Reverse Bias = .OL = Good
Forward Bias = .OL = Bad (Open)
Reverse or Forward Bias = .000 = Bad (Short)
Anode
Cathode

Testing Continuity
When checking Continuity the meter must

be set to the Continuity/Diode setting and
component to be tested should be removed
from the circuit if possible. If component can
not be removed, circuit power must be off.
10A
10A

Testing Continuity
Meter reads .000 = Perfect continuity

(Alarm should sound)
Meter reads .OL = Open circuit
10A
10A

Testing Current (Amperage)
When checking Current the meter must be

set to the Amp setting with the red lead
plugged into the Amp or Milli-Amp port.
The circuit must be broken with the meter
hooked in series.
Unit of measure = Ampere or Amps

Testing Current (Amperage)
To measure current using a clamp-on meter, first determine whether you will
be measuring AC or DC current. If your meter will measure both AC and DC,
select the correct setting for the AC or DC current being tested. Select the
highest setting range for the expected current.
Open the clamp head by pressing the lever. Circle the jaws of the head
around a single conductor. Release the lever. Make sure the jaws of the
clamp have closed all the way around the single conductor.

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Crane Systems Theory

To begin your study of electrical systems, it is important that you understand

1 Electrical Theory Grove Manitowoc National Crane Potain

When learning to understand a physical system, there are generally two

A constant is a parameter in a system that does not change. Constants include

A variable is a parameter in a system that can change or be adjusted.

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Constants and variables are often expressed in powers-of-ten notation.

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Voltage is also referred to as EMF, which stands for electromotive force.

In electrical circuits, batteries are often used to produce a constant voltage.

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The electrons at the negative terminal want to go to positive terminal, they

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Current, (I) is defined as the rate at which electrons flow in an electrical

Current is the circuit variable represented by the letter I and measured in

A current exists if electrons are flowing.

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Current is categorized as either AC (Alternating) or DC (Direct). In AC

Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to

DC is commonly found in many low-voltage applications, especially where

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It is recommended Copper be held to a current density of less than 1000 A/in2.

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Wire Gauge Chart

The following chart

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DID YOU KNOW?

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An example of resistance in an electrical circuit would be a light bulb.

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4 Band Color Code

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George S. Ohm (a German Physicist) in the early eighteen hundreds

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Voltage = Current x Resistance

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Example: A 10 Ω resistor has 12 A of current passing through it. What is

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Use Ohms Law to answer the following questions.

A. What is the current for the

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