1 MSc-NEC Water Supply Handouts (2079)

12/18/2022
Lecture Notes on "Water Supply Engineering" Part For MSc Entrance and Nepal Engineering Council License Exam (2079) CHAPTER: 1 to 9
MSc Entrance and Nepal Engineering Council (NEC) License

Exam Preparation Classes
2079
WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING PART

Reference
LECTURE BY:
Er. Arun Prasad Parajuli (NEC Registered No: 2269 Civil ‘A’)
[M.Sc. Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil Engineering]
Associate Professor
Publisher:
Department of Civil Engineering, Sagarmatha Engineering College, Sanepa, Lalitpur Heritage Publishers and
Vice-Principal (Admin.) Distributors Pvt. Ltd,
Sagarmatha Engineering College, Sagarmatha College of Science and Technology, Bhotahity, Kathmandu
Sanepa, Lalitpur
Presented By: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 1 Presented By: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 2
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

 “Panchatatwo”: air, water, food, heat or light , Shelter
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION  Contamination: health hazards; degrade environment
 Dealt in “Environmental Engineering”.
 Water Supply Engineering: branch of Public Health
Engineering incorporated in environmental engineering:
LECTURE BY:
deals with supply of sufficient safe water to the community.
[M.Sc. Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil Engineering] 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF WATER
Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, Sagarmatha Engineering College, Sanepa, Lalitpur • 50% by weight in female and 60% in male
Vice-Principal (Admin.) • Human brain/heart about (73%); lungs (83%); skin (64%);
Sagarmatha Engineering College, Sagarmatha College of Science and Technology, muscles and kidneys (79%) and bones (31%) of water.
Sanepa, Lalitpur
Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 3 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 4
• Adult male 3 and female 2.2 1.3 TYPES OF WATER

liters water per day. Functions of water in
a. Pure and impure water
• Animals: for the same and human body
• Pure water:
habitat  2 parts of H and 1 part O
• Plants: cell building,  Not good for human health.
mineral delivery,
• Impure water:
photosynthesis
 containing anything other than H and O
• Common use: Cooking;
 Useful/harmful for human depending upon types and amount
drinking; bathing;
of impurities.
washing; watering lawns
and gardens; heating and b. Contaminated, polluted and infected water
air-cooling; growing crops; • Contaminated or polluted water:
street washing; fire  Impure containing microorganisms; chemicals; industrial
fighting; recreation, power and other wastes; pathogens etc.
generation; industrial use;  harmful for human health
sanitation system etc.  Exists in nature due to the result of contamination.
• Important after air
By: Er. Arun Prasad Parajuli (NEC Reg. No: 2269 Civil 'A'), Associate Professor (Civil Engineering)/Vice-Principal (Admin.)
Sagarmatha Engineering College/Sagarmatha College of Science and Technology, Sanepa, Lalitpur, Nepal 1
12/18/2022
• Infected water:
 Contaminated/polluted with pathogenic organisms Requirements of wholesome water
• Contaminated/polluted/infected: unfit for public health or 1. Should be colorless, sparkling and acceptable by the public.
domestic purpose. 2. Should be tasty, odour-free, soft, cool and cheap in cost.
3. Should be free from radioactive substance, microorganism,
c. Potable, palatable and wholesome water pathogens, objectionable dissolved gases (H2S, CH4 etc.),
• Potable/palatable water: harmful salts, objectionable minerals, iron, manganese, lead,
 Impure suitable for drinking, having pleasant taste and arsenic and other poisonous metals.
usable for domestic purpose 4. Shouldn’t corrode pipes.
 Well aerated but free from excessive temperature, colour, 5. Should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid to
turbidity, taste and odour and aesthetically acceptable. remain fresh.
• Wholesome water:
 Impure drinkable, neither chemically pure nor contain
anything harmful to human health containing useful minerals.
 ‘Wholesome water’ used instead of ‘potable or palatable water’
nowadays
1.4 NEED OF PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
• Everywhere
water is needed
Air Water Food
Cloth
(for humans)
BASIC NEEDS
Shelter Heat
FOR HUMANS
and light
• Earth’s surface: about 71% of global water

• As per United States Geological Survey (USGS): • Ancient civilization: along the riverbanks due to water
• Family responsible from local sources (springs, river, wells)
• Inadequate with increased population
• Started to collect from farthest source, conveyed to community
through bored wood, clay channels, clay pipes, lead pipes etc.
with respect to time
• Encountered pollution due to waste generation from increased
population.
• Very little freshwater is easily available in rivers.

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• Led water borne and other disease
• So planned or protected or systematic or well-organized

water supply system
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF WATER SUPPLY

B. Positive Impacts:
a. To supply safe and wholesome water.
a. Immediate Impact:
b. To provide reliable and adequate supply.
i. Fetching time (long go and bring) saved
c. To make water available within easy reach of the consumers. ii. Improves hygienic condition/medicine expenses reduced
d. To supply water rich in reliability, quality, quantity in iii. Objective (safe/reliable/adequate/effective supply achieved.
effective and efficient way so that general cleanness b. Long Term Impact:
obtained and water related diseases greatly reduced. i. Increases socio-economic activities
ii. Increases living standard
1.6 IMPACTS OF WATER SUPPLY iii. Help in economic growth of community and nation
A. Negative Impacts:
a. Reduces d/s water and affects aquatic life
b. Decreases GWT
c. Create dispute
d. Pollution at d/S
3. Dual system or method of distribution

1.7 SYSTEMS OR METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION OF WATER • Combined (pumping and gravity) system
1. Gravity system or method of distribution
2. Pumping
system or
method of
distribution
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1.8 ESSENTIALS OF WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 1. In rural area
Figure 1.1 Gravity system or gravity method of distribution

1. In rural area 1. In rural area
2. In urban area 1.9 COMPONENTS OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM AND FUNCTIONS

• Pump is optional 1. Source and intake:
Source: Place of water availability
Intake: structure to tap water, hold inlet, outlet and screen.
2. Collection chamber (CC): Small chamber attached to
intake/made nearby to collect water incoming from one/more
sources to feed TL
3. Pump: machine for artificial lift/convey water
4. Pipe line
a. Transmission pipe line or transmission main (TL)
 Transmission system: source to DR
 TL: pipeline from source to TP to DR
b. Distribution pipe line or distribution main (DL)
 Distribution system: from DR to tap
 DL: pipeline from DR to user’s tap
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Source
Intake
cc
vc Pipeline
6. Reservoir (RVT)
5. Treatment works
• Structure constructed/device placed to store water
• Source with good quality: directly distributed
• With impurities: Removed by processing called treatment a. Impounded reservoir: RVT with dam across river/stream
• Area separated for processing is treatment plant (TP) b. Clear water reservoir: RVT at end of TP
• Components depends upon source and desired water quality. c. Distribution reservoir: RVT before distribution to balance
inflow/outflow for a day
7. Pipe crossing (PC)
• Pipe laid across water courses (gully, stream or river)
vc
Distribution Reservoirs
a. Under-bed pipe crossing c. Suspended pipe crossing

under bed across non- • Across perennial deep water course of width >12 m
perennial water course of • GI/other strong pipes hanging on cables with supporting
shallow depth. HDPE structures at the banks
b. Over-bed pipe crossing

• Across deep perennial water course of width ≤ 12 m. GI
• Width >12 m: several mid supports may be used
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8. Interruption chamber (IC) and break pressure tank (BPT)

• Small structure/chamber to break pressure in pipelines.
• IC: always without a float valve in transmission line
• BPT: Always with a float valve in distribution line
• No BPT/IC in U-profile zones
9. Distribution chamber (DC)

• Small structure to divide flow in distribution system.
Valve Chambers
Washout
10. Valve and valve chamber (VC)
• Accessories for specific function (sluice, globe, check, pressure relief,
air relief valve, washout etc.
• VC: small chamber to safeguard these valves
11. Fittings
• Parts/devices in pipeline for several purposes.
• Sockets, elbow, tee, bend, plug, stop cock etc.
12. Taps (T)

CHAPTER 2 SOURCES OF WATER
• Last component to collect water (private or public)
LECTURE BY:
Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, Sagarmatha Engineering College, Sanepa, Lalitpur
Vice-Principal (Admin.)
Sagarmatha Engineering College, Sagarmatha College of Science and Technology,
Sanepa, Lalitpur
2.1 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES

1. Hydrology: Science of water deals occurrence/
circulation/distribution of water in earth and atmosphere.
2. Sublimation (S): Process of converting snow/glaciers into water
3. Evaporation (E): Process of converting water/snow into vapor
4. Interception (I): Process of absorbing water by obstructions
(vegetation, buildings etc.)
5. Transpiration (T): Process of releasing water by vegetation
through their leaves.
6. Evapotranspiration (ET): Process of releasing water by
vegetation through leaves and evaporated to the atmosphere
7. Infiltration (INF): Process of entering water to ground.
8. Porosity: Ratio of volume of voids to total volume
9. Permeability: Property of passing water.
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10. Ground water table (GWT): Static level of ground

water in saturated soil.
11. Percolation (P): Vertical movement of water to GWT after 16. Base or subsurface flow (BF): Portion of percolated water
infiltration. coming out from GWT under the favorable geological
12. Capillarity: Property of absorb/uplift water from GWT conditions (spring/geyser/artesian wells etc.)
through pores 15. Runoff or flow or discharge (RO): Total quantity of water
13. Precipitation: All forms of water reaching to earth from reaching at any considered section of the stream/river from
atmosphere (rain/snow fall, hail, frost, dew etc.) surface runoff and base flow. RO = SRO + BF
In Nepal: major rainfall; minor snow/others (ignorable)
14. Rainfall (RF): The major forms of precipitation.
Measured by rain gauge (recording/non-recording) in mm/cm.
15. Surface runoff or surface flow or overland flow (SRO):
Portion of rain flowing on ground reaching to the lake, ponds,
streams, rivers and sea. SRO = RF – loss due to E, T, ET, P etc.
2.2 WATER CYCLE OR HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE 2.3 SUBSURFACE SOIL STRATA

Explains the circulation of water in earth and its atmosphere
1. Water bearing stratum or aquifer

• Soil layer able to hold but can pass water within pores
(e.g. sand layer). 2. Aquitard: Partly permeable formation (e.g. sandy clay layer)
a. Unconfined or non-artesian aquifer with seepage and insignificant yield.
• Aquifer between top pervious and bottom impervious layer
• Recharge through infiltration from ground surface. 3. Aquiclude: Impermeable layer (e.g. clay) containing water but
b. Confined or artesian or water table aquifer not allowing draining-off water.
• Aquifer confined between two impervious layer
• Water remains under pressure 4. Aquifuge: Impermeable layer (e.g. granite) neither containing
• Recharge possible from far area exposed to ground surface water nor transmitting water.
c. Perched aquifer
• Localized patch of impervious layer in unconfined aquifer
retaining water table (perched WT) above general WT.
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2.4 INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF WATER 2.5 SURFACE SOURCES

• Definition
• Quality 1. Stream
• Quantity • Steep/small natural drainage by springs and small water courses
• Suitability • Small catchment & generally in mountainous region
• Quantity: smaller in dry/more in rainy
• Quality: good in high altitudes; may have little impurities in
rainy period; used after sedimentation.
• Suitability: Flow in valley side; main source in villages in hills.
• Classification: non-perennial and perennial
a. Non-perennial or dry or rain-fed stream:

 Formed by surface runoff only
 Discharge: maximum in rainy and dries in summer
 Not suitable for w/s
b. Perennial stream:
 From springs/melting of snow/surface runoff • Classified as:
 Spring-fed stream: formed due to spring a. Non-perennial or dry or rain-fed river:
 Snow-fed stream: formed due to sublimation of snow  Formed by non-perennial streams (surface runoff only)
 Water available throughout year so used for w/s  Discharge: maximum in rainy season and dry in summer
2. River  Not suitable for w/s supply
• Larger water course generally formed by streams (stream-fed)  If used, need of impounded reservoir
flowing from hill to low land then sea.
• Smaller in hills; larger in low lands b. Perennial river:
• Quantity: sufficient for w/s in rural/urban areas  Formed by perennial (snow-fed and spring-fed) streams
• Quality: with surface runoff
 Good, if no settlements/agricultural lands at u/s.  Spring-fed river: due to spring-fed stream
 Good in summer; carries silt, clay, sand in monsoon  Snow-fed river: due to snow-fed stream
 Poor than stream; degraded due to pesticides, fertilizers,  Water available throughout year so used for w/s
sewage etc. from u/s settlement
 Self-cleansing occurs otherwise treatment required.
 Care for intake location
4. Lake
• Larger natural basin (Phewa, Rara, Begnas, Tscho Rolpa,
3. Pond Bishazar etc.
• Temporary surface reservoir formed in artificial • Permanent surface sources generally in mountainous/hilly
depression (due to excavation of soil for highway, bridge etc.) region; few in terai region of Nepal.
• Quality : • Quantity:
 Very poor due to surface runoff/village wastewater  depends upon basin capacity, catchment area, annual
 Requires high degree treatment rainfall, porosity of ground etc.
• Quantity: Very less  Generally sufficient for w/s
• Not reliable for w/s but for animal bathing/irrigation • Quality:
 Good in larger lakes.
 Lakes in mountainous region: good quality but far from
locality so not used in w/s.
 Lakes of hilly and terai region: eutrophic; contaminated with
sewage, fertilizer, pesticides etc. So, used in w/s only after
heavy treatment.
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5. Sea
• Quantity more; quality poor due to salts
• Very costlier due to heavy treatment and pumping
• Used as w/s only after high degree of treatment.
6. Stored rainwater (Rainwater harvesting)

• Option when surface/ground source is not available
• Fetching water by collection/storage of rainwater from roofs
or ground surface
• Used in Rajesthan, Arabian countries, some parts of Nepal etc.
• Rainwater collected in watertight tanks from roofs and pucca
courtyard through channels.
• May contain impurities
• From roof: not reliable for w/s due to less quantity
• In between hills by constructing high dams: may be used in
water supply
7. Waste water reclamation

• Option when surface/ground source is not available in • Reservoir consists of:
non- rainfall area a. A dam: to hold backwater.
• High degree treated wastewater used in w/s b. A spillway: to discharge excess stream flow.
• First in Windhock (Africa) c. A gate chamber with valves: to regulate flow
• Not reliable
• Location: depends upon quality/quantity of water, existence of
8. Fog water harvesting suitable dam-site, distance/elevation of reservoir,
• Option when surface/ground source is not available in density/distribution of population, geological conditions etc.
rainfall area
• Fog captured through a membrane used as water source • Quality: same of that stream/rivers
• Not reliable
9. Impounded reservoir
• Artificial lake/reservoir by constructing a bund weir/dam
across valley of a reliable watercourse (stream/river)
• To store water to meet demand of dry season
• Eg: Sundarijal dam.
a. Gravity spring
2.6 GROUND SOURCES • Spring flowing under hydrostatic pressure
• Classified as: i. Depression ii. Surface iii. Artesian spring
• Place to derive water from GWT lying below GL.
• May contain herbicides, pesticides, nutrients, minerals, salts etc. i. Depression spring
• Good than surface water due to natural filtration • GW overflowing from intersection of
ground surface and GWT
1.Springs • Flow varies with rise/fall of GWT.
• Natural outflow of GW under suitable geological condition • Excavation of deep trench may meet
• Quantity: less than stream or river fluctuations
• Quality: generally good • Suitable in small w/s in village
• Widely used in rural w/s in Nepal due to:
 Favorable geological conditions ii. Surface or contact spring
 Lower cost and no/lesser treatment • GW overflowing from intersection of
• Classified as: ground surface and impervious strata
a. Gravity springs b. Non gravity springs • Quantity: small above crest and flow may
cease at drought period
• Enhanced by a cutoff trench/cutoff wall.
• Suitable in w/s but requires more cost
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iii. Artesian spring

2. Infiltration galleries (horizontal well)
• GW flowing from confined • Horizontal/nearly horizontal rectangular or arched tunnel
aquifers but under pressure constructed on stream/river bank to intercept GW
• Quantity: Larger for larger • Location: 3 to 10 meters below GL near bank or under
catchment and vice-versa bed of perennial source/marshy land/water bodies
• Flow may slightly increased by • Sometimes, porous pipe may be laid instead of structure.
removing obstructions from • Quantity/quality depends upon location/area of coverage.
mouth
b. Non- gravity or pressure or fissure spring

• GW flowing due to volcano/earthquakes
• Volcanic spring: associated with volcano
• Fissure spring: associated with earthquake
• Generally discharges hot water so called as
hot springs
• Contain high minerals/sulpher
• Not for w/s but for curing of skin diseases.
3. Infiltration wells
• Shallow wells with permeable boundaries interconnected
4. Porous pipe galleries
along bank/under bed of stream/river
• Porous pipe laid under marshy land
• Circular well (plan) in
open joint-brick wall to • Longitudinal and cross porous
infiltrate water pipes laid in slope to collect
• Manhole at top cover for water in collection well
inspection/cleaning • To increase quality and intake
• Quality: Better due to bed capacity, pipes are surrounded
soil acting as a filter with sand, gravel and broken
stone pieces.
5. Wells
Shallow and deep dug well
• Vertical hole/shaft excavated to draw GW to surface.
• Classified as: a. Open well b. Tube well
a. Open or dug or draw or percolation well
• Built by digging ground
• Circular plan (diameters 1 to 10 m, depth 2 to 20 m)
• Generally, low yield (less than 20 m3/hr)
• Unlined: ‘Kaccha Well’
• Lined (previous/impervious): ‘Pakka Well
• Typical lining: brick/stone masonry or
precast rings
• Wall raised above GL
Figure 2.13 (a) Concept of shallow and deep well
• A platform with proper drainage
• A cover Shallow/deep well cannot be distinguished by their actual depth
• In individual level but not for larger w/s Sometimes a shallow well may have more depth than a deep well.
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Gravity and Artesian dug well b. Tube well

• Gravity: Water withdrawn from unconfined aquifer • Well built by sinking long/small diameter (80 to 600 mm)
 GW flows under gravity. pipe in ground after boring to get water from aquifer/s
 Water surface in GWT and well at same atmospheric • Diameter are much lesser than dug well.
pressure. • Popular in Terai/some hilly regions of Nepal
• Artesian dug well: • Quantity: may be larger
 Well • Quality: Better but sometimes contain various impurities
withdrawing • Suitability: used for water supply for smaller towns after
water under certain treatment
pressure from • May be classified in similar basis as in dug wells:
confined aquifer Shallow/deep tube well and Gravity/artesian tube well
 Sometimes, • Further classified as:
pressure is high i. Strainer type tube well ii. Cavity type tube well
enough to bring iii. Slotted type tube well iv. Perforated pipe tube well
water out
naturally.
• Shallow tube well: • Gravity/artesian tube well

 May have depth up to 30 m  Concept in figure 2.2
 Yield up to 20 m3/hr
 Constructed by boring with augers
or driving well point
• Deep tube well:
 May have depth up to 600 m
 Yield up to 20 m3/hr or more
 Constructed by drilling from cable
tool method or hydraulic rotary
method or reverse rotary method.
Shallow/deep tube well cannot be
distinguished by their actual depth
Sometimes a shallow well may
Figure 2.13 (b) Concept of
have more depth than a deep well. shallow and deep tube well
i. Strainer type tube well

• Common ii. Cavity type tube well
• Construction: • Not common
 Drilling • Pipe bottom must rest on strong clay
 Lowering casing pipe (5 to 10 cm layer or hard stratum
larger than well pipe) • Construction:
 Assembling blind/perforated pipes  Drilling
and insertion  Insertion of a blind pipe rested on
 Strainer pipes in water bearing hard stratum above suitable aquifer
strata, blind pipes in hard strata  Draw water only from lower stratum
 Gravel packing with removal of at bottom only.
casing pipe  Just after construction, fine sand/silt
come out along with the water and
• Quantity: Sufficient for village
formation of cavity
• Quality: good quality/no treatment
• Withdraw water directly only through
 In Nepal: iron, manganese, arsenic,
bottom from bottom cavity of well
ammonia etc. so needs treatment
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iii. Slotted type tube well iv. Perforated pipe tube well
• Suitable when no • 25 to 80 mm diameter pipe driven on ground
water within a depth temporarily such as in construction sites, camps etc.
of 75 to 100 m and • Used in very shallow (up to 12 m) GWT
no clay/hard strata
• Construction:
just above aquifer
 Lower portion of pipes are
• Used to derive water
drilled for perforations and
from available single
covered by jute ropes as strainer
confined aquifer.
 Inserted to bored ground
• Built by inserting
• Quantity: small
combined assembly of
• Not used for schemes but used in
normal and slotted
some households of Nepal
pipes to derive GW
• Example: Rower pump.
from a single confined
aquifer
6. Artesian well 2.7 SOURCE SELECTION CRITERIA

• Well driven to withdraw water from confined aquifer
1. Priority: Spring; stream/river; infiltration gallery and well.
• HGL passes above well mouth
If no river/stream, ultimate source tube well (again GW)
• Some artesian wells, continuous throughout year and used for
water supply. 2. Location: should be near to consumer's area, suitable for
• Quality: Commonly good. conveyance by gravity to reduce cost.
3. Quantity: Should be sufficient to meet demand for design
period. If possible should sufficient for future extension.
4. Quality of water: Should be safe, and free from pathogenic
bacteria, germs, and pollution
5. Cost: should be cheaper (Source with lesser impurities,
conveyance by gravity, lesser distance from community
reduces cost)
6. Sustainable and safe: Should be long lasting and safe from
flood, landslides, cattle, pedestrians etc.
7. Reliable: Should be consistent in discharge
8. Non conflict among water users:
THANK YOU
Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 71
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CHAPTER 3 QUANTITY OF WATER
LECTURE BY:
Associate Professor
Sanepa, Lalitpur
3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 DESIGN AND BASE PERIODS

• Design discharge:
 To design components (intake, transmission system, treatment
unit, reservoirs, distribution system and taps) for service year
 Select adequate source
2. Population
1. Selection of base &
Design Discharge
forecasting for • Survey year: Year of social/technical survey

design period
service year • Base period: Duration for investigation/planning/surveying/design
& construction. 2 to 3 yrs (rural) & high (urban) area of Nepal
• Base year: End of base period & Year of start of service
3. Determination of
Base Year = Survey year + Base period
demand
• Service/design year: Year expected to provide full service.
Design/service year = Survey year + Base period + Design period
• Design period: Base year to design year

 22 to 30 years (even to 50 years) for w/s with dam 4. Life of structures and constructional materials: Below life
 In Nepal: of structures/pipes/construction materials
 Rural areas: 5. Rate of interest of loan: More rate, less design period
 15 years: if r ≥ 2% 6. Population growth rate: Lesser for higher ‘r’.
 20 years: if r < 2% In rural areas of Nepal:
 Urban areas: 25 to 30 (generally 30) years  15 years for r ≥ 2%
Selection basis of design period  20 years for r < 2% (r = 1 taken for r < 1)
• Longer: increases design capacity and cost
• Shorter: led strengthening, again uneconomical
• Considerations: 3.3 POPULATION FORECASTING AND ITS NECESSITY
• Survey year population = present population
1. Availability of source: Longer for high yielding sources
• Population fluctuates: deaths/births/migrations/disasters etc.
2. Development status of community: Shorter for rapidly • Population forecasting : for design year
developing city and with employment opportunity • Past population data analysis: From CBS /other authority
3. Availability of fund: Shorter for lesser fund (usually decennial census) or from current survey data
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3.3.2 METHODS OF POPULATION FORECASTING

3.3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION GROWTH 1. Arithmetic increase 2. Geometrical increase
3. Incremental increase 4. Decreasing rate of growth
5. Logistic curve 6. Simple graphical
1. Economic factors: Increases 7. Comparative graphical 8. Master plan
2. Development program: Increases 9. Apportionment
3. Social facilities: Increases 1. Arithmetical increase method

• Suitable: larger/old cities
4. Communication and information: Increases • Assumption: “average rate of increase in population with
5. Tourism: Increases respect to time is constant”
6. Community life: People of similar classes/living habits/social Pn = P0 + nc
costume and religion etc. try to live together make increase Where,
7. Unforeseen factors: Disasters led death and migrations c = A constant or average number of increase per unit time
(decreases in one and increases in other areas) P0 = Number of present (last known) population
Pn = Number of population at nth time unit
n = Period of time units (present to future)
2. Geometrical increase (uniform growth) method 4. Decreasing rate of growth (changing rate of increase)
• Assumption: “% increase in population per time unit method
remains constant for each time unit” • Suitable: very old established city where population growth in
• Suitable: young/rapidly growing city. Nepal. downward trend)
Where,
Where I0 = % increase in last known time
r = Average % increase per unit time d = Average decrease in % increase
5. Logistic curve method

3. Incremental increase method • Suitable for older cities that has
• Improvement on arithmetical/geometrical increase reached saturation population
• Useful: young/rapidly growing cities. • Equation by P.F. Verhulst
Where,
i = Average number of incremental
increase per unit time Ps = Saturation population
Pt = Population at time ‘t’
‘m’ and ‘b’ = Constants
5. Simple graphical method (graphical extension method)

• Modified by Mc Lean:
• Approximate, not reliable
• Unsafe but used for check
6. Comparative graphical method

• Useful for new city with
expected to have similar
level of development with
other existing cities
• Approximate and not
reliable
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8. Master plan or zoning method

• Population based on master plan
3.4 WATER DEMAND AND THEIR TYPES
7. Compensate losses
3. Commercial
1. Domestic 2. Livestock
Demand (CLD)
Total Demand
and Institutional
Demand (DD) Demand (LSD)
9. Apportionment or ratio method Demand (CID)
• Population of a place is assumed as proportional to national +
population. 5. Municipal or
4. Industrial 6. Fire Demand
Public place
Demand (ID) (FD)
Demand (MPD)
1. Domestic demand (DD) 2. Livestock demand (LSD)

• Home use (drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, sanitation) • Demand for domestic animals and livestock (birds)
• Depends upon climatic condition; habit, social status, living • Generally in rural and neglected in urban
standard of people etc. • Should not be > 20% of DD in design
• 250 to 350 lpcd in developed countries
• WHO: for developing countries (like Nepal) minimum 45 (rural)
and 100 to 160 lpcd (urban)
3. Commercial and institutional demand (CID)

• Demand for office, warehouse, stores, hotels, schools,
hospitals, theaters, restaurants, clubs etc.
• Considered in rural/urban areas of Nepal.
• 45 lpcd, if no data available
5. Municipal or public place demand (MPD)

• For washing and sprinkling on road, cleaning sewers,
watering public parks gardens etc.
• In Indian cities: 20 to 25 % of TD
Public parks = 1.4, Street washing = 1 to 1.5,
Sewer cleaning: 4.5, Garden/sports ground: 3.5 l/m2/d
• Nepal: No guideline but 5 to 10% of TD in urban areas
6. Fire demand (FD)
• Fire hydrants (15 to 20 cm dia.)
on water mains at 100 to 150 m
spacing for firefighting.
4. Industrial demand (ID)
• Common in urban areas. • By empirical formulas
• Depends upon type of the industry • Not considered in rural areas of
• 20 to 25 % of TD Nepal but DWSS recommend
Indian Water Supply Manual
formula not exceeding 1 lpcd
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7. Compensate losses demand (CLD)

• Losses due to defective pipe joints and cracks, broken pipes,
faulty valves and fittings, unauthorized connection (theft),
allowance for keeping tap open etc.
• Rural area: Not considered, urban area: 15 to 20% (common15%)
of total demand in Nepal
• In Kathmandu: 50% lossess
metered supply = 30% and un-metered supply = up to 50%.
Total demand (T) = DD + LSD + CID + ID + MPD + FD + CLD
3.5 PER CAPITA DEMAND OF WATER

Average annual daily consumption
q = Average annual per capita demand (lpcd)
Q = Total consumption in a year (lpcd)
P = Number of population
3.6 VARIATION IN THE DEMAND OF WATER

1. Seasonal variation: Higher than average in summer
• Fluctuation of demand with respect to time
Maximum seasonal demand (MSD): Qav× Pfs
• Varies in year, season, month, day and hour.
Seasonal peak factor (Pfs) = 1 in Nepal
• Total average annual daily consumption: Qav= Pn × q
• Qav : may not be sufficient in design 2. Daily variation: Higher than average in festivals/holidays etc.
Maximum daily demand (MDD): Qav× Pfd
Daily peak factor (Pfd) = 1 in Nepal
3. Hourly variation: More in morning and evening

• In Nepal: maximum on 5AM to 7AM and 5PM to 7PM
Maximum hourly demand (MHD): Qav× Pfh
Hourly peak factor (Pfh) = 2 to 4 in Nepal
4. Monthly variation: Not considered in Nepal.
3.8 FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND OF WATER

3.7 PEAK DEMAND, PEAK FACTOR AND DESIGN DISCHARGE
1. Size and type of community: Bigger size, higher demand
Peak demand (Qp) :
• Maximum hourly demand at maximum day of maximum season
2. Living standard of people: High standard, higher demand.
• In Nepal, Qp = Pfh × Pfd × Pfs × Qav = Pf × Qav 3. Climatic condition: Hotter climate, higher demand.
= (2 to 4)×1×1×Qav = (2 to 4) × Qav 4. Quality of water: Good quality, higher demand
5. Pressure in the supply: Higher pressure, more loss and demand.
Peak factor (Pf): Multiplying factor ‘Pf ’ (Ratio Qp to Qav) 6. Sanitation system: Higher if sewerage system is available
• In Nepal, 7. Metering: Water meter for tariff, less demand
 2 to 4 (3 generally) in continuous system
8. System of supply: Lesser in intermittent, higher in continuous
 4 to 6 in intermittent system
9. Water tariff: Water tariff, lesser demand.
Design discharge: In Nepal (in continuous system): 10. Age of the community: New developing city, higher
• Qd = Pf × Qav = Pf × Pn × q 11. Lawn (grassy ground) sprinkling: If done, higher demand.
a. For transmission system: Pf = 1 11. Availability of local sources: Lower demand from the system.
Qd = Pf × Pn × q = 1 × Pn × q = Pn × q = Qav (Average flow)
12. Education and awareness of the people: It make people to
b. For distribution system: Pf = 2 to 4 (generally 3) changes their behavior in health care and more demand for
Qd = Pf × Pn × q = 3 × Pn × q = Qp (Peak flow) personal hygiene
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14. Other socio-economic factors:

a. Public versus private tap stand: Lesser through public tap CHAPTER 4 QUALITY OF WATER
b. Affluent (wealthy) versus subsistence (survival): Richer
family, higher demand
c. Habits of people: Frequent bathing habits, high demand and
higher bathing habits in river, stream and pond lesser LECTURE BY:
d. Distance to tap stand: Nearer public tap, high demand Er. Arun Prasad Parajuli (NEC Registered No: 2269 Civil ‘A’)
e. Urban versus rural: Lesser in rural and higher in urban Associate Professor
Sanepa, Lalitpur
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF IMPURITIES AND THEIR EFFECTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO WATER QUALITY AND IMPURITIES
4.2.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPURITIES
• Water quality: Degree of goodness a. Physical impurities
• Rain water: pure (2 parts H and 1 part O), not good for health. • Impurities affecting physical characteristics
• On falling: absorbs gases, dust and others • Example: silt, clay, sand etc. cause turbidity.
• On runoff and percolation: dissolves/carries external matters • Make water objectionable for human consumption.
(silt, organic matters, non-organic matters, minerals, b. Chemical impurities
suspended solids, microorganisms, gases etc. • Impurities affecting chemical characteristics
• Some useful (in limiting quantity) or harmful impurities for • Example: Solids, pH, dissolved gases, hardness etc.
our health • Beyond desirable limit: harmful/may causes several disease.
• Impurities: All undesirable substance and desirable substance
in excessive amount c. Bacteriological impurities
• Quality: important in source selection, treatment and • Impurities affecting bacteriological characteristics
drinkability • Example: microorganisms, bacteria etc.
• Some causes several diseases and make water unfit
4.2.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STATE OF IMPURITIES

a. Suspended impurities
c. Dissolved impurities
• Remains in suspension (Sp. Gr. ≈ 1) • Impurities soluble in water (universal solvent) making one
• Example: Sand, silt, clay, inorganic matters, minerals, organic phase solution
matters, algae, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, etc. • Example: inorganic salts, metals, gases, organic compounds etc.
• Microscopic (0.001 to 0.1 mm) • Size: between 10-6 to 10-8 mm.
• Makes water turbid; impart colour, odour and taste • Makes good/bad taste, hardness and alkalinity
• Measured in terms of turbidity by turbidity test • Removed by changing its phase from distillation, precipitation,
• Removed by sedimentation (larger) and filtration (finer). adsorption, reverse osmosis, extraction etc.
b. Colloidal impurities • Measured in PPM (parts per million) or mg/l
• Dispersible electrically charged particles, non-visible to naked eye • Obtained by weighing residue after evaporation of filtered
• Remain in continuous/random motion due to charges water sample
• Size: 10-3 mm to 10-6 mm
• Impart colour and cause epidemics
• Measured in terms of colour by colour test
• Difficult to remove by ordinary filter.
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4.3 LIVING ORGANISMS IN WATER 1. Algae

• Unicellular simple photosynthetic aquatic plant
• Several living organism: due to natural habitat, added • Causes turbidity, objectionable colour and odour,
from human intervention unpleasant taste; gastroenteritis; Clog and decreases
• Micro/macroscopic; unicellular/multicellular; plant/ animal filter run time
• Water weeds, algae, fish, amphibians, snails, insects, worms, • Controlled by adding
rotifers, molds, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, amoeba, copper sulphate or chlorine
pathogens etc. • Removed by sedimentation
• Majority are beneficial/ Some bad taste/odours/diseases with coagulation.
• Common:
1. Algae 2. Bacteria 3. Virus
4. Worms (helminthes) 5. Indicator organisms 2. Bacteria
• Single celled minute (1 to 4 microns) animal type
microorganism with no defined nucleolus and chlorophyll
• Most of them killed at temperature above 65°C.
• Classified in different basis:
a. According to shape: d. According to oxygen need

i. Aerobic: Need oxygen for survival
i. Spherical (cocci):
ii. Anaerobic: Do not need oxygen for survival
• micrococcus (exists singly),
iii. Facultative: Survives in presence/absence of oxygen
• diplococcus (pairs),
• streptococcus (chains), e. According to temperature of survival
staphylococcus (irregular bunch) i. Psychrophilic: Survives in 10 to 20 ºC
ii. Straight (bacilli): Rod shape ii. Mesophilic: Survives in 20 to 40 ºC
iii. Curved (vibrio): Curved shape iii. Thermophilic: Survives in 40 to 65 ºC
iv. Trichobacteria: Filamentous
v. Spiral (spirilla): Spiral shape f. According to origin of occurrence
i. Natural water bacteria: Naturally found in water.
b. According to disease causing characteristics ii. Bacteria from soil: Derived from soil.
iii. Bacteria from sewage and animal excreta.
i. Pathogenic: Cause diseases.
ii. Non-pathogenic: Do not cause diseases. 3. Virus
• Ultramicroscopic (10 to 500 milli-microns)
c. According to life process infectious agent
i. Saprophytic: Beneficial to man (non-pathogenic) • Survive in temperatures less than 15°C.
ii. Parasitic: Survives within living organism, causes disease. • Killed by disinfection
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4. Worms (helminthes)
• For this, generally, E-coli of coliform group
• Microscopic/macroscopic invertebrate animals
are tested
having soft, slender, elongated bodies.
• Absence of E-Coli justifies assumption that
• May be parasitic/free living.
water is not contaminated with excreta and
• Classified as:
free from pathogens
a. Nematodes/round worms: Hook worm, ascarids
b. Rotifers
c. Flat worms (Platy helminthes): Tapeworms or 4.4 WATER RELATED DISEASES
cestodes and flukes or trematodes • > 80% of infectious diseases in world are associated with water
• Broadly classified as:
5. Indicator organisms
• Water polluted with sewage contain non-pathogenic coliforms 1.Water borne disease (water quality diseases)
like E-coli and other pathogenic bacteria • Diseases due to consumption of contaminated water
• Tests of all pathogenic organisms is not possible (a) Water borne diseases of chemical origin:
• Organisms whose presence indicate contamination of water with Dental fluorosis due to fluoride, blue baby diseases due to
excreta is called as indicator organism. (coliform group) nitrates, methemoglobinemia due to ferric iron, arsenicosis due
to arsenic etc.
(b) Water borne diseases of microbiological origin:
2. Water washed disease (water scarce diseases)

• Due to lack of personal hygiene, unhygienic practices due to
limited supply of safe water
Commonly • Shigellosis (by shigella bacteria), ophthalmic (eye related)
transmitted diseases like trachoma (by chlamydia trachomatis bacteria)
through and conjunctives (by virus and bacteria), skin disease like
faecal-oral scabies (by mite), ascariasis (by round worm), skin sepsis (by
route. ring worm), louse-borne epidemic typhus (by rickettsia
prowazekii bacteria) etc.
• Controlled by promotion of good hygienic practices and
supply of adequate quantity of safe water.
Waterborne diseases prevented by improved quality of water

3. Water based disease (water contact diseases) 4. Water related vector dependent disease
• Caused by parasites/pathogens spending a part of their life • Also called water related insect dependent diseases or water
cycle in aquatic animals (snail, copepods etc.) site insect carried diseases.
• Schistosomiasis or bilharziasis caused by fluke worm • Trypanosomiasis or African sleeping sickness (a protozoal
through snail as intermediate host disease spread by tsetse fly), onchocerciasis or river
• Dracunculiasis caused by guinea worm through copepods as blindness (blindness caused by onchocerca nematode
intermediate host spread by blackfly), Malaria (protozoal diseases
• Controlled by avoiding contact with infected water, transmitted by female anopheles mosquito), arboviral
consumption of aquatic animals (fish) only after proper diseases like yellow fever and dengue (both viral diseases
cooking and use of treated water spread by mosquitoes), filariasis (a helminthic disease
caused by filaria worm and spread by mosquito), hook
worm (spread by several insects) etc.
• Prevented by improvement on standing water
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4.5 DISEASE TRANSMISSION ROUTE AND PREVENTIVE

MEASURES 1. Activities involved as primary barrier:
• Pathogen from faeces are transmitted to mouth of a new host a. Construction of toilet/sanitation facilities for keeping
through several routes called faecal oral transmission route. it fresh to protect water source, environment, field and floor
• F-diagram clarifies pathways of faecal oral transmission route. as well as to prevent fly nuisances.
b. Proper washing of hands after defecation.
• Prevented by: 2. Activities involved as secondary barrier:

 Primary barrier: a. Maintaining household sanitation, wearing shoes and gloves,
Most effective washing hand after household sanitation & field work.
 Secondary barrier: b. Washing of raw vegetables/fruits and other before cooking.
Related to good
c. Washing hand before preparing, cooking, storing, reheating
hygienic practices.
and eating food.
d. Covering food and water.
e. Using safe (treated or chlorinated or boiled) water
4.6 EXAMINATION OF WATER 4.7 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER

• To determine concentration of water quality parameters
• Specific objective or purposes of examination: To 4.7.1 TEMPERATURE
1. Ascertain quality of raw water to quality standard. • Density, viscosity etc. depends on temperature
2. To plan treatment outline and performance of treatment • By ordinary/digital thermometers in °K or °C or (°F)
• Sampling: Proper collection of water before examination • For drinking: 4.4°C to 10°C is good; > 25°C is undesirable and >
• Sampling procedure: 35°C is unfit.
1. Clean container (1 to 2 liters) and lids with normal water then with
4.7.2 COLOUR
distilled water; sterilized for biological test
2. Collect in container cleaned living certain air; recap • Due to presence of dissolved OM, colloids, metallic ions, weeds,
a. Distribution system or tap: Collect after 2 to 3 min of flowing. humus, plankton, mineral, industrial wastes etc.
b. Hand pump: Collect after 5 minutes of pumping • Make bad appearance; spoil clothes & affect industrial process
c. River, streams, lake, reservoirs, spring or shallow wells: • Measured in platinum-cobalt scale in mg/l or ppm.
Collect from few to 50 cm below surface • Mixing 1 mg platinum-cobalt in 1 liter distilled water gives 1 mg/l
6. Label with collector's identity, name and source, location, date color in platinum cobalt scale
and time, temperature, preservatives used etc. • Removed by sedimentation, filtration, aeration and chemicals
7. Test within 1 hours for microbiological test; use ice-cooler box • Colour ≤ 5 mg/l, > 5 mg/l is tolerable and > 25 mg/l is rejected.
during transportation to extend test time up to 24 hrs. • Test by tintometer/colorimeter and digital photo colorimeter.
4.7.3 TASTE AND ODOUR

Due to dissolved gases, salts, organic matters, chemicals
minerals, suspended particles, aquatic life etc.
• Taste: Bitter/salty/sour/sweet etc.
Flavour threshold test in flavour threshold number (FTN)
1. Tintometer or colorimeter where, A = volume of water sample (ml) and
B = volume of taste free water added (ml)
• Odour: Unpleasant/earthy/fishy/grassy etc.

Threshold odour test in threshold odour number (TON)
where, A = volume of water sample (ml)
and B = volume of odour free water added
• FTN and TON ≤ 3, preferably 1

• Removed by aeration and chemical treatment.
2. Digital photo-colorimeter
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4.7.4 TURBIDITY
• Degree of clarity
• Due to suspended matters; organic and inorganic matters, plankton,
vegetable fibers, algae, microorganisms etc.
• Make water muddy/cloudy/aesthetically unattractive
• Measured in silica scale in mg/l or ppm.
• ≤ 5 mg/l, up to 10 is tolerable but > 25 mg/l is rejected.
• Removed by sedimentation, chemical aided
sedimentation and filtration etc.
• Measured by:
 In field: Turbidity rod
 In lab: Baylis turbidimeter
 In field/lab:
 Jackson’s turbidity meter,
 Hellige or Aplab turbidimeter,
 Digital turbidimeter or nephelometer
4.8 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER 2. Determination of total dissolved solids (TDS)

Evaporating filtrate filtered through Whatman filter paper
4.8.1 TOTAL SOLIDS (TS) no 44at 103 to 105 C for 30 minutes
• TS = total dissolved solids (TDS) + total suspended solids (TSS)
• Expressed in mg/l or ppm and normally, TSS < TDS in water
• TDS ≤ 500 mg/l, > 500 is tolerated but > 1500 is rejected V = Volume of sample taken for filtration (ml)
W1 = weight of empty and dry container (mg)
W2 = weight of cooled container after evaporation (mg)
1. Determination of total solids (TS)
By evaporating sample at 103 to 105 C for 30 minutes 3. Determination of total suspend solids (TSS)
• Indirectly: TSS = TS – TDS (in mg/l)
• Alternatively: Evaporating residue
V = volume of sample taken (ml)
W1 = weight of empty and dry container (mg)
V = Volume of sample taken for filtration (ml)
W2 = weight of cooled container after evaporation (mg)
W3 = weight of empty and dry filter paper (mg)
W4 = weight of cooled filter paper after evaporation (mg)
4.8.2 pH 4.8.3 HARDNESS, ALKALINITY AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS

• - log of hydrogen ion concentration
• Measure of degree of acidity/alkalinity 4.8.3.1 HARDNESS
• pH = 6.5 to 8.5 acceptable, < 6.5 or > 9.2 is rejected • Chemical characteristics preventing sufficient lather with soap.
• For pure or neutral water, • Due to soluble bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates of three
principal cations Ca++, Mg++ and Sr++
So,
• 200 mg/l as CaCO3 desirable, > 200 accepted, >600 rejected.
• pH scale: • Effects:
1. Wasteful consumption of soap
2. Modifies colour in dyeing/stain in clothes.
3. Scale formation (incrustation) in pipes, fixtures boilers etc.
4. Reduces efficiency of boiler, pipe, fixtures
5. Cause corrosion and caustic embrittlement
• Measured by: 6. Fuel consumption/makes food tasteless/cause laxative effect
1. Colorimetric method: Dipping indicator • Types of hardness
paper or adding chemical indicator and 1. Temporary or carbonate hardness (CH)
comparing with color chart • Removable by simply boiling or by addition of lime
2. Electrometric method • Due to HCO3– of Ca, Mg, Sr
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• Hardness due to any principal cation:

2. Permanent or non-carbonate hardness (NCH)
• Hardness not removable by simply boiling in mg/l as CaCO3,
• Due to SO4, Cl, NO3 of Ca, Mg and Sr
• Removed by lime soda, zeolite and ion exchange process CM = concentration of any principal cations in mg/l
Total Hardness (TH) = CH + NCH EM = equivalent weight of that principal cation and
E = equivalent weight of CaCO3 = 50
Determination of hardness in water
• In °Cl , °Fr, °Am scale but usually in mg/l (ppm) of CaCO3.
4.8.3.2 ALKALINITY
• Ability to neutralize acids; Alkaline if pH > 7
• Due to three principal anions: CO3– – and OH– or HCO3–
• Highly alkaline water: bitter and unsuitable for drinking;
causes incrustation and harmful for plants
• Lab based: O’Hener’s; soap solution titration and EDTA method • Determined by titration (common from chemical analysis)
• Commonly from results of chemical analysis: • Types of Alkalinity:
 Consider Ca++, Mg++, Sr++ only and equivalent weight of Ca++ = 20, 1. Hydroxide or caustic alkalinity (HA): caused by OH–
Mg++ = 12.2, Sr++ = 43.8 and CaCO3 = 50 2. Carbonate alkalinity (CA): caused by CO3– –
 Convert hardness in terms of CaCO3 and calculate total hardness: 3. Bicarbonate alkalinity (BCA): caused by HCO3–
Total alkalinity (TH) = CA + (BCA or HA) 4.9 MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER

Because BCA and HA not exists together in water • Examination for bacteria/other microscopic organisms
 Bacteriological examination: Bacteria Test
 Consider CO3 and HCO3 or
–– – OH–
only and equivalent weight of  Biological examination: Microscopic organisms (algae, fungi,
CO3– – = 30; HCO3– = 61; OH– = 17 moulds, yeasts, rotifers, protozoa etc.)
 Convert alkalinity in terms of CaCO3 and calculate total alkalinity: • Common: Bacteriological examination for pathogenic bacteria
in mg/l as CaCO3, • Indirectly by coliform or E-coli test
• Presence of coliform and e-coli should be nil in drinking water
CB = concentration of any principal anions in mg/l • Coliform or E-coli is determined in lab by:
EB = equivalent weight of that principal anion and 1. Total count or agar plate test
E = equivalent weight of CaCO3 = 50 2. Membrane tube fermentation technique
3. Membrane filter technique
4.8.3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALKALINITY AND HARDNESS Most probable number (MPN) multiple tube fermentation technique
• Approximately from Thomas equation:
1. TH > TA: CH = TA and NCH = TH – CH = TH – TA
2. TH ≤ TA: CH = TH and NCH = 0
• Should be nil for drinking water
4.10 WATER QUALITY STANDARD FOR DRINKING PURPOSE

• WHO: mainly responsible to prepare common guidelines.
• Every country: Prepare standard following WHO guidelines.
• Institutions: Prepare standard following country standard.
• In Nepal (2022), Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, has
published “National Drinking Water Quality Standards” in
‘g]kfn /fhkq v08 &@ ;+Vof !^ efu % ldlt @)&(–)#–)@’.
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CHAPTER 5 INTAKE WORK
LECTURE BY:
Associate Professor
Sanepa, Lalitpur
5.1 DEFINITION AND FUNCTION OF INTAKE

• Device/structure at source to tap water
• Collects water through intake conduit and delivers
 directly to TL under gravity or pumping.
 indirectly under gravity to sump well (jack well) thento TL under
gravity or pumping.
• Support screen and valves
5.2 COMPONENTS OF INTAKE
1. An intake conduit:
• To admit water into intake well under gravity
• Consists a fine screen and control valve
2. A structure
• Stone/brick masonry or RCC (large structure) or block (small)
• Provides housing for intake well, support intake conduit, screen,
valve operation device, pump etc.
• Protects conduit from flood/ice, trash, debris etc.
5.4 CLASSIFICATION OF INTAKE

• Different intakes in different circumstances/conditions
5.3 FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF SITE FOR AN INTAKE of sources.
1. Located near TP
2. Should have good water quality
3. Located at u/s of sewage disposal point and navigation
4. Located in higher depth place
5. Located in wider area to assure future expansion
6. Should not be flooded and accessible during floods.
7. Shouldn’t be located on meandering, if so, at concave bank
8. Should be at place of less scoring, silting, storms and currents.
9. Should be connected by good approach roads.
10. Should be stable and safe from wind currents, landslides etc.
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5.5 RIVER INTAKE

2. At unstable bank (soft soil)
1. At stable bank
 Well is filled with water so called as a wet intake.  Well is filled with water so called as a wet intake.
5.6 RESERVOIR INTAKE 2. Reservoirs with RCC dam (gravity dam):

• Intake at impounded reservoir
1. In earthen dam
 No water inside the

intake well, so dry
intake.
 dry intake.  Wet intake.
5.7 SPRING INTAKE 5.9.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SPRING INTAKE
• Widely used in rural areas

• Safe yield ≥ 0.1 lps for reliability
• To avoid outside contamination, it should be located:
1. At/closer to source
2. Above settlement, farming area, foot path, cattle watering
and laundry washing places etc.
3. At places free from water logging/ponding
• Single CC with a valve box or usually a unit of attached
CC and VC
• RCC/preferably local materials (stone/brick masonry)
• Actual spout (eye of spring) is identified before excavation
• Proper digging to prevent seepage/disappearance of spring.
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5.9.2 PROTECTION OF SPRING AND INTAKE
THANK YOU
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
• Removal of undesirable and excessive desirable matters
• Treatment plant:
CHAPTER 6 WATER TREATMENT  Should be nearer to city at safe place
 Various components (as per impurities to be removed)
 Must have a well-equipped laboratory for tests
 Important part of W/S to get safe water for drinking
LECTURE BY:
Associate Professor
Sanepa, Lalitpur
6.2 OBJECTIVES OF TREATMENT 6.3 TREATMENT PROCESSES AND IMPURITY REMOVAL

S. No. Process Removal of
1. Reduce impurities to a level harmless to human
1 Screening Large suspended/floating matters (leaves, fish, living organism,
2. Remove objectionable colour, odour, unpleasant taste and dead bodies, tree branches, bushes etc.)
dissolved gases 2 Plain Coarse/heavy suspended matters (silt, sand, clay etc.); few
3. Remove murkiness/turbidity Sedimentation colloidal/dissolved impurities; turbidity, colour, odour and taste
associated with them
4. Remove hardness to make it reasonably soft 3 Sedimentation
5. Kill pathogens Fine suspended/colloidal impurities.
with Coagulation
6. Eliminate corrosive nature to prevent leaching, corrosion of 4 Filtration Very fine suspended impurities, colloidal impurities and
microorganisms
pipes, mechanical devices etc.
5 Disinfection Pathogenic organisms by killing
7. Reduce organic content to prevent biological growth 6 De-chlorination Excessive amount of chlorine greater than desirable residual
8. Make water clear, safe and wholesome chlorine
7 Softening Hardness
8 Aeration Objectionable taste and odour, dissolved gases, iron and
manganese etc.
9 Miscellaneous Iron and manganese; colour, odour and taste; other harmful
constituents
6.4 SCREENING
• Method of removing bulky suspended/floating matters
(pebbles, dead animal, plastics, branches, leaves, paper,
piece of wood, ice etc.) by passing water through a device
with openings (generally of uniform size) called screen
• Location: at intake/ raw water pumping station and TP
• Matters trapped: called screenings
• Screenings are cleaned and removed manually or mechanically
• Purpose/objective: To:
a. Remove bulky/unsightly (threatening) floating matters.
b. Reduce load on other treatment units.
c. Reduce risk of clogging of pipes and protect downstream
pumps, valves, gates etc. from abrasion.
• Broadly classified as:
1. Bar screen or bar racks 2. Fine screen
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1. Bar screen or bar racks 2. Fine screen

• To remove bulky/larger floating/suspended matters • To remove finer suspended impurities
• 25 mm diameter bars @ clear spacing of 20 to 150 mm • Wire mesh (6 mm or more) or perforated plates
• Slope: 3 to 6 (V) : 1 (H)
• Not used due to frequent clogging and
• Platform with perforations
rapid cleaning.
• Perforations: to squeeze water
• Perforated pipe/hemispherical fine
out from screenings
screens in stream/spring sources of
Nepal
a. Coarse screen:
 Clear opening: 50 mm or more
 Also called coarse/trash racks
 At beginning of pipe/pump/valves.
b. Medium screens:
 Clear openings: 20 to 50 mm
 Used at inlet of pumps and treatment units.
6.5 PLAIN SEDIMENTATION • Process of retaining water in a tank/basin to settle SS of

sp.gr. > water under action of gravity without adding
chemicals
• Objective or purpose: To remove coarse/ heavy suspended matters
like silt, sand, clay etc.
• Water contains SS of Sp Gr:
i. Inorganic: about 2.65 ii. Organic: 1 to 1.4
• Most SS have Sp. Gr. > 1 but remain in suspension due to
turbulence but can be removed by plain sedimentation
• Principle of plain sedimentation:
 Retaining water in a tank in quiescent condition for certain
period, heavier particles settle and lighter particles raise
under influence of gravity.
 Settled sediments (sludge) and raised floating matters
(scum) is then removed
• Retention/detention/sedimentation/settling tank/basin: • Settling velocity of spherical discrete particles of sp. Gr. >1
Tank/basin used for sedimentation falling through a quiescent (non-turbulence) water
• Retention/detention/sedimentation/settling period/time:
Time period for which water is retained in the tank
6.5.1 THEORY OF SETTLEMENT AND SETTLING VELOCITY OF DISCRETE

PARTICLES
• Hydraulic subsidence:
 Phenomenon by which particles settle down at bottom of ST.
 Particle have own hydraulic settling value
• Discrete particle: Particle not altering its shape/size/weight
during rising/settling
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6.5.2 TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS (ST)

SUMMARY ON VELOCITY OF SETTLING PARTICLES
• Generally: RCC and rectangular/circular in plan
• Classified on the basis of method of operation as:
1. Quiescent (fill and draw) ST
2. Continuous flow ST
A. Horizontal flow ST
(a) Rectangular tank with longitudinal flow
(i) ‘Up and down’ baffle Tank
(ii) ‘Around the end’ baffle tank
(b) Circular tank with radial flow
(i) Circular tank with peripheral feed
(ii) Circular tank with central feed
B. Vertical flow ST
1. Quiescent (fill and draw) ST 2. Continuous flow sedimentation tank

• Also called intermittent type ST • Raw water entry, sedimentation and withdrawal of clear water
• Normally rectangular in plan is continuous
• May be rectangular, square and circular in plan
 30–36 hours for 1 cycle (filling,
retaining, emptying and • On the basis of direction of flow of water, classified as:
cleaning) A. Horizontal flow tank B. Vertical flow tank
• Not used nowadays because:
 Need another tank A. Horizontal flow sedimentation tank
• Flow direction of water is horizontal in tank
• Classified into:
a. Rectangular tank with longitudinal flow
b. Circular tank with radial flow
b. Circular tank with radial flow

a. Rectangular tank with • Circular plan, water flows horizontally in radial direction
longitudinal flow • On the basis of direction of radial flow, classified into:
• Provided with/without
baffles i. Circular tank with peripheral feed
• Not used due to construction
difficulty.
• Commonly used RCC ii. Circular tank with central feed

horizontal flow • Raw water enters at center and
rectangular clear water collected from its
sedimentation tank periphery.
without baffles but with • Common
a scraping mechanism
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Dorr clarifier patented by Dorr Oliver Co. (USA)

B. Vertical flow sedimentation tank
• Common circular sedimentation tank with central feed • Square/circular at top and a hopper bottom
• Water flows in vertical direction
6.5.3 IDEAL SEDIMENTATION TANK

• ST in ideal conditions of equal velocity in all points at each
vertical cross section within settling zone
• May not occur in real field
6.5.4 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL FLOW RECTANGULAR ST

Consider in ideal horizontal flow rectangular ST:
Q = flow or discharge; li = length of inlet zone;
lo = length of outlet zone; B = width of tank;
FB = Free board; dsl = Depth of sludge zone;
vh = horizontal velocity; vs = settling velocity of particle;
v = resultant velocity; t = detention time;
l and d = Effective length and effective depth of settling zone
L = overall length of sedimentation tank = li + l + lo;
D = overall depth of sedimentation tank = FB + d + dsl
For discrete particle reaching at point A: So, smaller discrete particle with settling
• vh try to move horizontally and vs try to move downward velocity (vs’) entering at ‘h’ from top of
• Actual path is the vector sum (v) sludge zone will also effectively removed if;
 Along, below or above line AX
• Along path AX, Surface overflow rate (SOR)
• SOR = Q/Bl = overflow rate = surface loading of ST
Removal efficiency of sedimentation tank

• So, at vs ≥ Q/Bl: particle is effectively removed
For smaller particle reaching at point B (vertically below A) at a
distance (h) above top of sludge zone:
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6.5.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SEDIMENTATION TANK 6. Tank dimensions:

1. Design flow (Q) in treatment units:
 Closed continuous system (with DR and faucets): Average
 Open system (without DR and faucets): Peak
2. SOR = (Q/Bl)
 PS: 15 to 30 m3/m2/day
 SWC: 30 to 40 m3/m2/day
3. Detention time (t): Theoretical time of detaining water
 PS: 4 to 8 hours
 SWC: 1 to 4 hours
4. Velocity of flow (vh): Q/Bd 7. Free Board (FB) = 0.5 to 1 m and depends upon wind effect.
• up to 150 to 300 mm/minute
8. Depth of sludge zone (dsl) = 0.5 to 1 m (generally 1m)
5. Effective depth (d) = 2.5 to 5 m (generally about 3 m) 9. Others (inlet/outlet/washout/overflow etc.): For rectangular tanks,
 Length of inlet zone (li): 0.2 to 1 m
 Length of outlet zone (lo): 0.2 to 1 m
6.6 SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION 6.6.1 COMMONLY USED COAGULANTS

• Electrically charged colloidal matters remain in suspension 1. Aluminum sulphate or alum
due to random motion (Brownian motion) 2. Iron salts
• Removal by chemically assisted sedimentation called SWC 3. Chlorinated copperas
• Chemicals: called coagulants 4. Sodium aluminate
• Purpose: to remove fine suspended/colloidal impurities and
certain level of colour, odour and taste associated with them • Optimum amount (optimum dose) determined by jar test
• Floc: Insoluble/gelatinous/flocculent precipitate formed due to
reaction of coagulants with certain impurities 1. Aluminum sulphate or alum [Al2(SO4)3 .18 H2O]
• Coagulation: Process of adding coagulants/mixing • Generally, water contains bicarbonate alkalinity, then,
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 → 2 Al(OH)3↓ + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2↑ + 18H2O
• Flocculation: process of formation of floc
• Principle/theory: Negatively charged suspended particles of • If little/no alkalinity in water, hydrated lime/soda ash is added,
Al2(SO4)3 .18 H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 → 2 Al(OH)3↓ + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O and
clay/silt/colloidal matter attracted by formed positively
Al2(SO4)3 .18 H2O + 3 Na 2CO3 → 2 Al(OH)3↓ + 3Na2 SO4 + 3CO2↑ +18H2O
charged floc becomes heavier and settle in ST
• Effective in pH of 6.5 to 8.5.
• Usual dose: 5 mg/l for clear to 30 mg/l for turbid water.
2. Iron salts 6.6.3 PROCESSES OF SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION

• Common: Ferrous sulphate, ferric sulphate and ferric chloride 1. Feeding 2. Mixing 3. Flocculation 4.Sedimentation
• Generally used in sewage treatment
3. Chlorinated copperas [FeCl3.Fe2(SO4)3] 1. Feeding the coagulant
• Made by adding 1 part chlorine to 7.8 part ferrous sulphate • Dry feeding: powder form using dry feeding devices or
6 [FeSo4.7H2O] + 3Cl2 → 2 [FeCl3.Fe2 (SO4)3] + 42 H2O • Wet feeding: solution form using wet feeding devices
• Forms a tough floc and effective in range of pH: 6 to 8 or at 9
• Effective in colour removal, corrosive, Common in sewage treatment. 2. Mixing of coagulant
• Thoroughly/vigorously mixed to fully disperse in entire water
4. Sodium aluminate [Na2Al2O4] • Commonly by:
Na2Al2O4 + Ca(HCO3)2 → CaAl2O4↓ + Na2CO3 + CO2 ↑+ H2O
a. Mixing basin with baffle walls
Na2Al2O4 + CaCl2 → CaAl2O4↓ + 2NaCl
b. Mixing basin with mechanical means
Na2Al2O4 + CaSO4 → CaAl2O4↓ + Na2SO4
• Effective range: pH of 6 to 8.5 a. Mixing basin with baffle walls
• Costlier, not used in public W/S but used to treat boiler water. • Rectangular tank with baffle wall
• Two types:
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b. Mixing basin with mechanical means

• Also called flash mixture and suitable for larger TP
Mixing basins design considerations

i. Velocity in channel : 0.15 m/s to 0.45 m/s
ii. Detention period: 20 to 50 minutes.
iii. Distance between baffle (S) : min. 0.45 m
iv. End openings between baffle end and basin wall :
Maximum of: 1.5  S or 0.6 m.
3. Flocculation
• Slow stirring to permit buildup of floc in flocculator
• Classified depending upon direction of flow:
• Design criteria for flocculators:
i. Longitudinal flow flocculator ii. Vertical flow flocculator
i. Depth of tank = 3 to 4.5 m
ii. Detention period = 10 to 40
minutes (30 common)
iii. Velocity of flow = 0.2 to 0.8
m/minute (0.4 common)
iv. Total area of paddles =10 to
25% (15% common) of X-
area of tank.
v. Outflow velocity = 0.15 to
0.25 m/s (prevent settling,
floc breaking)
4. Sedimentation Dorr Clariflocculator

• Types/design similar as in PS but in SWC detention • Patented by Dorr Oliver Co. (USA)
period of 2 to 2.5 hours and SOR of 30 to 40 m3/m2/d is
taken
Coagulation cum sedimentation tank: In smaller projects
 Detention period:
Floc chamber: 15 to 40 min; Sedimentation: 3 to 4 hrs.
 Depth of floc chamber:
½ of depth of ST
 Cleaning:
3 to 6 month.
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6. 7 FILTRATION 1. Mechanical straining

• SWC cannot remove very fine floc, colour, dissolved • Phenomena: SS > size of interstices are trapped
minerals, microscopic organisms/bacteria • Cannot strain too small colloids/bacteria
• Removed by passing water through thick layers of porous
(granular media) beds: Filtration 2. Sedimentation and adsorption
• Purpose of filtration: to remove finer floc, colloids, minerals, • Interstices between sand grains and pores within sand act as
colour, odour, taste, bacteria etc. minute ST and SS is settled
• Other matters and bacteria adheres due to physical attraction
6.7.1 THEORY OF FILTRATION between SS and sand grain
• Impurity removal from four actions • This combined action: sedimentation and adsorption
(a) Mechanical straining
(b)Sedimentation and adsorption 3. Biological metabolism
(c) Biological metabolism • OM in voids are utilized by bacteria
(d) Electrolytic action • Biological metabolism: bacterial action for survival
• Dirty skin: Harmless compound formed in biological
metabolism deposited at sand surface with zoological jelly
6.7.3 SLOW SAND FILTER (SSF)

• Earliest type of gravity filter
4. Electrolytic action
• Filter media sand charged with some polarity attracts • Consists of following major parts:
suspended, colloidal and dissolved matters of opposing a. Enclosure tank b. Filter media c. Base material
polarity in neutralizing d. Under drainage system e. Appurtenances
6.7.2 FILTER AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

• Filter: Tank/device with filter media used for filtration
• Classified as:
1. Slow sand filter (gravity type)
2. Rapid sand filter (gravity type)
3. Pressure filter
d. Under drainage system

a. Enclosure tank
• Depth = 2.5 to 3.5 m; Surface area = 10 to 2000 m2
• Filtration rate: 100 to 200 lph/m2; L:B = 2
b. Filter media (sand layer)
• Thickness = 90 to 110 cm;
• Effective size (D10) = 0.25 to 0.35 mm (0.3 mm common)
• Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) = 3 to 5
c. Base material
• Gravel bed of 30 to 75 cm thickness
e. Appurtenances
• Depth controlling devices, head loss measuring device, rate
maintaining devices etc.
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6.7.4 RAPID SAND FILTER (RSF)

Working and cleaning of SSF
• Most commonly used gravity filters
• Consists of:
a. Enclosure tank b. Filter media c. Base material
d. Under drainage system e. Appurtenances
a. Enclosure tank
• Open masonry/RCC water
tight rectangular tank
• Depth = 2.5 to 3.5 m;
• Surface area = 10 to 50 m2;
• L:B = 1.25 to 1.35 and
Efficiency of SSF • Filtration rate: 3000 to
i. Bacterial load: 98-99% (raw); 99.5 to 99.9% (for pretreated) 6000 lph/m2
ii. Turbidity: some extent up to 50 ppm.
iii. Colour: less efficient (20 to 25 %)
b. Filter media (Sand) d. Under drainage system

• Thickness = 60 to 90 cm; effective size (D10) = 0.45 to
0.70 mm and coefficient of uniformity (Cu) = 1.3 to 1.7
(1.5 common ).
• Thickness should not be less than 60 cm
c. Base material
• 45 to 60 cm thick gravel bed
• Various under drains but common are:

i. Perforated pipe system and
ii. Pipe and strainer system
ii. Pipe and

strainer system
i. Perforated
pipe system
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Working and cleaning of RSF: Normal operation/Backwashing
e. Appurtenances
• Rectangular/V-
shaped/semicircular
wash water trough
• Air compressor
• Simplex rate controller
• Head loss indicators,
flow meters, valves etc.
Efficiency of RSF
a. Removes 80 to 90 % bacteria
b. Remove turbidity to 35 to 40 ppm.
c. Colour: Highly efficient (reduced below 3 ppm)
6.7.5 PRESSURE FILTER (PF) • Rate of filtration: 6000 to 15000 lit/hr/m2

• Rapid sand filter with a closed steel cylindrical tank • Less efficient than RSF
• Water passed under pressure of 3 to 7 kg/cm2 by a pump • Used for small colonies, industry and swimming pools etc.
• Diameter: 1.5 to 3 m; Depth: 3.5 to 8 m.
6.7.6 SUMMARY OF PARAMETERS USEFUL IN THE DESIGN OF FILTERS
• Filters are designed for average flow
• Working and cleaning: Normal Operation/Back washing

6.8.1 METHODS OF DISINFECTION

6.8 DISINFECTION
1. Boiling 2. Excessive lime treatment
• Disinfection: Process to kill pathogens 3. Iodine treatment 4. Bromine treatment
• Sterilization: Synonymously used for disinfection, however, 5. Ozone treatment 6. Potas treatment
means killing of all bacteria and all other micro-organisms 7. Copper treatment 8. Silver treatment
• Purpose of disinfection: To kill disease causing pathogens 9. Ultra-violet ray treatment 10. Solar disinfection technique
• Disinfectant: Substance/agent used for disinfection 11. Chlorination: Most effective and common in public w/s
6.8.2 CHLORINATION
• A good disinfectant have following characteristics: • Chlorine/compound used as disinfectant for disinfection
1. Kill all pathogens economically within reasonable contact 6.8.2.1 Theory of chlorination
time and wide range of temperature and pH • Enzymatic hypothesis: Chlorine penetrates cell wall and reacts
2. Not impart colour, odour and render water toxic. with enzyme system resulting death of microorganism.
3. Easily available at reasonable cost.  Chlorine in water at 49 to 212°F (reversible reactions):
4. Safe to handle and application should be simple. Cl2 + H2O ↔ HOCl + H+ + Cl – [Hydrolysis reaction]
5. Persist residual concentrations to avoid recontamination. HOCl further dissociates (ionizes) as:
HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl – [Ionization reaction]
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 HOCl and OCl – : responsible for disinfection Contact time or period: Time required for disinfection
 Undissociated HOCl: 80-100 times destructive than OCl – • 10 minutes theoretically but practically 30 minutes for free
available chlorine
6.8.2.2 Free available chlorine: HOCl, OCl– and Cl2
• 60 minute for combined available chlorine
6.8.2.3 Combined available chlorine:
Chlorine dose: Amount required to leave minimum freely
Mono, di and tri-chloramines
available residual chlorine after specified contact period
NH3 + HOCl ↔ NH2Cl (mono-chloramine) + H2O • Optimum dose: to leave 0.2 ppm residual after 10 minute in lab
NH2Cl + HOCl ↔ NHCl2 (di-chloramine) + H2O Chlorine dose (D) = Chlorine demand (d) + Residual chlorine (R)
NHCl2 + HOCl ↔ NCl3 (tri-chloramine) + H2O
6.8.3 CHLORINE DEMAND, RESIDUAL CHLORINE, CONTACT TIME AND 6.8.4 FORMS OF APPLICATION OF CHLORINE
CHLORINE DOSE 1. Bleaching powder or calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl2)
Chlorine demand: Amount of chlorine consumed in oxidation CaOCl2 ↔ Ca++ + 2 OCl –
with OM and inorganic matters H+ + OCl – ↔ HOCl –
Residual chlorine: Amount of chlorine remaining after fulfilling • Process is called hypo-chlorination
chlorine demand • Bleaching powder: 30 to 35% of available chlorine
2. Chloramines 6.8.5 FORMS OF CHLORINATION

• Ammonia first applied in raw water just before application 1. Plain chlorination or simple chlorination: to raw water
of chlorine (generally 1 part of NH3 and 4.5 part of Cl) 2. Pre-chlorination: Before treatment
Cl2 + H2O ↔ HOCl + H++ Cl – 3. Post-chlorination: after treatment
NH3 + HOCl ↔ NH2Cl (mono-chloramine) + H2O 4. Double or multiple
NH2Cl + HOCl ↔ NHCl2 (di-chloramine) + H2O chlorination: two or
NHCl2 + HOCl ↔ NCl3 (tri-chloramine) + H2O more point
3. Free chlorine 4. Break point or free
• Chlorine gas: applied in pressure of 7 kg/cm2 residual chlorination:
• Liquid chlorine: Preferred and applied by chlorinators break point dose
5. Super-chlorination:
4. Chlorine-dioxide application beyond
• By passing chlorine gas through sodium chlorite solution break point
2NaClO2 + Cl2 ↔ 2NaCl + 2 ClO2↑ 6. De-chlorination:
removing chlorine
• Rarely applied due to more cost
6.8.6 FACTORS AFFECTING BACTERIAL EFFICIENCY OF CHLORINE 6.9 WATER SOFTENING

 Process of removal of hardness
1. Turbidity: Low  Purpose: To remove temporary/permanent hardness
2. Presence of metallic compound: Decreased due to oxidation 6.9.1 REMOVAL OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS
3. Presence of ammonia compound: Low due to formation of a. Boiling
combined available chlorine
4. pH value of water: Low in high pH
5. Temperature: Decreased at lower temperature
b. Adding lime
6. Time of contact: below 30 minutes efficiency is decreased.
7. Type, condition and concentration of micro-organism:
 Higher concentration, low.
 High for bacteria but lesser for viruses 6.9.2 REMOVAL OF PERMANENT HARDNESS
 Depends upon types of same species a. Lime soda process
 Low if favorable condition is available b. Zeolite process
c. Demineralization process
8. Concentration of chlorine: Higher with increased concentration
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a. Lime soda process: Removes permanent/temporary hardness Denoting “SiO2Al2O3Na2O” as “Na2Z”, where Z represents
an anionic component of the exchanger:
Regeneration of zeolite
• Exhausted after use and
needs rgeneration
• By passing 5 to 10% solution
b. Zeolite process: Passing hard water from bed of resin (zeolite) of NaCl using brine ejector
• Also called as base-exchange or ion-exchange process.
• Natural zeolite: green sand or glauconite.
• Artificial zeolite: made from feldspar, kaolin clay and soda.
 Called sodium permutit or sodium zeolite or sodium
aluminum silicate (SiO2Al2O3Na2O).
c. Demineralization process ii. Anion exchanger or de-acidite

• Similar to zeolite but ion exchangers (resins) are used • Use of anion exchanger or de-acidite ‘DOH’
i. Cation exchanger or hydrogen exchanger

• Zero-karbs, Catex and Organolite (carbonaceous zeolites) Regeneration of anion exchanger or de-acidite
• Denoted by H2R :
6.10 MISCELLANEOUS TREATMENT

1. Aeration
2. Removal of iron and manganese
Regeneration of Hydrogen exchanger 3. Removal of colour, odour and taste
1. Aeration
• Method to bring water in intimate contact with air
• Oxygen observed, objectionable dissolved gases released
• Removes odour, taste, iron, manganese etc. to some extent
• Purpose of aeration
1. To increase DO to remain water fresh. A. Free fall or gravity aerators
2. To release CO2, H2S etc. in the atmosphere. • Aeration by free falling of water under gravitational forces
3. To remove bad taste/odour to some extent.
4. To reduce corrosiveness of water due to CO2 and H2S
a. Cascade aerator b. Inclined apron aerator
5. To oxidize/precipitate iron/manganese to some extent.
6. To kill pathogens some extent by agitation during aeration.
• Methods of aeration
 Aerator: Device/structure for aeration
A. Free fall or gravity aerators:
a. Cascade aerator b. Inclined apron aerator
c. Slat tray aerator d. Multiple tray aerator
e. Gravel packed bed aerator and trickling bed aerator
B. Spray aerators
C. Diffused air aerators
D. Mechanical aerators
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c. Slat tray aerator d. Multiple tray aerator e. Gravel packed bed aerator and trickling bed aerator
B. Spray aerator
2. Removal of iron and manganese
• Presence beyond 0.3 mg/l in any state have following effects:
i. Unpleasant taste, odour and red brown colour
ii. Stains on plumbing fixtures, clothes and textiles
iii. Corrosion/clog pipes from accumulated precipitates.
C. Diffused aerators D. Mechanical aerator iv. Difficulty in various industrial process.
v. Growth of bacteria
• Purpose: to minimizing effects
• Removal by:
a. Aeration followed by sedimentation and filtration
b. Passing over manganese zeolite or base exchange method
c. Chlorination followed by sedimentation and filtration
a. Aeration followed by sedimentation and filtration 3. Removal of colour, odour and taste
• Purpose: effective removal of colour, odour and taste
• Following methods are common among several methods:
a. Activated carbon treatment and b. Use of copper sulphate
a. Activated carbon treatment
• Most widely adopted using excellent adsorptive material called
activated carbon in powder/granular form
b. Passing over manganese zeolite or base exchange method • Activated carbon: Manufactured by heating or charring wood,
• Removed my mechanical action of zeolite saw dust, paper mill waste and other carbon containing
materials at 500°C in a closed vessel at controlled condition at
800°C to remove hydrocarbons.
c. Chlorination followed by sedimentation and filtration
• Oxidized by chlorine and produced precipitate is removed by b. Use of copper sulphate (CuSO4)
sedimentation and filtration • Also controls algae/bacteria/aquatic weeds growth in reservoirs.
• Powder/crystal form and easily soluble in water
• Very common in swimming pools.
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THANK YOU
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CHAPTER 7 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEM
LECTURE BY:
Associate Professor
Sanepa, Lalitpur
2. Intermittent system of supply of water

7.1 INTRODUCTION • Water supplied only during fixed hours
• Distribution system consists of: Reservoir/Pipe network
• Advantages
7.2 SYSTEMS OF SUPPLY OF WATER
i. Useful in insufficient pressure/quantity
1. Continuous system 2. Intermittent system ii. Water supplied in turn
1. Continuous system of supply of water iii. Repairing possible in non-supply hours.
iv. Leakage causes less wastage
• Water supplied for all 24 hours of a day
• Advantages • Disadvantages
i. Water every time/ no need of private storage i. Inconvenience/domestic storage required
ii. No stagnant water /Adequate in firefighting. ii. No water for firefighting
• Disadvantages iii. More wastage, if taps are left open
i. Possibility of more wastage iv. Greater diameter pipes are required
ii. Any leakage causes larger wastage v. Larger numbers of valves required
iii. Supply interrupted on repairing
7.3 WATER CONSUMPTION PATTERN Purposes:

a. To meet fluctuations in water demand
b. To provide reserve against repairs and emergencies
c. To maintain uniform pressure in distribution
d. To save cost of pipelines (smaller dia and lighter pipes)
7.5 TYPES OF SERVICE RESERVOIRS
7.4 RESERVOIRS 1. According to materials used:
• Tank/basin provided to store water a. Stone/brick masonry b. RCC c. Steel
• Public and private d. Ferro-cement
• Classified according to purpose as: 2. According to the shape:
1. Impounded reservoir : Reservoir at source a. Circular b. Rectangular c. Square
2. Clear water reservoir: Reservoir at TP d. Spherical e. Egg shaped f. Intz tank
3. Service reservoir:
3. According to the location:
 Reservoir at the head of Distribution area
a. Surface or ground or non-elevated reservoir
b. Elevated reservoir
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7.5.1 SURFACE (NON ELEVATED) RESERVOIR

7.6 CAPACITY CALCULATION OF A SERVICE RESERVOIR
• Total capacity of service reservoir is sum of
7.5.2 ELEVATED RESERVOIR 1. Breakdown storage
• Storage for breakdown (pumps, electricity, equipment etc.)
• Generally 25% of total capacity
• Not considered in rural areas of Nepal.
2. Fire storage
• Storage for firefighting
• Not considered in rural areas of Nepal.
3. Balancing (equalizing) storage (reserve)
• For equalizing/balancing the fluctuations in demand
In Nepal, capacity of a service reservoir is calculated only for

balancing storage so it is called as balancing reservoir.
Capacity of balancing reservoir (CBR) (a) Mass curve method

a. Compute cumulative surplus (CS) and cumulative deficit (CD)
1. Check for need of BR: Let, b. Plot their mass curves in graph CS and CD versus time
I = inflow at a particular hours of a day c. Note maximum ordinates of MCS and MCD
O = outflow/demand/draft in same time period CBR = MCS + MCD
TI = daily total inflow and
TO = daily total outflow
i. If ‘TI < TO’, project is not feasible
ii. If ‘TI ≥ TO’, project is feasible but:
 If ‘I ≥ O’ in all hours, no need of reservoir
 If ‘I < O’ in any particular hour, needed.
2. Calculate CBR by: (b) Analytical method (easier and common)

(a) Mass curve method a. Compute TI, TO, CS and CD
(b) Analytical method (common) b. Note MCS and MCD
CBR = MCS + MCD – (TI – TO)
1. Dead end or tree or branched system

• Adopted for haphazardly developed area
7.7 LAYOUT OF THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM • Almost in all urban/rural areas of Nepal
• Layout of pipe network to convey water from DR • Advantages
• Depends upon layout of roads i. Easy in design calculation ii. Economical
1. Dead end or tree or branched system iii. Less numbers of cutoff valves iv. Simple and easier pipe laying
2. Looped system • Disadvantages
i. Grid iron i. Stagnation at dead end
ii. Circular ii. D/S supply stopped during repair
iii. Radial iii. Many scour valves
iv. Pressure cannot be maintained
v. Less water for firefighting
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2. Looped system
• Pipe network laid with a closed loop 7.8 DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
• Advantages 1. Structural design of pipe
i. Circulation/no pollution • Determination thickness (not needed)
ii. Water at every point 2. Hydraulic design of pipes
iii. Repair affect small area • Determination of diameter (needed)
iv. Firefighting water
available 7.8.1 PIPE HYDRAULICS
• Disadvantages A. Continuity equation
i. More cutoff valves and Q = Q1 + Q2 = Av = A1v1 + A2 v2
longer pipes so costlier
ii. Design: laborious, Q = discharge
complicated and difficult A = cross sectional area and
iii. Overall cost is high. v = velocity
B. Head losses in pipes (HL) b. Minor Loss (hm)

a. Minor Loss (hm): due to fittings, entrance/exit etc. (neglected) • Neglected without serious error if length of pipes are higher
b. Major Loss (hf): due to friction
Total head loss (HL) = hf + hm = hf
i. Darcy Weisbach formula
hf = Head loss in m; L = Length of pipe in m;
d = Diameter of pipe in m; Q = discharge (m3/s)
f = Friction factor (0.02 for new to 0.075 for old)
= complex in calculation (Moody’s Diagram or
Colebrook and White equation)
ii. Manning’s formula: Common for gravity conduits
n = Manning’s roughness or rugosity
coefficient for pipe material
iii. Hazen-William’s formula: Widely used in w/s pipe design
C = Roughness coefficient (130 for new CI; 70 etc.
for GI; 140 for HDPE; 100 for old CI etc.)
7.8.2 PIPE DESIGN CRITERIA 7.9 DESIGN OF PIPE NETWORKS

1. Discharge: To meet future demand and in Nepal: • Calculate design discharge in all pipes d/s u/s
 Distribution system: 3 to 4 times average demand • Design from u/s to d/s on main basis of head loss principle
 Transmission system: average • Manually or using computer software
2. Pressure: Single story: 7 m; double: 12, three: 17 m; Not > 22 m 1. Looped system
• Rural areas of Nepal (Minimum residual head): • Conventional methods: Trial and error procedure. Equivalent pipe
 5 m in public connection; 15 m private connections method, hardy cross method, method of sections, circle method,
3. Size of pipes graphical method etc.
• 15, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 65, 100,125, 150, 200, 250, 300,350, 400, 450, • Computer based software method
500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2200, 2. Branched system
2400, 2600, 2800 and 3000 mm 1. Compute allowable head loss from GL, available upstream
• Minimum in urban areas: 10 cm
residual head and minimum residual pressure required at d/s
4. Velocity 2. Calculate diameter using Hazen William’s head loss formula
• Treated water: 0.3 to 3 m/s; untreated water: minimum 0.6 m/s and recommend higher diameter of commercial size
3. Calculate actual head loss.
5. Gradient
• No gradient but laid below HGL for pressure flow 4. Check residual pressure and velocity per design criteria and
adopt diameter otherwise redesign changing parameters.
12/18/2022
CHAPTER 8 CONVEYANCE OF WATER
LECTURE BY:
Associate Professor
Sanepa, Lalitpur
8.1 INTRODUCTION 8.2 PIPE, PIPE MATERIALS AND REQUIREMENT

• Transportation of water with components and structures • Circular conduit flow under pressure
connected by conduits is called conveyance
• Timber, vitrified clay, cast iron, wrought iron, steel, cement
• Intake - TP - RVT= transmission, RVT to tap = distribution
concrete, asbestos cement, lead, copper, plastic etc.
• Conveyed under gravity or pumping
• Depends upon topography, water quality, economy, construction • Should resist internal and external pressure, corrosion etc.
practices etc. • Choice depends upon capacity, durability, and life, type of water
to be conveyed, its possible corrosive effect, availability of fund,
1. Gravity conduit maintenance and repair cost etc.
• Water flows under gravity, open channel flow
• HGL coincides with water surface exposed to atmosphere
• Can’t laid up/down but gradual downward slope required
• Canals, aqueducts, tunnels, flumes etc.
2. Pressure conduit
• Under pressure higher than atmospheric, Pressure flow
• Laid up/down following natural topography under HGL
• Pipeline, pressure tunnel, pressure aqueduct etc.
• Pressure conduit raised above the HGL called siphon.
8.3 TYPES OF PIPES

Requirements of good Pipe: According to the materials used
1. Wooden pipes
1. Withstand external stress (soil/traffic), internal stress (water
pressure/hammer) and temperature stress. 2. Vitrified clay pipes
2. Durable with a life more than design period of water supply. 3. Lead and copper pipes
3. Resist corrosion due to H2S, CO2; others; abrasion due to SS 4. Asbestos cement (AC) pipes
4. Impervious prevent losses and entrance of sub-soil water/ww 5. Wrought iron (WI) pipes
5. Smooth for minimum friction loss 6. Cast iron (CI) pipes
6. Light weight for ease handling/transportation/cost effective. 7. Ductile Iron (DI) Pipes
7. Simple/easier in joining with fittings. 8. Steel pipes
8. Cheap in purchasing/handling/transportation/installation. 9. Galvanized iron (GI) pipes
10. Concrete Pipes
11. Plastic Pipes
12/18/2022
2. Vitrified clay pipes

• Channel/pipes of burnt clay to convey water and ww
1. Wooden pipes
• Used in past
• Made of wood making channels/boring at center
• Later developed as vitrified clay from heat treatment process
• Used in ancient times
(called vitrification) to make internal surface smooth
• Not used nowadays due to its poor strength/durability
• Not used in water supply but in ww as open channel flow in
several countries
3. Lead and copper pipes 4. Asbestos cement (AC) pipes

• Copper pipe made from copper • Made by mixture of cement and asbestos fibers
 Disinfect water, resist corrosion even acids, easily bent, • Manufactured in 5 to 130 cm diameter
not sag in hot water supply. • Resist internal pressure of 3.5 to 14 kgf/cm2
 Expensive so not used nowadays • Light, not affected by salt water and corrosive
material but affected by alkali/acid.
• Lead pipe made from lead • Brittle/costlier in transportation
 Withstand high pressure, easily bent • Avoided nowadays due to cancer-genic effect.
 Soluble and liable for lead poisoning
 Not used in W/S nowadays 5. Wrought iron (WI) pipes
• Rolling/welding WI plates to the edges
• Joined by couplings or screwed socket joint.
• Light weight than CI, easy in transportation/
handling, cutting, threading, working, joining
than CI; gives neat appearance.
• Expensive/corrosive/less durable than CI
• Suitable for inside plumbing
• Not used due to high cost/other alternatives.
6. Cast iron (CI) pipes 7. Ductile iron (DI) pipes

• Manufactured from best grey pig iron by either sand • Developed form of CI from best grey ductile pig iron
molding/centrifugal casting method. (nodular/spheroidal graphite iron by centrifugal casting
• From centrifugal method are denser and casted 3 to 6 m long. • Internally lined with cement mortar and externally coated with zinc,
• Classified as LA, A and B classes to resist 10, 12.5 and 25 kgf/cm2 of asphalt or water based paint to resist from rusting
water pressure respectively. • Advantages:
• Advantages:  Withstand high pressure, corrosion resistance, more ductile/
Withstand high internal pressure, resistance to corrosion. stronger in impact/fracture/tension/some deflections than CI
Durable to life > 100 years/moderate in cost.  More durable, life > 100 years.
Easy to join and service connection  Easy to join, lighter, larger nominal inner diameter than CI
• Disadvantages: • Disadvantages:
 Heavy/brittle so difficult to  Similar corrosion rate as in CI so
handle/transport/make expensive need internal/external protection.
 Tuberculation (inner surface roughening)  Heavy/difficult to handle/transport
with time, decreases capacity to 70% make expensive.
 Leaching of iron produce metallic taste • Suitability: In distribution system.
• Suitability: Suitable for distribution system.
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8. Steel pipes
• Similar in construction as WI but fabricated from rolled steel plates by
9. Galvanized iron (GI) pipes
rivet/weld, joined by riveting or welding. • WI/mild steel with zinc coating to protect corrosion.
• Advantages: • Categories: MD (medium duty) and HD (heavy duty)
 Withstand high internal pressure, flexible than CI • Outer diameter (15, 20, 25, 32, 40, 65 mm etc.), 6 m long in market.
 Cheap and light so ease in handling/transportation. • Larger diameters in smaller length.
 Up to 2400 mm in diameter and 12 m in length.
• Advantages:
• Disadvantages:
 Can’t withstand external load, corrosion, costly to maintain.  Resist corrosion/cheap/light, easily handled/transported than CI
 More time in maintenance, deform in shape due to combined  Easily cut/threaded/joined with screwed socket joints.
internal/external pressure.  About 20 years life.
• Suitability: Occasionally in main lines with high pressure/diameter  MD/HD withstand internal pressure up to 160 m/ 250 m of water
respectively.
• Disadvantages:
 Diameter more than 80 mm are expensive. • Cement:sand: aggregate in 1:2:2
 May corroded by acidic/alkaline waters/incrustation. • Market sizes from 80 to 1200 mm internal diameter
 Less durable and smoothness decreases with respect to time. Advantages:
• Suitability:  Resist deformation/external load due to soil and normal traffic.
 In main lines with high pressure and exposed at open atmosphere.  Inner surface made smooth to reduce friction
 Crossings/rocky portion of alignment of rural water supply  Corrosion resistant/ > 75 years life /least thermal expansion/ low
 Internal plumbing but reduced due to other alternatives maintenance cost/ laid under water without flotation problem
10. Concrete pipes or hume pipes: Disadvantages:
• PCC/RCC and precast/ cast in site type.  Cannot resist high internal pressure.
• Jointed by Collar/bell and spigot joints  Precast is heavy to handle/transport/difficult to repair
• PCC up to 60 cm diameters used below  Affected by acids/alkali and salty waters, difficult to join with
15 m pressure of water service connections/leak due to porosity.
• Diameter > 60 cm, RCC is used Suitability:
• RCC resist up to 60 m water pressure  Where water do not flow under pressure.
• Precast manufactured in factory in  Not in drinking water supply with pressure flow
controlled conditions and cast in situ is  In open channel flow (i.e. sewerage system)
casted in site using local materials.
11. Plastic pipes (a) Polyethylene (PE) pipes

• From polymerization of synthetic resin with high molecular • Common plastic for several goods made from polymerization
weight derived either from petroleum or natural gas. of mixture of similar polymers of ethylene
• Common due to corrosion resistant, light weight and economical. • Several varieties with methods in several goods.
• Usual are: • Low density polyethylene (LDPE), medium density polyethylene
Polyethylene (PE), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polypropylene random (MDPE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE)
copolymer (PPR) and chlorinated poly vinyl chloride (CPVC). • LDPE/MDPE pipes are flexible than HDPE pipes and commonly
used in low pressurized irrigation pipes/electrical insulations etc.
• HDPE are common in w/s pipes
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(b) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes

• In market outer diameter up to 1600 mm but 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, • From polyvinyl chloride produced from the combination of
50, 63, 75, 90 mm are common in rural water supply in Nepal. vinyl and ethylene.
• In roll up to 200 m. • Inert/stable/resists corrosion but cannot bear temperature > 60°C.
• Red/blue/green/yellow mark lines represents its series as 2.5, 4, 6 and
10 kgf/cm2 to resist a maximum pressure of 25/40/60/100 m of water Advantages:
 Cheaper, hard, inert, stable, smooth, durable (50 years), corrosion
• Advantages: resistant, easier in installation.
 Cheaper, corrosion free, chemical resistant, smooth, flexible and  Resist inorganic acids, alkalis, salts and organic chemicals.
easier in joining and maintenance
 Durable (50 years) and resistant to high impact and cracking. Disadvantages:
 Brittle/inflammable/less weather resistant,
• Disadvantages: cannot carry hot water above 60°C.
 Inflammable/less resistant to weathering so laid under ground.
 Poor to carry hot water due to high thermal expansion. Suitability:
 Produces taste/odour of plastic in high temperature.  Indoor in soil pipe, waste pipe etc. embedded
in concrete
• Suitability:  External/internal cold water supply, water
 To lay under ground in TL and DL of rural area and DL of urban mains, rainwater, waste pipe; underground
areas. wiring, water supply from electrical pumps.
(c) Polypropylene Random Copolymer (PPR) Pipes: (d) Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC) Pipes:
• From polypropylene random copolymer produced from • From thermoplastic (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) produced
polymerization of polypropylene with ethylene. from chlorination of PVC resin.
• Advantages:
 Fully recyclable/ecofriendly; smooth, durable (50 years), non-
deformable, frost proof and not prone to calcification
 Resist inorganic acids, alkalis, salts and organic chemicals.
 Carry hot water up to 80°C, not produce taste/odour
 Fittings of same material available so joints are leak proof.
• Disadvantages:
 Affected by sunlight/not for outdoor use
without painting
 Repair only by fusion welding.
• Suitability:
 Indoor hot/cold w/s; rain water harvesting,
convey acids/industrial chemicals; home, air
compressors, swimming pools, agriculture
8.4 PIPE JOINTS:

• For ease (handling/transporting/ placing), manufactured in
• Advantages:
smaller length of 2 to 6 m (up to 200 m roll in smaller diameter
 Recyclable/ecofriendly, smooth, flexible, durable (55 years), non
HDPE)
deformable, frost proof, no calcification/tuberculation.
• Joined together for full length by a device called pipe joint.
 Resist inorganic acids, alkalis, salts and organic chemicals.
 Carry hot water up to 90°C, not produce taste and odour; easier
1. Screwed and socket joint 2. Flanged Joint
in joining pipes/fittings with glue.
3. Spigot and socket joint 4. Tyton joint
• Disadvantages: 5. Expansion joint 6. Collar joint
 Costlier than PPR; affected by sunlight making brittle; 7. Mechanical joint 8. Flexible joint
not in outdoor without painting.
• Suitability:
 For indoor hot/cold water supply; rain water harvesting; convey
acids/industrial chemicals.
 Home, compressed air plants, swimming pools and agriculture
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2. Flanged Joint:
1. Screwed and socket joint • Easy to dismantle/reassemble so common in temporary
• Common in small diameter GI, WI and steel pipelines of CI, GI, WI and steel pipes in pumping station,
• Both plain ends are threaded by stock and die; jute/hemp/ treatment plant, hydraulic lab, boiler house etc.
yarn /seal tape wrapped around thread to make watertight. • To connect HDPE with GI
• Screwed tightly in same sized socket to hold firmly in position • Both pipe ends having inbuilt/screwed/welded flanges brought
together
• One hard rubber washer is placed in between flanges and
bolted for water tightness.
• Rigid joint; cannot bear vibration and deflection.
3. Spigot and socket (bell and spigot) joint

• Used in CI, DI, RCC and prestressed concrete pipes. • RCC/precast concrete pipes:
• Pipes must have one end enlarged (socket or bell end) and  Joined together by pushing spigot end placed with a
other end must have normal (spigot) end rubber gasket around socket end of another pipe to hold
in position
• CI pipes:  Gap of the joint is filled with mortar
 Push spigot end wrapped with jute/yarn/ hemp to socket end
of another pipe to hold in position
 Gap packed with additional jute by yarning tool; molten lead is
poured ; joint is tightened after hardening by chalking tool and
hammer.
 Joint is somehow flexible;
laid on flat curved
alignment
4. Tyton (push on flexible) joint 5. Expansion joint:

• Used in CI, DI/PVC having one spigot and other socket end. • Used in suitable intervals to bear the thermal stress during
• More flexible than spigot and socket joint changes in temperature
• Joined together by pushing spigot end of a pipe to socket end • CI or DI pipes:
placed with rubber gasket of another pipe to hold in position.  By pushing spigot end of pipe inserted to a follower ring to
• Use of lubricants makes easier in insertion/compression on socket end placed with rubber gasket of another pipe to
rubber gasket makes it water tight. hold in position
 Follower ring and flange of
socket tightened to tightly
press rubber gasket
between annular space of
socket and spigot
 Elastic rubber gasket allows
forward/backward
movement of socket to resist
temperature stress
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6. Collar joint:
 Another type consists of two flanged end joined by a • Common joining of RCC/prestressed concrete pipes with
flexible rubber material with embedded spring plain ends.
 Easily assembled with rubber gaskets to the flanged end of • Concrete collar inserted in a pipe
the both pipes as in flanged joint • Two plain ends gently brought in one level placing jute/hemp
 Presence of flexible material with embedded spring allows rope soaked in cement on the groove at cross section
forward/backward movement of two flanges to resist • Collar slipped in between joint; gap made equal around pipe
temperature stress and filled with 1:1 cement mortar
7. Mechanical joint 8. Flexible (bell and socket or universal) joint

• In CI, WI and steel pipes • Provided at curves and settlement is likely in all directions
• Strong/rigid joint to withstand shocks/vibrations. • Such as: Bottom of trench and riverbeds.
• Used in joining pipes laid over bridges. • Various types of flexible joints in CI and DI pipes
• Two types: a. Dresser couplings b. Victaulic coupling • Consists of a socket end casted in spherical shape and the
spigot end is plain but has a bead
• A follower ring, a gland
ring, rubber gasket and
retainer ring is inserted in
the spigot end respectively
in order.
• Spigot end slipped into
socket end
• Retainer ring, rubber
gasket and gland ring are
slipped in socket
8.5 LAYING OF PIPES

• Follower ring is tightened by bolt with socket flange
• Carried under the guidance of detailed map
• If pipe is settled, ball shaped part move inside socket but
• In water supply, from upstream source to downstream
joint remains water proof in all positions.
• Usually, laid below ground but sometimes above ground.
1. Planning
• Review of maps, detailed drawings and specifications
• Considerations for procurement of materials, tools and equipment,
store, labors etc.
2. Setting out
• The other types of joint common • Transferring of points of pipe alignment from drawing to ground
using proper surveying instruments and methods
nowadays are shown in figure 8.24.
• Marking of points by driving pegs (or painting if applicable) at 30
m interval on straight reaches and 7.5 to 15 m on curves.
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4. Sub grade preparation

3. Excavation, timbering and dewatering of trench: • Subgrade at entire bottom of trench is compacted.
• Rectangular trench = width 30 cm more than external dia of pipe • For unlikely settlement, a clay/sand layer of 15 to 30 cm is added
subjected to minimum 60 cm excavated manually or using excavators. and again compacted
• Minimum depth 90 cm below GL to external crown • For likely settlement, 15 cm of concrete bed over flat brick soling on
• More excavation (15 to 20 cm) of width and depth at joints. compacted subgrade.
• Excavated soil deposited at one side and other for pipe stacking • On ground, laid on a well-compacted ground surface with small
• Sign of “Men at work” is placed before excavation for safety. masonry/concrete supports at 5 to 15 m to avoid settlement, anchor
blocks at proper locations to resist impact of water
• Timbering of trench with wooden planks, wedges and strut during 5. Lowering and joining of pipes
excavating in soft and loose soil to avoid settlement and caving (falling • Clean/gently uplift/lower into trench manually or mechanically or
of surrounding soil). using cranes not to damage protective coatings and ends
• Proper joints/valves connected at right place.
• Water in trench is thrown away manually or using pumps before
preparation of subgrade. 6. Testing of pipes
• This step is not applicable to lay above the ground. • Usually, tested in < 500 m stretches for pressure and leakage
• Inspected, dismantle and rejoined if any of the following test fails
a. Pressure test
• Close all outlets of section temporarily except one to filled
water by a pump to maintain pressure of 0.5 N/mm2 or 50% 7. Back filling
more than maximum. • After successful test, back filled with soft excavated soil free
• Plugged it and left for 30 minutes. from rock, plastic, laves etc.
• If test pressure maintained without measurable head loss, it is safe. • In 15 to 30 cm layers; well compacted up to level flush with ground.
• If possibility of consolidation due to traffic, backfilling up to 15 cm
b. Leakage test above the normal ground level
• Fill pipe as in pressure test and keep for 24 hours. • Remaining soil is properly disposed.
• Added water to maintain same pressure gives amount of leakage.
• If leakage ≤ allowable limits from following formula, it is safe
8. Disinfection of pipeline
• Fill pipe from TP to user’s tap with disinfected water with residual
chlorine of 50 mg/l for 12 hours
• Empty it and flush with fresh water before service.
CHAPTER 9 APPURTENANCES AND MAINTENANCE
LECTURE BY:
Associate Professor
Sanepa, Lalitpur
12/18/2022
2. Globe valve
9.1 INTRODUCTION
• Accessories/fittings /valves/devices/structures in w/s • To regulate flow at inlet
• Timely repairing for effectiveness/performance is maintenance point of RVT, BPT, tap
stand
• Higher HL than sluice valve.
9.2 VALVES • Used in smaller diameter
• Devices used for special purposes pipes
1. Sluice or gate or cutoff valve • Rotation of wheel allows
• To complete open/close flow jumper to control orifice for
• Not for regulating because of regulating flow
scouring at partial open.
• Every junction; WO; outlets of 3. Butterfly valve
intake, RVT, BPT and interval of 3 • To fully open/close flow in
to 5 km to divide pipes section. larger diameter pipes
• Low HL is lesser than globe valve • High HL than sluice valve
• Rotation of handle • Rotation of handle allows to
upward/downward through stem open/close
move wedge to open/close flow
6. Air Valve/Air Relief Valve

4. Reflux/check/non return valve • To release accumulated air with at
To maintain flow in one direction only summit
a. Horizontal type: • If air in chamber, float sinks/poppet
common in pipelines valve opens/water level rises on
b. Vertical type: supply/air is released uplifting float.
in pump inlets • Poppet valve is automatically closed to
continue flow
5. Safety/pressure relief valve/outfall

tower
• To release the unwanted pressure
and to prevent bursting of 7. Drain/Scour Valve
pipeline. • Simple sluice valve used at outlet of
• Predetermined pressure may be is washout for escaping silt
adjusted by rotating the handle. • Placed at dead
ends/depression/valley.
9.3 FITTINGS 1. Socket: Hub with female ends to connect same size pipes
• Several pipe fittings 2. Reducer: Enlarger/reduced (R-socket) or unequal socket
required to perform 3. Union: Detachable hub
several functions. 4. Bend: Socket/piece of
• Varies with respect to pipe to change direction.
pipe materials but May be 90°, 45°, 22.5° or
fundamentals are same. 11.25°.
5. Elbow: hub/bend of 90°.
Equal or unequal
6. Wye: ‘Y’ shaped hub.
Equal/unequal
7. Tee: ‘T’ shaped hub.
Equal/unequal
8. Cross: Four/six way
fitting to divide flow.
Equal/unequal
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9.4 DEVICES AND STRUCTURE

1. Stop cock
• Device before outlets of tap, basin,
water tanks, flushing tanks, water
meter in the service connection etc. to
control/regulate flow
• Similar but smaller than globe valve.
2. Water tap or bib cock or faucets

9. Plug: Male threaded fitting to seal • Device at outlets of tap stand, wash
10. Cap: Female threaded fitting to seal basin, bathroom, toilet and kitchen sink
11. Nipple: Short pipe/barrel to connect other two fittings. etc. to consume water.
• Anticlockwise/clockwise movement of
handle opens/closes valve respectively
to derive water
3. Water meter 5. Break pressure tank (BPT) and interruption chamber (IC)
• Device at end of service connection to
measure quantity of water consumed
for tariff.
• Rotary/digital
4. Fire hydrant
• 15 to 20 cm diameter device as an outlet
of water at road junctions/ convenient
locations ≤ 300 m intervals
• To tap water from distribution pipes
mainly for fire extinguishing but also • Small structure/chamber (masonry/RCC/Ferrocement) to break
for street washing, watering gardens, excessive static pressure
flushing sewer lines etc. • Masonry/RCC (square/rectangular/circular) but ferrocement always
• Post type is common than flush type circular. Constructed with masonry than ferrocement practically.
because it is prominent (detectable) and • Same but BPT is always with a float valve in DL whereas IC is always
easier in operation. in TL without float valve.
7. Public stand post

6. Service connection • Last/frequently used component to fetch water
• Socializing point for woman for informal discussion
• 150 m H and 50 m V; sometimes up to 250 m H
• Standard flow = 0.15 lps for 100 people @ 45 lpcd with Pf = 3.
• Minimum flow = 0.1 lps to fill 15 liters vessel in 2.5 minutes
• Maximum flow = up to 0.25 l/s to adjust for less crowding.
• Desirable residual head:
 Minimum = 5 m
 Maximum = 15 m
 Exception min.=3.5 m
 Exception max. = 35 m
• Designed for round time of
• Connection from distribution pipe to house connection 15 min
• Flexible service connection: Pipe assembly with goose neck • Private (min 0.06 and max
• Rigid service connection: No goose neck 0.25 lps) and Pf = 1
• Service connection up to outlet of meter remains under the property of
water service authority.
12/18/2022
9.5 OPERATION, MAINTANANCE, REPAIR AND REHABILITATION 9.5.2 MAINTENANCE -;+ef/_ OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
• For sustainability • Proper caring/protection to keep system in optimal
• Operation: activities to deliver the service performance condition
• Maintenance: activities to keep system in condition • Art of keeping all structure, plant, machinery, equipment in an
• Repair: activities to restoring of damaged/break-downed service. optimum level to reduce cost of repair
• Rehabilitation: action of recovery/restoration of non-operating • Methods:
or destroyed or abandoned or design period spanned system. 1. Preventive -/f]syfdgfTds_
2. Corrective -;'wf/fTds_
9.5.1 OPERATION -;+rfng_ OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM 3. Reactive -k|lt/f]wfTds_
• Actions by enforcing policies, procedures, guidelines etc. and
monitoring state for healthier running 1. Preventive -/f]syfdgfTds_ maintenance
• Includes timely/daily works for the proper functioning of all • Regular/routine maintenance involving inspection, immediate
components (intake, TS, TP, lab, reservoir, DS, valves, machine measures to prevent break down.
and equipment etc) • Construction of protective walls, catch drains to protect from
• Needs several special technical persons. rain; plantation to prevent further damage.
• Planned way on a regular basis (inspection of pipeline, 2. Corrective -;'wf/fTds_ maintenance

cleaning of intakes and tanks, cleaning and greasing of • Repair or replace to correct incorrectly done activities
mechanical devices, replacement of life spanned parts, • Replacement of faulty pump, reallocation of pipes etc.
protective walls building, planting trees, care taking of 3. Reactive -k|lt/f]wfTds_ maintenance or emergency maintenance
vegetation and fencing, minor replacement of parts etc.) • Carried out only after crisis/public complains due to negligence
a. Source: plantation, fencing, keeping cleanness around source, of maintenance authority, malfunction or breakdown of
making catch drains etc. equipment, pipe and structure
b. Tanks and valves: protection of storage tank, distribution tank • In Nepal, it occurs due to financial constraints.
sedimentation tank, valves etc. by fencing, plantation, regular
cleaning, proper outflow management etc. 9.5.3 REPAIR -dd{t_ OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
c. Pipeline: regular inspection, backfilling of exposed pipes • Activities to restore service after damage/wear/breakdown that
immediately, plantation to protect from probable landslide etc. cannot be reformed from maintenance.
d. Tap: protection of water tap, tap stand and platform from • May take long time to restore service.
children, wastewater management, fencing etc. • Classified as:
e. Tools, equipment and plants: proper use, storage and cleaning 1. Emergency repair -cfsl:ds dd{t_
2. Regular repair -lgoldt dd{t_
1. Emergency repair -cfsl:ds dd{t_

a. Intake and collection chambers: cleaning or replacement
• Repair of source, tanks, pipes, valves etc. damaged during
of inlet and outlet; repair of walls, valves and screens;
floods/landslide/natural disasters
fencing; plantation; construction of catch drain etc.
• Immediate repair for continuation of the service
• Need skilled manpower/technical support and may be costlier. b. Tanks: wall repair, valves cleaning or replacement, leakage
repair, fence repair, plantation etc.
c. Valves and valve chambers: wall repair, cleaning or repair or
2. Regular repair -lgoldt dd{t_ replacement of valves, fence repair, plantation etc.
• Repair of regular problem like pipe and valve leakage, pipe
d. Tap and tap stand: cleaning or repairing or replacing of
clogging, tap breaking, pipe exposure, infrastructure damage
water tap and washers, tap stand repair, platform repair,
etc. during regular operation
earth filling, restoring waste water drains etc.
• Solved immediately in regular basis by cleaning, replacing and
patching. e. Pipeline and fittings: backfilling of exposed pipes, repairing
• For major damage skilled manpower/technical support is cascades, repairing of leakage of pipes and fittings, cleaning
needed and may be costlier. of clogged pipe and valves, replacing broken portion of pipe
• Some major regular repairs are: etc.
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9.5.4 REHABILITATION -k'g{:yfkgf_ OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM 9.6 MAINTENANCE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
• Action of recovery/restoration of non-operating/ • involves all plumbing tools/equipment/few construction
destroyed/abandoned/design period spanned system. tools.
• Re-operated after heavy repair/replacement of major
components (new intake, pipeline, reservoir etc.)
• Needs high funds/ involves redesign of some components.
• Needs community participation as in new project
• All process as in new w/s projects.
9.5.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPERATION, MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND

REHABILITATION
• Operation: all activities necessary to deliver the service
• Maintenance: activities keeping system in optimal condition
• Repair: activities after sudden breakage
• Rehabilitation: replacement of major components to restore
12/18/2022
S Tool Use
No.
a. Big hammer and chisel Stone cutting and breaking
b. L- square Making 90° corners
c. Plumb bob Aligning vertical position
d. Sprit level Surface levelling
e. Measuring tape Measuring distance
f. Karahi Carrying mortars and concrete
g. Hacksaw Cutting pipe and bars
h. Heating plate Joining HDPE
i. Blow torch Heating the plate
j. Pipe wrench Catching/screwing the pipes
k. File Surface dressing
l. Plier Catch and cutting wires
m. Stock and die GI thread cutting
S Tool Use 9.7 ARRANGEMENTS FOR OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND

No. REPAIR
n. Spanner Tightening or loosening nut • Kathmandu valley: Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited
o. Teflon paper Covering heating plate (KUKL)
p. Thermochrome chalk Checking heat level of heating plate • Other municipalities: Nepal water Supply Corporation (NWSC)
q. Slide wrench Tightening or loosening nut and • Maintenance/repair: generally reactive due to financial constraints.
fittings. • Small towns/rural areas: by community participatory approach
r. Pipe vice Catching GI while thread cutting through Water User’s Committee (WUC)/its technicians under
s. Trowel Construction of wall and plastering guidance of sub-divisional/divisional/regional offices of Department
t. Shovel Throwing earth, making mortars of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS).
and concrete • Others: Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development
u. Pick axe Excavating soil Board (RWSSFDB), Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS), Japan
v. Small hammer Nailing International Corporation agency (JICA), OXFAM International etc.
w. Knife Cutting sevral things  Responsibility of operation and maintenance similarly through
x. Oil can Oiling during thread cutting WUC and its technicians.
• Committee and technicians responsible for operation, maintenance
y. Seal tape Tightening of joints
and repair in small town/rural areas are:
1. Water Users Committee (WUC) 2. Village Maintenance Worker (VMW)

• Registeration of WUS to District Water Resource Committee
• Well-trained vital person generally taken from same
with ‘Bidhan’ with nine democratically elected persons with
community for maintenance/repair
different positions with at least two women.
• Must have latrine in home/able to provide advice to other
• Responsible for operation, maintenance and repair
• Conducts meeting and keep minutes villagers for the construction of latrines.
• Establish maintenance/repair fund; collect fee; pay to Village • Capable in keeping spare parts/tools safe.
Maintenance Worker and others; record keeping (income and • Perform routine operation/maintenance/repair to report WUC.
expenditure); formulate operation/maintenance/repair plan;
manage construction material, maintenance/repair tools. 3. Maintenance and Sanitation Technician (MST)
• Report operation/maintenance/repair to higher authority. • A bridge between main authority and WUC.
• Makes a plan of regular/emergency maintenance and execute • Provides technical/sanitation related support to WUC/VMW
• Organize volunteer labor; collection and transportation of local on operation, maintenance and repair
material; mobilize village maintenance worker, maintenance and • Conduct WUC meeting; visit scheme at least twice a year;
sanitation technician, stand post user’ group etc. provide training to WUC/VMW/Stand Post User’s Group; help
• Prepare water safety plan.
to promote sanitation activity; inspect projects/sanitation
• Keep records regarding all activities of project.
12/18/2022
4. Stand Post User Group (SUG)

• Caretakers with two woman health volunteers ‘sewikas’
• Responsible for maintaining and cleaning stand post and
surrounding.
• Support VMW, provide information to maintain/repair stand
post to VMW, WUC etc.; collect money, water tariff, local
material and volunteer labor for concerned stand post.
• Follow-up WUC/VMW to ensure they are doing their jobs;
promote sanitation and hygiene among users.
THANK YOU

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12/18/2022

MSc Entrance and Nepal Engineering Council (NEC) License

WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING PART

Presented By: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 1 Presented By: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 2

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 3 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 4

• Adult male 3 and female 2.2 1.3 TYPES OF WATER

1.4 NEED OF PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 9 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 10

• Earth’s surface: about 71% of global water

• Very little freshwater is easily available in rivers.

• Led water borne and other disease

• So planned or protected or systematic or well-organized

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF WATER SUPPLY

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 15 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 16

3. Dual system or method of distribution

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 17 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 18

1.8 ESSENTIALS OF WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 1. In rural area

Figure 1.1 Gravity system or gravity method of distribution

1. In rural area 1. In rural area

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 21 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 22

2. In urban area 1.9 COMPONENTS OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM AND FUNCTIONS

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 25 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 26

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 27 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 28

a. Under-bed pipe crossing c. Suspended pipe crossing

b. Over-bed pipe crossing

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 29 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 30

8. Interruption chamber (IC) and break pressure tank (BPT)

9. Distribution chamber (DC)

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 31 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 32

12. Taps (T)

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 33 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 34

2.1 COMMON TERMINOLOGIES

10. Ground water table (GWT): Static level of ground

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 37 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 38

2.2 WATER CYCLE OR HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE 2.3 SUBSURFACE SOIL STRATA

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 39 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 40

1. Water bearing stratum or aquifer

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 41 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 42

2.4 INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF WATER 2.5 SURFACE SOURCES

a. Non-perennial or dry or rain-fed stream:

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 43 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 44

6. Stored rainwater (Rainwater harvesting)

7. Waste water reclamation

iii. Artesian spring

b. Non- gravity or pressure or fissure spring

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 57 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 58

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 59 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 60

Gravity and Artesian dug well b. Tube well

• Shallow tube well: • Gravity/artesian tube well

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 63 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 64

i. Strainer type tube well

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 67 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 68

6. Artesian well 2.7 SOURCE SELECTION CRITERIA

CHAPTER 3 QUANTITY OF WATER

Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 1 Lecture by: A. P. Parajuli 12/18/2022 2

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 DESIGN AND BASE PERIODS

forecasting for • Survey year: Year of social/technical survey