2

EXerCISE

Organ Systems
Overview
Objectives
• Name the human organ systems, and indicate the major functions of each.

• List several major organs of each system, and identify them in a dissected rat,
human cadaver or cadaver image, or a dissectible human torso model.
• Name the correct organ system for each organ when presented with a list
of organs studied in the laboratory.

Materials
● Freshly killed or preserved rat
(predissected by instructor as a
demonstration or for student dissection
[one rat for every two to four students]) or
predissected human cadaver
●

●
Dissection trays
Twine or large dissecting pins
Pre-Lab Quiz
● Scissors 1. Name the structural and functional unit of all living things.
● Probes 2. The small intestine is an example of a(n) , because it is
● Forceps composed of two or more tissue types that perform a particular function
● Disposable gloves for the body.
● Human torso model (dissectible) a. epithelial tissue b. muscular tissue
c. organ d. organ system
  3. The system is responsible for maintaining
homeostasis of the body via rapid transmission of electrical signals.
  4. The kidneys are part of the system.
  5. The thin muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities is
the .

T
he basic unit or building block of all living things is the cell. Cells fall into
four different categories according to their structures and functions. These
categories correspond to the four tissue types: epithelial, muscular, nervous,
and connective. A tissue is a group of cells that are similar in structure and func-
tion. An organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs
a specific function for the body. For example, the small intestine, which digests
and absorbs nutrients, is made up of all four tissue types.
An organ system is a group of organs that act together to perform a particular
body function. For example, the organs of the digestive system work together to
break down foods and absorb the end products into the bloodstream in order to
provide nutrients and fuel for all the body’s cells. In all, there are 11 organ systems,
For related exercise study tools, go to the described in Table 2.1 on p. 16. The lymphatic system also encompasses a func-
Study Area of MasteringA&P.    There you tional system called the immune system, which is composed of an army of mobile
will find: cells that protect the body from foreign substances.
● Practice Anatomy ● A&PFlix
Read through this summary of the body’s organ systems (Table 2.1) before
Available at www.masteringaandp.com

Lab ● Practice quizzes, beginning your rat dissection or examination of the predissected human c­ adaver.
● PhysioEx ­ istology Atlas,
H If a human cadaver is not available, Figures 2.3–2.6 will serve as a partial
eText, Videos, ­replacement.
and more!
15

MARI1357_12_C02_pp015-026.indd 15 10/9/14 3:57 PM

 16 Exercise 2

Table 2.1 Overview of Organ Systems of the Body

Organ system Major component organs Function

Integumentary Epidermal and dermal regions; • Protects deeper organs from mechanical, chemical, and bacterial injury, and
(Skin) cutaneous sense organs and glands from drying out
• Excretes salts and urea
• Aids in regulation of body temperature
• Produces vitamin D
Skeletal Bones, cartilages, tendons, • Body support and protection of internal organs
2 ligaments, and joints • Provides levers for muscular action
• Cavities provide a site for blood cell formation
Muscular Muscles attached to the skeleton • Primary function is to contract or shorten; in doing so, skeletal muscles
allow locomotion (running, walking, etc.), grasping and manipulation of the
environment, and facial expression
• Generates heat
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and • Allows body to detect changes in its internal and external environment and to
sensory receptors respond to such information by activating appropriate muscles or glands
• Helps maintain homeostasis of the body via rapid transmission of electrical
signals
Endocrine Pituitary, thymus, thyroid, • Helps maintain body homeostasis, promotes growth and development;
parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal produces chemical messengers called hormones that travel in the blood to
glands; ovaries, testes, and pancreas exert their effect(s) on various target organs of the body
Cardiovascular Heart, blood vessels, and blood • Primarily a transport system that carries blood containing oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, ions, hormones, and other substances to and from
the tissue cells where exchanges are made; blood is propelled through the
blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart
• Antibodies and other protein molecules in the blood protect the body
Lymphatic/ Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, • Picks up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood
Immunity spleen, thymus, tonsils, and • Cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris
scattered collections of lymphoid • Houses lymphocytes that act via the immune response to protect the body
tissue from foreign substances
Respiratory Nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, • Keeps the blood continuously supplied with oxygen while removing carbon
trachea, bronchi, and lungs dioxide
• Contributes to the acid-base balance of the blood via its carbonic acid–
bicarbonate buffer system
Digestive Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, • Breaks down ingested foods to smaller particles, which can be absorbed into
small and large intestines, and the blood for delivery to the body cells
accessory structures including teeth, • Undigested residue removed from the body as feces
salivary glands, liver, and pancreas
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and • Rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes including urea, uric acid, and
urethra ammonia, which result from the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
• Maintains water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of blood
Reproductive Male: testes, prostate gland, • Provides germ cells called sperm for perpetuation of the species
scrotum, penis, and duct system,
which carries sperm to the body
exterior
Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, • Provides germ cells called eggs; the female uterus houses the developing fetus
mammary glands, and vagina until birth; mammary glands provide nutrition for the infant

D i s s e c t i o n a n d Id e n t i f i c a t i o n

The Organ Systems of the Rat

Many of the external and internal structures of the rat are a previously dissected human cadaver. The general in-
quite similar in structure and function to those of the hu- structions for observing external structures also apply
man. So, a study of the gross anatomy of the rat should to human cadaver observations. The photographs in
help you understand our own physical structure. The fol- Figures 2.3 to 2.6 will provide visual aids.
lowing instructions include directions for dissecting and Note that four organ systems (integumentary, skel-
observing a rat. In addition, the descriptions of the ­organs etal, muscular, and nervous) will not be studied at this
(Activity 4, Examining the Ventral Body ­Cavity, which be- time, because they require microscopic study or more
gins on p. 18) also apply to superficial ­observations of detailed dissection.

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 Organ Systems Overview 17

Activity 1 Activity 2
Observing External Structures Examining the Oral Cavity
1. If your instructor has provided a predissected rat, Examine the structures of the oral cavity. Identify the
go to the demonstration area to make your observa- teeth and tongue. Observe the extent of the hard pal-
tions. Alternatively, if you and/or members of your group ate (the portion underlain by bone) and the soft palate
will be dissecting the specimen, obtain a preserved or (immediately posterior to the hard palate, with no bony
freshly killed rat, a dissecting tray, dissecting pins or support). Notice that the posterior end of the oral cavity
twine, scissors, probe, forceps, and disposable gloves, leads into the throat, or pharynx, a passageway used by 2
and bring them to your laboratory bench. both the digestive and respiratory systems.
If a predissected human cadaver is available, obtain
a probe, forceps, and disposable gloves before going to
the demonstration area.
Activity 3
! 2. Don the gloves before beginning your obser-
vations. This precaution is particularly important Opening the Ventral Body Cavity
when handling freshly killed animals, which may harbor
pathogens. 1. Pin the animal to the wax of the dissecting tray by plac-
ing its dorsal side down and securing its extremities to the
3. Observe the major divisions of the body—head, trunk, wax with large dissecting pins as shown in Figure 2.1a.
and extremities. If you are examining a rat, compare
these divisions to those of humans. Text continues on next page. ➔

Figure 2.1 Rat dissection: Securing

for dissection and the initial incision.
(a) Securing the rat to the dissection
tray with dissecting pins. (b) Using
scissors to make the incision on the
median line of the abdominal region.
(c) Completed incision from the
pelvic region to the lower jaw.
(d) Reflection (folding back) of
the skin to expose the underlying
muscles.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(c) (d)

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 18 Exercise 2

If the dissecting tray is not waxed, you will need to

secure the animal with twine as follows. (Your instruc-
tor may prefer this method in any case.) Obtain the roll
of twine. Make a loop knot around one upper limb, pass
the twine under the tray, and secure the opposing limb.
Repeat for the lower extremities.
2. Lift the abdominal skin with a forceps, and cut through
it with the scissors (Figure 2.1b). Close the scissor blades,
and insert them flat under the cut skin. Moving in a cepha-
2 lad direction, open and close the blades to loosen the skin
from the underlying connective tissue and muscle. Now,
cut the skin along the body midline, from the p ­ ubic region
to the lower jaw (Figure 2.1c). Finally, make a lateral cut
about halfway down the ventral surface of each limb.
Complete the job of freeing the skin with the scissor tips,
and pin the flaps to the tray (Figure 2.1d). The underlying
tissue that is now exposed is the skeletal musculature of
the body wall and limbs. Notice that the muscles are pack-
aged in sheets of pearly white connective tissue (fascia),
which protect the muscles and bind them together.
3. Carefully cut through the muscles of the abdominal
wall in the pubic region, avoiding the underlying organs.
Remember, to dissect means “to separate”—not mutilate!
Now, hold and lift the muscle layer with a forceps and cut
through the muscle layer from the pubic region to the
bottom of the rib cage. Make two lateral cuts at the base
of the rib cage (Figure 2.2). A thin membrane attached to Figure 2.2 Rat dissection. Making lateral cuts at the
the inferior boundary of the rib cage should be obvious; base of the rib cage.
this is the diaphragm, which separates the thoracic and
abdominal cavities. Cut the diaphragm where it attaches contents of the thoracic cavity. Cut across the flap, at the
to the ventral ribs to loosen the rib cage. Cut through the level of the neck, and remove the rib cage.
rib cage on either side. You can now lift the ribs to view the

Activity 4
Examining the Ventral Body Cavity
1. Starting with the most superficial structures and working To expose the esophagus, push the trachea to one side.
deeper, examine the structures of the thoracic cavity. Refer
to Figure 2.3, which shows the superficial organs, as you Esophagus: A food chute; the part of the digestive sys-
work. Choose the appropriate view depending on whether tem that transports food from the pharynx (throat) to the
you are examining a rat (a) or a human cadaver (b). stomach.
Diaphragm: A thin muscle attached to the inferior bound-
Thymus: An irregular mass of glandular tissue overlying the ary of the rib cage; separates the thoracic and abdomino-
heart (not illustrated in the human cadaver photograph). pelvic cavities.
With the probe, push the thymus to the side to view the Follow the esophagus through the diaphragm to its junc-
heart. tion with the stomach.
Heart: Medial oval structure enclosed within the pericar- Stomach: A curved organ important in food digestion and
dium (serous membrane sac). temporary food storage.
Lungs: Lateral to the heart on either side.
2. Examine the superficial structures of the abdominopel-
Now observe the throat region to identify the trachea. vic cavity. Lift the greater omentum, an extension of the
peritoneum (serous membrane) that covers the abdomi-
Trachea:    Tubelike “windpipe” running medially down the nal viscera. Continuing from the stomach, trace the rest of
throat; part of the respiratory system. the digestive tract (Figure 2.4, p. 20).
Follow the trachea into the thoracic cavity; notice where it Small intestine: Connected to the stomach and ending just
divides into two branches. These are the bronchi. before the saclike cecum.
Bronchi:   Two passageways that plunge laterally into the Large intestine: A large muscular tube connected to the
tissue of the two lungs. small intestine and ending at the anus.

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 Organ Systems Overview 19

Trachea

Thymus

Heart
Lung

Diaphragm
Liver

(a)

Trachea

Superior
vena cava

Pericardium (cut
and reflected)

Lungs

Heart

Diaphragm

(b)

Figure 2.3 Superficial organs of the thoracic cavity. (a) Dissected rat. (b) Human
cadaver.
Text continues on next page. ➔

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 20 Exercise 2

Falciform ligament

Liver

Stomach

2 Spleen

Greater omentum
Small intestine

Large intestine

Urinary bladder

Cecum

(a) (b)

Figure 2.4 Abdominal organs. (a) Dissected rat, superficial view. (b) Human
cadaver, superficial view.

Cecum:    The initial portion of the large intestine. 3. To locate the deeper structures of the abdominopelvic
cavity, move the stomach and the intestines to one side
Follow the course of the large intestine to the rectum, which with the probe.
is partially covered by the urinary bladder (Figure 2.5).
Examine the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity to
Rectum:    Terminal part of the large intestine; continuous locate the two kidneys (Figure 2.5).
with the anal canal.
Anus: The opening of the digestive tract (through the anal Kidneys: Bean-shaped organs; retroperitoneal (behind the
canal) to the exterior. peritoneum).
Adrenal glands: Large endocrine glands that sit on top
Now lift the small intestine with the forceps to view the of each kidney; considered part of the endocrine system.
mesentery.
Carefully strip away part of the peritoneum with forceps
Mesentery: An apronlike serous membrane; suspends and attempt to follow the course of one of the ureters to
many of the digestive organs in the abdominal cavity. No- the bladder.
tice that it is heavily invested with blood vessels and, more
likely than not, riddled with large fat deposits. Ureter:    Tube running from the indented region of a kidney
to the urinary bladder.
Locate the remaining abdominal structures.
Urinary bladder:    The sac that serves as a reservoir for urine.
Pancreas: A diffuse gland; rests dorsal to and in the mes-
entery between the first portion of the small intestine and 4. In the midline of the body cavity lying between the
the stomach. You will need to lift the stomach to view the kidneys are the two principal abdominal blood vessels.
pancreas. Identify each.
Spleen: A dark red organ curving around the left lateral Inferior vena cava: The large vein that returns blood to the
side of the stomach; considered part of the lymphatic sys- heart from the lower body regions.
tem and often called the red blood cell graveyard.
Descending aorta: Deep to the inferior vena cava; the larg-
Liver: Large and brownish red; the most superior organ est artery of the body; carries blood away from the heart
in the abdominal cavity, directly beneath the diaphragm. down the midline of the body.

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 Organ Systems Overview 21

Inferior vena cava

Adrenal gland

Kidneys

Descending aorta 2
Ureters
Seminal gland
Urinary bladder
Prostate
Bulbo-urethral
gland
Ductus deferens
Penis
Testis
Rectum
(a) Scrotum
Anus
(b)

Adrenal gland

Kidney
Descending aorta
Ureter

Ovary

Uterine horns
Uterus
Urinary bladder
Vagina
Figure 2.5 Deep structures of the
abdominopelvic cavity. (a) Human cadaver. Urethral opening
(b) Dissected male rat. (Some reproductive Vaginal orifice
structures also shown.) (c) Dissected female
Anus
rat. (Some reproductive structures also
shown.) (c)

5. You will perform only a brief examination of reproduc- which carries sperm from the testis superiorly into the
tive organs. If you are working with a rat, first determine if ­abdominal cavity and joins with the urethra. The urethra
the animal is a male or female. Observe the ventral body runs through the penis and carries both urine and sperm
surface beneath the tail. If a saclike scrotum and an open- out of the body. Identify the penis, extending from the
ing for the anus are visible, the animal is a male. If three bladder to the ventral body wall. Figure 2.5b indicates
body openings—urethral, vaginal, and anal—are present, other glands of the male rat’s reproductive system, but
it is a female. they need not be identified at this time.

Male Rat Female Rat

Make a shallow incision into the scrotum. Loosen and Inspect the pelvic cavity to identify the Y-shaped uterus
lift out one oval testis. Exert a gentle pull on the testis lying against the dorsal body wall and superior to the
to identify the slender ductus deferens, or vas deferens, Text continues on next page. ➔

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 22 Exercise 2

Large intestine
Ureter

Seminal gland

Ductus deferens

Bladder
2
Pubis

Prostate
Penis

Testis
(a) (b)

Large intestine

End of
uterine tube

Ovary

Uterus

Bladder
Pubis

Vagina

External
opening
of vagina
Figure 2.6 Human reproductive organs. (a) Male
external genitalia. (b) Sagittal section of the male pelvis.
(c) Sagittal section of the female pelvis. (c)

bladder (Figure 2.5c). Follow one of the uterine horns su- sperm out of the body. Identify the penis, extending from
periorly to identify an ovary, a small oval structure at the the bladder to the ventral body wall.
end of the uterine horn. (The rat uterus is quite different
from the uterus of a human female, which is a single- Female Cadaver
chambered organ about the size and shape of a pear.) The Inspect the pelvic cavity to identify the pear-shaped uterus
inferior undivided part of the rat uterus is continuous with lying against the dorsal body wall and superior to the
the vagina, which leads to the body exterior. Identify the bladder. Follow one of the uterine tubes superiorly to
vaginal orifice (external vaginal opening). identify an ovary, a small oval structure at the end of the
If you are working with a human cadaver, proceed as uterine tube (Figure 2.6c). The inferior part of the uterus is
indicated next. continuous with the vagina, which leads to the body exte-
rior. Identify the vaginal orifice (external vaginal opening).
Male Cadaver
6. When you have finished your observations, rewrap
Make a shallow incision into the scrotum (Figure 2.6a). or store the dissection animal or cadaver according to
Loosen and lift out the oval testis. Exert a gentle pull on the your instructor’s directions. Wash the dissecting tools
testis to identify the slender ductus (vas) deferens, which and equipment with laboratory detergent. Dispose of
carries sperm from the testis superiorly into the abdomi- the gloves as instructed.   Then wash and dry your hands
nopelvic cavity and joins with the urethra (Figure 2.6b).The before continuing with the examination of the human
urethra runs through the penis and carries both urine and torso model.

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