MIDTERM NOTES by MR. RIO JOY L.

GALLO, MILE

U P RP O S I V
 CHAPTER

COMMUNICATION PROCESSES, PRINCIPLES AND ETHICS

1
Lesson 1

Introduction

Communication attracts differences of people with different cultures in establishing

good relationship in many situations-may it be friendly or business in nature. The age of
time has established different ways of connecting people from different settings all over
the world; at this time technology is in demand and communication is modernized. The
face-to-face conversation of people has been mixed-up with technological means.
Through these varied ways in communication, communication style also changes. The
use of social media has become one of the ways of which people use to express their
feelings and as a means of their communication. People have become modernized to
inform, persuade and influence others in any means which technology continuously
develops. What people may expect on the years to come is the more advanced ways of
communication.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. describe communication process viewed from different models;

b. demonstrate the changes of communication through times; and

c. adopt cultural differences to effective communication.

Learning Content

1. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

 The elements of communication are present in any ways of delivery.

a. Source

A message is crafted through a sender who initiates the communication process. It can be
an author of a book, a public speaker, or a teacher who discusses a lesson.

b. Message
 Communication is delivered through a message send by the speaker to the receiver.

c. Channel

Channel is the means of communication. Examples are phone in calls and letters sent in
business transactions. To have an effective communication, communicators should select
the best means of communication.

d. Receiver

When the message is sent by the sender it is received by the recipient. A receiver can be
an audience in a symposium, a reader who receives the letter or a pedestrian who reads
road signs.

e. Feedback

An understood message is confirmed through the response of the receiver. Feedbacks

may be written, spoken or acted out such as thumbs up given by a listener.

f. Environment

The sender and receiver’s feelings, mood, place and mindset are called environment.
Both sender and receiver have to consider the setting where communication takes place.
This factor may also hinder effective communication where barriers may interfere such as
noise from the buses or poor signal in phone calls.

g. Context

The meaning conveyed from the message sent by the sender to the receiver is called
context. It is necessary that both the encoder and decoder share common understanding
to achieve effective communication.

h. Interference

Interferences or barriers prevent effective communication. These are factors that hinder
the communication process.

 The following are the types of barriers in communication:

a. Psychological barriers

These are thoughts that hamper the interpreted message received by the receiver such as
dizziness of the listener while the teacher lectures or when the listener is preoccupied by
some other things while listening to the speaker.

b. Physical barriers
These are stimuli from the environment which disrupt communication, weather or climate
conditions and physical health of the communicator.

c. Linguistic and cultural barriers

Word differences are present in different cultures which may result to ineffective
communication.

d. Mechanical barriers

These are interferences which affect channels to transmit the message such as poor
signal or low battery consumption of mobile phones while calling.

2. COMMUNICATION MODELS

Several models in communication are introduced to understand the different

settings and contexts in which communication takes place. Since communication happen
in different settings whether face-to-face or technological, verbal or non-verbal, these
models expose how the process is undergone in different mediums.

The earliest model that structures how public speaking is undergone is explained
through Aristotle’s model of communication. In this model, Aristotle identified the five
elements which compose the communication process which are the speaker, speech
occasion, audience and effect. This model is speaker-centered which results the audience
as passive. The effect of the speech delivered by the speaker to the audience in an
occasion is that either the listeners be persuaded or not; in this case the communication
becomes one-way delivery because feedback from the audience is not expected.

Technological model of communication process is explained by the proponents

Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver known as Shannon-Weaver’s model of
Communication (Flores, 2016). This model was developed because of the technological
invention of telephone. Six elements of communication are identified in this model: sender,
encoder, channel, noise, decoder, receiver, and feedback. In comparison to the basic
elements of communication, this model specifies that the sender and encoder do not
function similarly. Technologically, in telephone calls the caller functions as the sender
while the encoder is the telephone that turns the caller’s voice into series of binary data
packages which is sent down to the telephone lines. The telephone wire works as
channel and the telephone which the receiver uses to receive the message becomes the
decoder and the destination of the call is the receiver. The noise present in the channel
may interrupt the communication process which results to poor communication. With this,
the receiver may respond that he/she wasn’t able to understand what the caller had sent.

The two-way street flow of communication in which a sender and a receiver send
back and forth messages was popularized by Charles Egerton Osgood. This model
considers communication as circular because both the encoder and decoder take turn in
sending the message. Along the process of communication, the recipients filter to interpret
the meaning of the words sent to them. The different meanings applied to send messages
could become interference in communication known as semantic noise.

In the latter years, Wilbur Schramm adapted Osgood’s model and added another
element in communication called field of experience. Sneha Mishra (2017) identified
culture, social background, beliefs, experiences, values and rules that correspond to this
element. With great similarity of the recipients’ field of experience, the greater effective
communication is expected.

OSGOOD-SCHRAMM’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Another circular model that explains communication as a continuous process with
no real beginning or end is Eugene White’s Stages of Communication. According to
White, it is possible to begin at any stage of the elements outlined in his model because
communication is circular which may start at any beginning and ends at any point. The
 elements in this model are thinking, symbolizing, expressing, transmitting, receiving,
decoding, feed backing and monitoring.

CHAPTER

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1
lesson 2

Introduction

People use words and languages every day to interact whether at home or
workplace. The question is have they communicated their messages effectively? In order
to be effective in communication, there are three parts to be considered: listening,
responding and understanding. Listening entails accepting of words and ideas. This is
also taking nonverbal cues such as facial expression and body language. On the other
hand, Responding is evaluating the worth of message. It requires a psychological
processing which leads to Understanding -giving meaning to the words or expressions
uttered.

Besides knowing the fundamental truths of effective communication,

communication also requires ethics not only to be practiced by individuals but also in
businesses, and professional entities. It talks about moral good present in any form of
human communication. In this lesson, Principles of Effective of Communication and
Communication Ethics will be discussed thoroughly.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. explain the principles of effective communication;

b. define the guidelines in ethical communication; and

c. formulate judgment on what is good, right or virtuous in communication.

Learning Contents

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Many definitions describe communication as a transfer of information, thoughts or

ideas to create shared understanding between a sender and a receiver. The information
may be written or spoken, professional or social, personal or impersonal to name a few
possibilities. Basically, the communication process involves a sender, receiver, message,
channel and feedback. However, this simplistic description significantly under-represents
what can actually be a very complex process.

Michael Osborn (2009) claims that communication must meet certain standards for
effective communication to take place.

a. Clarity: Clarity makes speeches understandable. Fuzzy language is absolutely

forbidden, as are jargons, cliché expressions, euphemisms, and double speak language.

b. Concreteness: Concreteness reduces misunderstandings. Messages must be

supported by facts such as research data, statistics or figures. To achieve concreteness
abstract words must be avoided

c. Courtesy: Courtesy builds goodwill. It involves being polite in terms of approach and
manner of addressing an individual.

d. Correctness: Glaring mistakes in grammar obscures the meaning of the sentence.

Also, the misuse of language can damage your credibility

e. Consideration: Messages must be geared towards the audience. The sender of the
message must consider the recipient’s profession, level of education, race, ethnicity,
hobbies, interests, passions, advocacies, and age when drafting or delivering a message.

f. Creativity: Creativity in communication means having the ability to craft interesting

messages in terms of sentence structure and word choice.

g. Conciseness: Simplicity and directness help you to be concise. Avoid using lengthy
expressions and words that may confuse the recipient.

h. Cultural Sensitivity: Today, with the increasing emphasis on empowering diverse

cultures, lifestyles, and races and the pursuit for gender equality, cultural sensitivity
becomes an important standard for effective communication.

i. Captivating: You must strive to make messages interesting to command more attention
and better responses.

2. COMMUNICATION ETHICS

Ethics is the discussion of the judgments we make about the appropriateness,

the right or wrong, of our actions and policies be those actions communicative, political,
social, personal, or a mixture of areas (Johnessen, 1990). There are largely unrehearsed
conversations however when an individual or organization communicates. There are
factors to be considered such as audience, context and purpose. How we communicate
depends on who we are talking, what we are discussing and where & when the talk is
taking place? Here, Ethics plays a crucial role in communication. In real world, mindful or
ethical use language must be practiced.
 Here are the guidelines for ethical communication which should shape communication
practice:

a. Ethical Communicators are Respectful of Their Audiences

b. Ethical Communicators Consider the Consequences of Their Communication.

c. Ethical Communicators Respect Truth.

d. Ethical Communicators Use Information Properly.

e. Ethical Communicators Do Not Falsify Information.

f. Ethical Communicators Respect the Rights of Others to Information.

3. ETHICS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making,

and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts,
cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth
and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and
respect for self and others.

POINTS TO PONDER

Ethics is the discipline that examines one’s moral standards of a society.

Communication is the process of exchanging ideas, opinions, and information
between two or more interlocutors.

The members of the National Communication Association in America, endorsed

and are committed to practicing the following principles of ethical communication that are
especially relevant for students today:

They advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of
communication.

They endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of

dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil
society.

They strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and
responding to their messages.

They promote access to communication resources and opportunities as necessary

to fulfil human potential and contribute to the well-being of families, communities, and
society.
 They promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that
respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.

They condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through

distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance
and hatred.

They are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in

pursuit of fairness and justice.

They advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant
choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality.

They accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences for our own
communication and expect the same of others.

Source: https://www.lanecc.edu/llc/speech/ethical-communication

POINTS TO PONDER
Practicing ethics in communication is anticipating and weighing the effects of one’s message
on an audience.
Ethical use of language is also a must when preparing for such deliberate form of
communication.

CHAPTER

COMMUNICATION AND GLOBALIZATION 2 2

Introduction

Local and international business nowadays believe that schools should help
students to think more globally. Cultural awareness and understanding global issues are
particularly valued and are as equally important as learning a foreign language
nowadays. Giving young people an understanding of how the world works can be a
really important skill as thriving in life is concerned (Sutcliffe, 2012).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

a. explain how cultural and global issues affect communication;

 b. appreciate the impact of communication on society and the world;

c. determine culturally appropriate terms, expression, and images; and

d. adopt cultural and intercultural awareness and sensitivity in communicating

ideas.

Learning Content

Because of technology, our world has transformed into a global village.

Communication becomes faster and in a split of a second, an event is shared to the entire
world through the use of social media. Today, individuals have to understand the
dynamics of long-distance collaboration, the outcome of non-verbal cues in different
cultures, as well as the use of technology in connecting people.

These developments require communication etiquette such as holding virtual

meetings where individuals from different places share their ideas – coming up with
solutions and innovations for the company.

“While the dream of global village holds great promise, the reality is that diverse
people have diverse opinions, values, and beliefs that clash and too often result in
violence.

Only through intercultural communication can such conflict be managed and

reduced” (Neuliep,2006).

Culture is perceived as the summation of values, beliefs and behaviours from a

group of individuals having a shared history of verbal and nonverbal cues.

The cultural, micro-cultural and environmental contexts surround the

communicators, whose socio-relational context is defined by the exchange of verbal and
nonverbal messages are encoded and decoded within each interactant’s perceptual
context”. James Neuliep (2006).

Globalization is not the only thing influencing events in the world today, but to the
extent that there is a North Star and a worldwide shaping force, it is this system. Thomas
Friedman (1999 cited from Kluver, 2006) in The Lexus and the Olive Tree

Every is enticed to join in the “new international information order” and that
detailed cultural, social, economic and political conditions are interrelated to people’s
interaction. Likewise, there is a phenomenal change as individuals delve into the elements
of intercultural communication

Globalization-may be seen as an interconnectedness of economic relationships,

political units as well as digital networks. Such technology and other social networks have
transformed the economic and social relationships breaking cultural barriers. Hence,
cultural and civic discourse will mold information and communication technologies.
1. FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Five assumptions that take place during intercultural communication: (Neuliep, 2006).

Assumption #1 Messages relayed are not usually the messages received.

When two speakers from different cultures interact, their values, emotions,
perceptions, and behaviours greatly affect the interpretation of their messages.
“Intercultural communication is a symbolic activity where the thoughts and ideas of one
are encoded into a verbal/or nonverbal message format, then transmitted through some
channel to another person who must decode it, interpret it, and respond to it” (Neuliep,
2006). Thus cultural noise is filled with encoding, decoding and interpreting making
cultre a smokescreen of all the messages. This allows the speakers to think that one’s
own culture is the center of everything.

Assumption #2 A nonverbal act between individuals

Since it is said that intercultural communication is a nonverbal procedure where

articulation of power, intimacy and status being combined with “paralinguistic cues,
proxemics, haptics, oculesics, and olfatics”. For instance, an individual’s position in
Korea is manifested through vocal tone and pitch. Therefore, when a lowly person
receives an important document, this person grasps with both hands and the associated
with a moderate head nod and indirect eye contact.

Different sensory is shared by different cultures. Edwards Hall (cited from

Neuliep, 2006) claims that various cultures employ in “selective screening of sensory
information” that will eventually result in different perspective. “Regarding olfactics
(smell), most cultures establish norms for acceptable and unacceptable scents
associated with the human body. When people fail to fit into the realm of olfactic cultural
acceptability, their odor signals others that something is wrong with their physical,
emotional or mental health” (Neuliep, 2006). American are fixated on how to mask the
smell of the human body since body odor is considered as horrible and unlikable.
Several Muslims think that hygiene of the body and purity of the soul are correlated.
After menstruation, Muslim women purify themselves. Even before and after meals,
cleanliness is being recommended.
Reference: google images

Assumption #3 Involvement of style in communication among speakers

There are communication gaps and only wisdom tells as whether to when to
speak or not. Interpretation of silence differs from across cultures. Expression of
intimacy in relationships is best demonstrated without words according to Japanese and
some native American tribes. “They believe that having to put one’s thoughts and an
emotion into words somehow cheapens and discounts them.” Neulip (2006). Several
cultures favor in direct and impersonal style in communication. There is no necessity of
saying verbally every message. Neulip (2006). True understanding is implicit, coming not
from words but from actions in the environment where speaker provide hints or
insinuations.”

Assumption #4 Group phenomenon experienced and shared by individuals

Communication is subject to the speaker’s background and knowledge . “In other

words, we have a tendency to see others not as individuals with unique thoughts, ideas,
and goals, but rather than as an “Asian”, or a “woman”, or an “old person” or “a cab
driver”. We do not see the person, we see the groups to which the person belongs.
That’s why people must not prejudge a person just because this individual is associated
to a specific grop. When this happens, miscommunication cannot be avoided. During
intercultural communication, we have to be mindful that while the person with whom we
are interacting is from a different cultural group, he or she is also an individual. Only
through intercultural communication can we ever get to know the person as an
individual” (Neulip, 2006).

Assumption #5 A circuitous of adaptation and stress

It is normal to feel anxious, apprehensive and uncertain when one mingles and
speaks to another person from a different culture It is important to be flexible and adapt
a communication style to be able to make the other individual comfortable. Being able to
recognize that people from various cultures are different is really an advantage. This will
lead the speaker to adjust the verbal and nonverbal symbols appropriately to the
individual from another culture.

Cultural Context

“Cultural hides more than it reveals, and strangely enough what it hides most
effectively from its own participants.” -Edward T. Hall (Cited from Neuliep, 2015)

People learn to arrange their ideas, thoughts, emotions and even their behaviour
according to the stimulus of the environment. Thus, culture is not innate even if people
are born into it since culture is always learned. Culture teaches individuals to think and
behave, therefore a kind of interaction among people is depicted in various
circumstances.

Culture is also associated with geography like Saudi Arabia for instance which is
considered hot and a desert contrary to Siberia which is labelled as mountainous and
cold. James Neulip (2016) explains, “But culture is more a human phenomenon than a
geographic one. And while geography certainly affects how people live within a particular
culture, the people, more than a geography, are what constitute culture. So, when you
think of culture, think of people. That being said, it is also important to understand that
 cultures of people are not static, but rather dynamic. This means that cultures change;
they are fluid, always moving.

Low ---------------------------------------------------------------High

Culture may be low and high which demonstrates the magnitude and degree of
how a person affiliates the self. There is no such thing as a pure individualistic of
collectivistic culture.

These cultural dimensions can be opposing or not, fixed or not, static in time
while other cultures move in transition. Likely a culture that is considered collective can
also be individualistic in the passing time such Japan which is thought to be
“collectivistic, group-oriented” community. Nonetheless in 1950s, many Japanese
researchers saw that the young generation of Japanese were becoming individualistic
than their parents and grandparents.

Individualism- individualistic cultures focus on individual goals. It also aims to

benefit the individual since every person is seen as unique with distinct talents and
potential, thereby enabling them to hone their creativity, develop, independence, and
confidence. People in individualistic cultures are disconnected from the in-groups such
as the family and ironically belong to several groups but their stay is short-lived.

Collectivism -Is the assumption that groups blend well by serving the in-group
(family, neighbors, or occupational groups). People are not viewed as isolated
individuals but rather they are identified by their membership. It emphasizes harmony
and likewise prefers the significance of the group than the individuals being emotionally
linked to it and their bond may last a lifetime. One’s behaviour is role-based, and
deviations from the prescribed role are discouraged and often negatively sanctioned. In
this sense, a person’s behaviour is guided more by shame than by personal guilt. A
collectivist who stands out from the group disrupts the harmony and maybe punished.
Most collectivistic cultures value social reciprocity, obligation, dependence and
obedience.

2. TYPES OF CULTURAL ORIENTATION

Horizontal Individualism speaks of an autonomous self that values the individual more
and independence is being highlighted.

Vertical Individualism values the autonomous self by seeing it as difference and an

equal to others. It also emphasizes status and competition.

Horizontal Collectivism notes the self as a member of a group sharing the same values
and interests. The self is reliant and equality is expected.

Vertical Collectivism believes that the self is an integral part of the group even if the
members are different from the other. It also specifies the group’s interdependence and in
equality.
 CHAPTER
LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL
SETTINGS
3
LESSON 1

Isolated cultures stagnate; cultures that communicate with other evolve.

- T. Sowell, Race and Culture 1994

Introduction

Communication can be a challenging activity because of the highly pluralistic nature

of the people participating in the communication process. Each participant may differ in
cultural, social and biological backgrounds, which are all critical factors to effective and
successful intercultural communication. Instances there are that these differences may
lead speakers to misinterpretation or misunderstanding. So in order to understand
communication within and outside the context of one’s culture, it is necessary to identify
first the challenges that may be encountered, then the form of intercultural
communication, and the ways on how to improve communicative competence in
multicultural settings.

Living in a globalized world, you encounter people with diverse cultural

backgrounds. Such interactions occur in a social, educational, political and commercial
settings. Hence, in today’s era of increased global communication, it is imperative to
understand intercultural communication for us to enhance our intercultural awareness and
competence. Intercultural competence is essential for us to live harmoniously despite our
differences in culture.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. cite examples on how to enhance one’s ability to communicate with people

from diverse cultures; and
b. create a three-to four minute presentation about various cultural modes of
communication of a certain country.

Learning Content
1. CHALLENGES OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

It has become a widespread notion that speakers’ use of different languages

results in intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding. As Scollon and Scollon
(1995) state:

When we are communication with people who are very different from us, it is very
difficult to know how to draw inferences about what they mean, and so it is impossible to
depend on shared knowledge and background for confidence in our interpretation (p.22).

Indeed, the lack of shared knowledge and beliefs and cultural diversity make it more
complicated to arrive at the correct inference or interpretation of meanings. But it can also
be argued that English is now a global lingua franca. In fact, with the ASEAN integration,
English has been declared the official or working language of ASEAN. So with just one
language to be spoken or used by many countries including the 10 member countries of
the ASEAN, what else can go wrong?

It is thus important to emphasize that the ownership of English cannot be attributed

to just one country or to those who use it as a native or home language. The varieties of
English spoken by different speech communities have evolved for a reason. They use it
for communal purposes. These varieties have been heavily influenced by the local culture
and its speakers. Recent studies have shown that the problem of misunderstanding is not
overt and can’t be traced to speech perturbations, poorly managed turn-taking, and non-
aligned, “parallel talk” (House 1999, p. 80). Meirkord (2000, p. 11 as cited by Kaur, 2016)
emphasizes that communication in English as a lingua franca (ELF) is “a form of
intercultural communication in English as characterized by cooperation rather than
misunderstanding” (p.135). This she noted in her study of participants coming from 17
different first language backgrounds which yielded the result that the participants
displayed communicative behavior not generally associated with their linguacultural
backgrounds making the talk cooperative and SUPPORTIVE IN NATURE WITH FEW
MISUNDERSTANDINGS.

2. FORMS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Communication is like a kaleidoscope. Many units of different sizes,

shapes, and color make up the whole picture. Any action, shift, or
change adjusts the pattern and the relationship of all of the units to
each other, thereby altering the picture.
 a. Interracial communication – communicating with people from different races

b. Interethnic communication – interacting with people of different ethnic origin

c. International communication – communicating between representatives from

different nations.

d. Intracultural communication – interacting with members of the same racial or

ethnic group or co-culture

According to Gamble and Gamble (2008), communication style among cultures

differs, it may be high context or low-context communication.

High-context communication is a tradition-linked communication system which

adheres strongly to being indirect. Low-context communication is a system that works on
straightforward communication.

High-context cultures (Meditteranean, Slav, Central European, Latin American,

African, Arab, Asian, American-Indian) leave much of the message unspecified, to be
understood through context, nonverbal cues, and between the lines interpretation of what
is actually said. By contrast, low context cultures (most Germanic and English-speaking
countries) expect messages to be explicit and specific.

3. IMPROVING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

The following guidelines may help you enhance your ability to communicate
effectively across cultures (Gamble & Gamble, 2008):

1. Recognize the validity and differences of communication styles among people.

2. Learn to eliminate personal biases and prejudices.
3. Strive to acquire communication skills necessary in a multicultural world.

CHAPTER

VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 3

LESSON 2

Introduction

The spoken mode is often associated with everyday registers while the written
mode is strongly associated with academic registers. However, this is not always true. For
instance, in everyday communication, face to face conversations are usually
supplemented by text messaging. In academic contexts, significant forms of oral
 communication are used along with written communication. Significantly, both every day
and academic communications are characterized by multi-modality or the use of multiple
modes of communication, including spoken, written modes and images, music, videos,
gestures, etc.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. determine culturally appropriate terms , expressions, and images;

b. adopt cultural and intercultural awareness and sensitivity in the communication of
ideas; and
c. apply the varieties of spoken and written language in the proper context

Learning Content

Lin (2016) presents the following nature of language variation as prescribed by

most linguists based on the ideas of Mahboob (2014).

1. Language varies when communicating with people within (local) and outside (global)
our community.
2. Language varies in speaking and in writing.
3. Language varies in everyday and specialized discourses.

Mahboob (2014) identifies eight different domains in which language varies

depending on the combinations (field, tenor and mode) of the context of communication.
The first domains include language variations that reflect local usage done in one
local language or multiple local languages depending on the context. They vary in the
following ways:

1. Local everyday written. This may include instances of local everyday written usage
found in the neighborhood posters (e.g. a poster looking for transient/bed spacers).
2. Local everyday oral may occur in local communications among neighbors in everyday,
informal and local varieties of languages.
3. Local specialized written. An example of local specialized written usage can be found in
the publication and web sites of local societies such as the Baguio Midland Courier.
4. Local specialized oral involves specialized discourses. For example, in a computer
shop in the neighborhood, specialized local usage can be found (e.g. specialized
computer game-related vocabulary is used)

On the other hand, the other four domains involve global usage. These four
domains of language usage differ from the first four domains since they refer to context of
language usage where participants need to communicate with people not sharing their
local ways of using language.
They are as follows:
5. Global everyday written avoids local colloquialisms to make the text accessible to wider
communities of readers. This can be found in international editions of newspapers and
magazines.
6. Global everyday oral may occur in interactions between people coming from different
parts of the world when they talk about everyday casual topics.
7. Global specialized written expands to as many readers internationally, hence the non-
usage of local colloquial expressions (e.g. international research journal articles)
8. Global specialized oral occurs when people from different parts of the world discuss
specialized topics in spoken form (e.g. paper presentation sessions in an international
academic conference).

1. TYPES OF LANGUAGE REGISTER (Joos, 1961 as cited in Biber, 1994)

There are five language registers. Each level has an appropriate use that is
determined by differing situations.

a. Frozen

This style of communication rarely or never changes. It is “frozen” in time and

content. This is official business and educational language which features complete
sentences and specific word choice, which often contains archaisms.

Example:

We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to
build a just and humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals
and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and
secure to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of independence and democracy
under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do
ordain and promulgate this Constitution (Preamble, 1987 Constitution)

b. Formal/Academic

This language is used in formal setting and is one-way. This use of language
usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is generally impersonal and formal. It is
often used to show respect. Word selection is more sophisticated, and certain words are
always or never used depending on the situation. In a formal register, the story structure
focuses on the plot: It has a beginning and ending and it weaves sequence, cause and
effect, characters, and consequences into the plot.
Example:

“The strongest reason why we ask for woman a voice in the government under
which she lives; in the religion she is asked to believe; equality in social life, where she is
the chief factor; a place in the trades and professions, where she may earn her bread, is
because of her birth right to self-sovereignty; because, as an individual, she must rely on
herself (a speech delivered by Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1892).”

c. Consultative

It is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted

structure of interfaces. It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of
speech. This register can be described as two-way participation, professional setting,
background information is provided (prior knowledge is not assumed), interruptions and
feedback fillers allowed (“uh-huh,” “I see”), more complex syntax, and longer phrases.
Sentence structure need not be complete, since non-verbal assists, hand movements and
body language, are often used to convey meaning.

Example:

Patient: Hello doctor! Can you spare me a few minutes?

Doctor: Certainly! Come in and sit down. Now, what is the matter with you?
Patient: I seem to be generally out of sorts. I have no appetite for my food, and yet I am
always suffering from indigestion.
Doctor: Are you troubled with headaches?
Patient: Yes, I am. And what is worse I cannot sleep at night.
Doctor: I see. What is your work?
Patient: I am a clerk in an office, and have to work for long hours.
Doctor: I see, Well, you are evidently run down and need a rest and change. All your
troubles are signs of nervous exhaustion. I will give you a nerve tonic, but the main thing is
rest. If you do as I say, you will soon be alright.
Patient: Thank you, doctor. I will follow your advice.
Doctor; Let me know how you get on.

d. Casual/Informal

The language used in conversation with friends. A casual register is characterized

by 400- to 500- word vocabulary, broken sentences, and interruptions are common. Very
informal language, idioms, ellipsis, and slang are common. No background information is
provided, “group” language – must be a member to use, interruptions are common, and
context and non-verbal communication are important. General word choice and
conversation are dependent upon non-verbal assists. The focus of the story is
characterization. It is an indirect, random approach with many omissions and does not
have a sequence, cause, and effect, or consequence.
Example:

Marie: Hey, D! I’m stressing about weight gain on Xmas. Got any ideas for me?
Diane: It’s only one day, so don’t worry too much.
Marie: I’m worried I’ll eat a gazillion calories at my in-laws! 
Diane: Just make sure you don’t arrive too hungry, have a healthy snack beforehand
(nuts, granola bar, etc.)
Marie: Yeah, you’re right. Thanks, D! You’re the best! Xx
Diane: No worries, M! xx

e. Intimate

This communication is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate

relations. It is non-public, the intonation is as crucial as wording and grammar, and often a
special vocabulary full of coded words is used.

Example:

Husband: Hi honey, how was your day?

Wife: Great, We got a lot done. And yours?
Husband: Fine, but stressful. Pass me that magazine, please.
Wife: Here you go, darling.

Register use can help you communicate effectively. Nevertheless, appropriate register
use depends on the situation and the tone of voice you use. It is vital to grasp the
fundamentals of correct register use to communicate well in English. If one register is
expected and another is presented, the result can either be that offense is taken (or
intended) or a comic response. Incorrect register use can cause problems at work, cause
people to ignore you, or, at best, send the wrong message.

2. CULTURALLY SENSITIVE AND BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE

To write in a culturally sensitive way means to be aware that cultural differences

and similarities between people exist and that these should not be assigned a positive or
negative value via words and descriptions selected in writing. Academic and professional
writings are characterized by bias-free language. Students, scholars, professionals, and
anyone wishing to maintain harmonious communicative relations should be careful in
using words and phrases that do not discriminate against particular groups, whether in
terms of race, ethnicity, gender, social class, age, and disability. The essential point in a
way that is respectful of diversity.

Here are some general principles to follow when referring to different groups or
categories:
1. Race and Ethnicity

Racism is a form of discrimination against a person or persons of a different race.

In general, it is best to avoid identifying people by race or ethnic group. Race is an
emotionally charged topic, so it is best to tread carefully with the language used and to
refer to race as Patricia Arinto (2009) asserts in English for the Professions, “only if it is
relevant to what you have to say.” Words that reinforce streotypes and that imply all
people of a particular race or ethnic group are the same should be avoided. For example,
although the assessment is positive in the sentence “Naturally, the Asian students won the
math contest,” the word “naturally” reinforces the stereotype or generalization that Asians
have superior aptitude in math.

Next, one must be attuned to the current terminology by which racial and ethnic
groups refer to themselves. This may be done by reading national newspapers and
watching television news, which typically are good indicators of current and preferred
usage. According to Kitty Locker and Donna Kienzler (2013), one should “refer to a group
by the term it prefers,” which means some research is required to find about acceptable
and preferred terms. For example, for a long time, “Native American” has been considered
the politically correct term for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, over the label “red
Indian.” But today, most Native American people prefer to be referred to by their specific
nation or tribe. In the Philippine context, there have been shifts in the preferences for
terms that Filipinos of Chinese ancestry use to describe their identity: from Tsino, to
Chinoy, to Filipino Chinese.

It is also important to be sensitive to religion when referring to various ethnic

groups. Assumptions should not be made that stereotype a race, nationality, or ethnic
group with a specific religion. For example, not all Arabs are Muslims, not all Indian are
Buddhists, and not all Filipinos are Roman Catholics.

2. Gender and sexual orientation

Sexism refers to the prejudice and discrimination based on sex or gender. To be

inclusive of all people in general references, one should favor gender-neutral words and
phrases over gender-biased words. For example, rather than “man-made.” One can say
“manufactured,” “synthetic,” or “artificial.” Instead of “layman’s terms,” one can use
“ordinary terms.” Neutral words should also be chosen over words with “man” and
“woman” in job titles or descriptions. For example, it is more appropriate to use
“chairperson” in place “chairman,” “flight attendant” in place of “stewardess,” and “labor” in
place of “manpower.”

One should also avoid sexist terms like “a woman lawyer” and “male nurse” and
simply use “lawyer” and “nurse” Pronouns may also be gender-biased, for example, when
the masculine “he” pronoun is used as generic one for both genders.
 Gender-biased pronouns can be avoided by (a) dropping pronouns that
signify gender and restating the sentence, (b) changing to plural construction, and
(c) replacing masculine or feminine pronouns with “one” or “you”.

Examples of alternative gender-neutral constructions are provided here.

Gender-biased example: Each student should submit his term paper by Monday.

Restatement Each student should submit a term paper by Monday.

Plural Students should submit their term papers by Monday.
construction
Use of “you” You should hand in your term paper by Monday.

Other gender-related terms may have to do with gender orientation or sexual

orientation. It is important to be sensitive to new attitudes about homosexual, transsexual,
and transgender people. For example, most gay people prefer the term “gay” to the more
clinical “homosexual” as a label. “”lesbian” is currently the term preferred by gay women.
Transgender people prefer to be referred to as being the gender they identify as, not their
birth gender. Again, as a matter of principle, one should refer to societal groups in the way
that members of these groups prefer to be referred to. Note also that terminology in this
area is developing, and that not everyone agrees.

3. Social Class

Class discrimination or classism is a form of prejudice against a person or

people because of their social class. An example of language with a bias against class is
the American term “white trash,” which is not only a racial slur but a classist one that
refers to white people, usually from the rural Southern United States, coming from a lower
social class inside the white population. The term is negative not just because of the
words that comprise it but because of its connotation of danger; white trash people are
seen as criminal, unpredictable, and without respect for authority. In the United States and
other cultures, there may also be a kind of classism against those who are economically
privileged. The rich are sometimes referred to by the derogatory terms “preppie” and
“yuppie,” both of which connote not just wealth but arrogance.

There are examples from Philippine culture as well, in the informal terms “conyo”
and “jologs,” both derogatory terms referring to class. The first, used to describe young
people from the upper class who speak an idiosyncratic mix of English and Tagalog,
connotes vanity and consciousness about social status. The second now perhaps
replaced by the term “jejemon”, as used in reference to an idiosyncratic spelling or writing
style, is used to describe persons who look poor and out of style.

4. Age
 Ageism is a form of discrimination against other people because of their age, or
assuming that older people are less physically, intellectually, or emotionally able than
other age groups. The capabilities of younger people should also not be underestimated
on the basis of their age. Again, it is important to refer to a person’s age only when that
information is pertinent to what is being discussed. When referring to a generic group, one
should also ask their subjects what wording s they prefer: Do they wish to be called “older
persons” or “senior citizens”? Do they refer the label “youths,” “teenagers,” or “young
people”.
Lastly, according to the American Psychological Association, writers should be
specific when referring to males and females in terms of their age: female 18 years or
older are women, not girls. “Girls” refers to those in high school or younger (under 18).
The same is true for “boys” and “man.”

5. Disabilities

Discrimination in this area often arises because of lack of understanding and

awareness. Therefore, first, it is important to distinguish some terms that are mistakenly
understood to be synonymous. Various guides on bias-free communication and often –
confused terminology are available online. One example is “A Guide to Bias-Free
Communications” published by the University of Wisconsin-Madison. It defines the terms
“impairment,” disability,” and “handicap” as, respectively, (1) “a physiological condition,”
(2) “the consequence of an impairment” which “may or may not be handicapping,” and (3)
“the social implication of a disability; a condition or barrier imposed by society, the
environment or oneself. “ Thus, according to these definitions, a “limp” is an impairment in
which a leg or foot is damaged or stiff. A disability that may result from arthritis is difficulty
in walking, or walking unevenly and haltingly. People who limp may be handicapped by
having to climb stairs in buildings with no elevators. Other guides from other cultural
contexts may provide different definitions and examples; it is essential when writing to do
research on these definitions.

Finally, when referring to people with disabilities, the focus should be on the
person, not the condition (Arinto, 2009). In Patricia Arinto’s English for the Professions
(2009), she advises writes to avoid hurtful expressions such as “retards” or even the
seemingly neutral description “the mentally retarded” and to use instead “people with
mental retardation.” Similarly, instead of “the blind” and “cancer patients,” one should
instead use “people with vision impairments” and “people being treated for cancer,”
respectively. These examples demonstrate the importance of identity-first language or the
importance of putting the person or people first. Note the difference in the following
sentences:

Disability first: The blind student used a special keyboard during the exam.
Person first: The student, who is visually impaired, used a special keyboard during the
exam.
 Next, Arinto (2009) suggests considering the negative implications of usages such
as “confined to a wheelchair” and “AIDS victim.” For the former, one should instead write
or say “uses a wheelchair” because wheelchairs enable to escape confinement, while for
the latter, one should use “person with “AIDS” as someone who can acquire a disease
without being victimized by it. Arinto (2009) also notes that the word “abnormal” may be
replaced with “atypical” because “people who have disabilities are atypical but not
necessarily abnormal” (Arinto, 2009). These latter examples demonstrate the importance
of not representing people with disabilities as unfortunate, limited, and helpless victims’.
CHAPTER

EVALUATING MESSAGES AND/OR IMAGES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

DIFFERENT CULTURES
4
Introduction

In this era, media play a crucial role in our lives. Media inform, educate, and
entertain us. The pictures, videos, texts, and all the other forms of mass media shape the
way we think and how we look at our surroundings and influence the way we look at the
world.

The framework of Media Literacy serves as the foundation in critically

understanding the content of mass media. Guided by this framework, we can decipher the
intended meaning of the type of media presented.

In this module, we will analyze and evaluate messages, images, and other media
work using the framework of Media Literacy.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

a. analyze media messages and/or images using Key Concepts of Media Literacy
Framework; and
b. create a multimodal advertisement or project of a cause-oriented event.

Learning Content

Brainstorming….
 Analyze the drawing and picture below. Generate ideas and concepts about the message being
conveyed by the pictures presented.

(Banuelos, M. (2018). Requirement in GEC4

htps://www.spot.ph/newsfeatures/58712/10-ads-that-created-
controversy-2015-edition

Multimodal literacy is about understanding the different ways of knowledge

representations and meaning-making (Kress, et al., 2001). It focuses on the design of
discourse by investigating the contributions of specific semiotic resources (language,
gesture, images) co-deployed across various modalities (visual, aural, somatic). It also
 deals with the interaction and integration in constructing a coherent multimodal text such
as advertisements, posters, news report, websites, and films.

Traditional Media Social Media

Advertisement

Editorial Cartoon

Traditional Media

Social Media

Cope & Kalantzis (1999). Multiliteracies: A Design for

Social Futures. Routledge.

Key Concepts of Media Literacy (Center for Media Literacy, 2005)

Key Concepts Guide Questions in Media Keyword

Text Analysis
1. All messages are  What kind of “text” is it? Authorship
‘constructed.’  What are the various
elements (building blocks)
that make up the whole?
 How similar or different is it
to others of the same
genre?
 Which technologies are
used in its creation?
 What choices were made
that might have been made
differently?
  How many people did it
take to create this
message? What are their
various jobs?
2. Media messages are  What do you notice… Format
constructed using a (about the way the message is
creative language with its constructed)?
own rules.  Colors? Shapes? Size?
 Sounds, Words?
Silence?
 Props, sets, clothing?
 Movement?
 Composition? Lighting?
 Where is the camera?
 What is the viewpoint?
 How is the story told
visually? What are people
doing?
 Are there any symbols?
 Visual metaphors?
 What’s the emotional
appeal? Persuasive devices
used?
 What makes it seem “real?”
3. Different people  Have you ever experienced Audience
experience the same anything like this in your
media message life?
differently.  How close is this portrayal
to your experience?
 What did you learn from this
media text?
 What did you learn about
yourself from experiencing
the media text?
 What did you learn from
other people’s response?
 From their experience of
life?
 How many other
interpretations could there
be? How could we hear
about them?
 Are other viewpoints
present?
 How can you explain the
different responses?
4. Media have embedded  What kinds of behaviors / Content
values and points of view. consequences are
depicted?
 What type of person is the
reader / watcher / listener
invited to identify with?
 What questions come to
mind as you watch / read /
 listen?
 What ideas or values are
being “sold” to us in this
message?
 What political ideas are
communicated in the
message? Economic ideas?
 What judgments or
statements are mad about
how we treat other people?
 What is the overall
worldview of the message?
 What ideas or perspectives
are left out? How would you
find what’s missing?
5. Most media messages are  Who’s in control of the Purpose
organized to gain profit creation and transmission
and/or power. of this message?
 Why are they sending it?
 How do you know?
 Who are they sending it
to? How do you know?
 What’s being sold in this
message? What’s being
told?
 Who profits from this
message? Who pays for
it?
 Who is served by or
benefits from the message
– the public?
– private interests?
– individuals?
– institutions?
 What economic decisions
may have influenced the
construction or
transmission of this
message?
 https://twitter.com/fotyniners/status/956513219236909056/photo/1

https://www.thesun.co.uk/living/3681023/bic-sexist-pink-lighters/

CHAPTER
COMMUNICATION AIDS AND STRATEGIES
USING TOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY
5
Introduction

In the previous lessons, we understand why there is a need for humans to

communicate. They do so for certain purposes. To achieve those purposes,
communication strategies will be used to obtain, provide, and disseminate information. We
already know how communication changed drastically with the aid of technology, so it is
important for people to take into account every aspect of how they are relaying
information. This is where communication strategies come into play.

In this module, you will learn the different communication aids and strategies for
media presentation and what is best to use in your presentations. This lesson is important
because it will help you to be more confident in making and presenting your multimedia
presentations.

Learning Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

a. convey ideas through oral, audio-visual, and/or web-based presentations for
different target audiences.
b. to determine the various presentation that are commonly used.
c. to evaluate the effective strategies in preparing and using these media when
communicating.
d. apply the strategies in making digital slides.

Learning Content
 CREATING MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATION

Definition

Presentation Media – an independent presentation that contains information,

using slides, video, recordings and digital representations.

Using Computer Technology

1. Digital Slides – a presentation

software commonly using PowerPoint.
It allows computer users to display
information in multimedia presentation.
2. Real-Time Web Access – used to
demonstrate how to do something
special on the web such as researching
ideas and information.

A. Characteristics of Multimedia Presentation It’s presently being used to describe information

In preparing multimedia presentations for various
beingcommunication purposes,
available in search resultsit as
is soon as it
important to consider the following: has been published by its author. Examples of
this are Twitter
1. Multimedia presentations are visually oriented (displayed or FriendFeed
on a monitor search.
or projected
onto a screen)
2. They allow users to use different modalities such as:

VIDEO

PHOTOG ANIMA
RAPHS TION

MODALITIES

AUDIO TEXT

GRAPHICS
B. Special Features of Computer-Based Presentations
The following features of computer-based presentations are widely used and are
of great help to the users:

1. Custom navigation Printouts

Linking
between Can be made
slides, to into hard copy
other media, printouts or
and to the transparencies.
internet.

Uploadable

Can be
uploaded to
the web.

C. Strategies Using Tools of Technology

Although the use of technology is personalized and creativity is required, the
following strategies are recommended for effective delivery of information and ideas:
 Keep it simple
 Emphasize your key ideas
 Show what you can’t say
 Use close up shots and other images
 Keep the number of images you present manageable
 Combine variety with coherence
 Use large lettering
 D. Multimedia Presentation Tips
Here are some tips for your multimedia presentations to be more presentable:
1. Go for creativity. Create your own design. Try different combinations and let
your creativity flow.
2. Colors are nice. Flat colors are beautiful and contrast is your friend.
3. Use good fonts. Comic Sans and Georgia will do.
4. Text is evil. Too many texts in one slide exhausts the audience.
5. Images say more than a thousand words. Make the images more powerful.
6. Big is beautiful. Think big. Think bold.
7. Info graphics are amazing. Use simple info graphics.
8. Get inspired. Remember your ultimate goal.

Always remember these:

 10-20-30 rule: 10 slides, 20 minutes, 30 font size
 1-6-6 rule: 1 main idea, 6 bullets, 6 words per bullet
 7-7 rule: 7 lines, 7 words
 9Ps: Prior Proper Preparation Prevents Poor Performance of the Person Putting
on the Presentation.

Communication Aids

Communication Aids are visual support used to make presentation interesting

and effective. It is a great help to present the ideas clearly by highlighting the significant
information.

Communication Aids Examples

 PowerPoint – offers users many ways to display information from simple to complex
multimedia presentations.
 Prezi – a visual storytelling software alternative to traditional slide-based presentation
formats. Prezi presentations feature a map-like overview that lets users pan between topics,
zoom in on details, and pull back to reveal context.
 LinkedIn Slideshare – users can upload files privately or publicly in PPT, Word, PDF, or
OpenDocument format. Content can then be viewed on the site itself, on hand held devices or
embedded on other sites
 Brainshark – provides a web-based applications and products delivered via software as
a service to help companies improve sales effectiveness and productivity.
 TED.com – an American media organization that posts talks online for free distribution
under the slogan “ideas worth spreading”.
 CHAPTER

COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES 6

Introduction

Communication takes place in all settings we could ever imagine or in whatever

situation we are into. It appears on different forms and being used with different purposes.
People communicate because of certain purpose. This module deals with several aspects
of an effective communication. It includes topics intended for communication for various
purposes. It starts with the identification of reasons why we communicate. The purpose,
audience, message structure, and channel are to be considered in order to achieve an
effective communication. It also presents an important aspect of communication which is
the purpose. The purposes of communication are to obtain/provide/disseminate
information, and to persuade/argue. Moreover, this part introduces communication in the
workplace. It emphasizes communication that takes place either inside or outside the
workplace. It also identifies the common communication materials in a workplace such as
minutes of the meeting, memorandum, letters, and reports. Furthermore, this part
prepares the students to become effective communicators through the activities prepared
at the end of the chapter.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

a. convey ideas through oral, audio-visual, and/or web-based presentations for

different target audiences in local and global settings using appropriate registers;

b. create clear, coherent and effective communication materials;

c. present ideas persuasively using appropriate language, registers, tone, facial

expressions and gestures; and

d. adopt awareness of audience and context in presenting ideas.

Said is not heard;

Learning Content Heard is not understood;
Understood is not agreed;
Agreed is not implemented.
-A Dutch Saying

The saying shown above gives us an idea on what effective communication is. But
what is it really about? What are the primary reasons why we communicate?
 Generally speaking, people communicate to inform, persuade or argue. Having an
aim is what defines communicating with a purpose. While this might sound simple enough
in theory, it is the application that becomes rather complex since there are many
considerations that can come into play. West (2015) identifies these as follows:

1. Purpose: Many people find it difficult to communicate well because the first thing they
think about is what they are supposed to say. A better strategy however is to determine
your purpose: why do you want or need to communicate?

2. Audience: After identifying your purpose, what you need to identify next is your
audience or who is going to receive your message. It is vital that your message is
specifically tailored to your audience so as to ensure effective communication.

3. Message structure: How are you going to convey your message? There are two ways
you can use: the direct and indirect approach. The direct approach is deductive. This
means that you state your main idea first then follow it up with supporting statements. You
can use this approach if you are emphasizing a result rather than the steps you took to
arrive to that idea. The indirect approach on the other hand is inductive. This means that
you start your message with a background and lead your audience to the main idea. This
is the traditional approach and you can use this if you want to establish a common ground
with your audience first.

4. Channel: After creating the message, you now have to choose an appropriate channel
to send it through. Will it be a written communication or a verbal one? If it is verbal, will it
be done face-to-face or through the telephone? Remember, the channel you choose has a
large impact on the effectiveness of your message that is why it is important to consider its
appropriateness.

Now that you know the things you have to consider in communicating effectively,
you now have to master the identification of the most important aspect of communication:
the purpose.

Communication Purpose 1: Obtain/Provide/Disseminate Information

Most definitions of ‘communication’ probably mention the exchange and sharing of

information between two parties. The etymology of the word itself, ‘communis’(common)
belies what it is primarily about so basically, the main aim of communication is the passing
and receiving of information from one party to another.

One mark of literacy is the ability to seek out and understand information from
various channels of communication. These channels may be formal or informal.
Furthermore, the 21st Century has ushered in so many information sources that getting
information can be as easy with a few taps or clicks in a gadget. Given below are some
of the channels by which you can obtain information (The Health Foundation, 2017):

 Group meetings, workshops and

conferences
 Webinars
 Mobile technology (e.g. SMS and
mobile applications)
 Websites
 Film/Animation
  Letters/E-mail
 Leaflets, brochures and flyers
 Merchandise or display materials
(posters, charts, infographics, etc.)
 Blogs
 Newspapers

Considering the richness of your information source is also important. You have to
know which channel of communication can provide you with the best and the most
information. Traditionally, channels that are done through physical presence such as
meetings can give the most reliable and richest information source. This is followed by
personal interactive such as communication done through the telephone or through the
internet such as webinars. The leanest information sources on the other hand come from
impersonal interactive channels such as e-mails and social media as well as impersonal
static channels like letters, reports, news updates and newsletters.

Communication Purpose 2: Persuade/Argue

Influencing others is another purpose of communicating. A resource from the

University of Minnesota (2018), when we communicate to persuade or argue, we aim to
influence the beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviors of those who we are communicating
to. This is achieved mainly through the presence of three components: the claim, the
evidence and the warrant.

The claim is the statement that you want to be accepted by your audience. It is the
thesis statement that overarches everything else you will say. It is in turn supported by
evidence which is also called grounds. The evidence is vital in ensuring that you will
persuade your audience to believe your claim. And finally, you have the warrant which is
the underlying justification connecting the claim to the evidence. For a clearer
understanding of these three components, look at the example:

Claim: Night curfews should be applied for minors in the community.

Evidence: Police reports have shown that many crimes are committed at
night and a lot of them involve the youth. Gang wars are common
as well as petty robberies.

Warrant: Ensuring that minors should be home at a specific time at night

will prevent them from getting in trouble in the streets.

While persuasion and argument is done in both informal and formal set-ups in your
everyday life, the most common channel by which this is done is through public speaking.
Now when you engage in public speaking to persuade, the first thing that you have to
clearly define is your proposition.
 The proposition is the overall direction of your content and it can be classified into
three as follows:

1. Proposition of fact: This focuses on a belief whether something is or is not.

Ex. Most juvenile-committed crimes take place when idle youth get together at nights in
the streets, police reports indicated.

2. Proposition of value: This focuses on persuading others that something is good or bad
or right or wrong.
Ex. It is wrong for parents to allow their children to go out at night unsupervised.

3. Proposition of policy: This focuses on advocating whether something should or should

not be done.

Ex. Implementing night curfew ordinances can help alleviate juvenile crimes.

After setting your proposition, you now move on to organizing your speech. You
may use the following as your discussion templates:

a. Problem-solution
b. Problem-failed solution-proposed solution
c. Cause-effect
d. Cause-effect-solution
When you are brainstorming for your content, it is helpful if you remember these
three points: (1) if your audience already agrees with your proposition, work on
intensifying their agreement and trying to move them into action; (2) if audience is neutral,
give them a background of the issue so that they will see the relevance of your argument;
and (3) if your audience disagrees with your proposition, emphasize on establishing your
credibility, point out some common grounds to establish rapport with them and add
counterarguments to refute their opposing belief.