4 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

To maintain homeostasis and survive, vertebrate cells must replenish oxygen and rid
themselves of accumulated metabolic by-products. Within the body this is facilitated
primarily by two transport systems, the respiratory and circulatory systems. Through its
close association with the respiratory system, the circulatory system acts to connect cells
deep within the body to the environment. The respiratory system deals more directly
with the environment via the process of gas exchange at a specialised surface.
At its simplest, the respiratory system allows for gas exchange via passive diffusion,
which results in the random movement of molecules from an area of high to an area of
low partial pressure. Oxygen is generally at a high partial pressure in the environment
and tends to diffuse into organisms, whereas carbon dioxide collects in tissues and tends
to diffuse out.
The facilitation of gas exchange in humans and other lung breathing vertebrates requires
a system of conducting air to and from the specialised respiratory surface. Conducting
structures in the respiratory system are specialised to modify the air which needs to be
cleaned, warmed and humidified. The respiratory surface of human lungs embodies the
basic features of all respiratory surfaces: it is a thin, moist membrane of very large
surface area designed to enable easy and rapid gas exchange.
In this lab we will examine the anatomy and histology of the respiratory system with a view
to relating the structure of conducting and respiratory parts to their function. An
appreciation of anatomy is critical to the understanding of the mechanics of air movement
into and out of the lungs.

After this topic you should be able to:

 Identify the parts of the respiratory system.
 Relate anatomical and histological structures of the respiratory system to
their function.
 Differentiate between the conducting and respiratory parts of the respiratory
system.
 Describe mechanisms of lung ventilation (breathing).

Online Pre-lab
Completion of the online pre-lab by the due date will contribute marks towards your unit
grade. See the Unit Guide for the due date. You will not be able to complete the online
pre-lab after this date.

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1 Word roots for commonly used terms relevant to this topic.

bronch- trachea pulmo- lung
pleura rib cribriform sieve shaped
having the form of a having the form of a
sphenoid ethmoid
wedge sieve
tympanon drum conchae seashells
visc- organs of a body cavity parieto- wall
cost- rib mediastinus middle
macr- large phag- eat
spir- breathe -itis inflammation
skolios curved kyphos hunchbacked

Tutorial
Respiratory Anatomy
2 Using the skulls, charts and models provided, identify the following features and
answer the questions relating structure to function. (Bloom’s: understand)

i) Frontal, maxillary, sphenoid and ethmoid bones of the skull and their
associated paranasal sinuses. Can you suggest possible functions for these
sinuses?

ii) The cribriform plate (of ethmoid). Why are there holes in the plate?

iii) Nasal conchae (superior, middle and inferior). What is the function of the
conchae and what covers these structures?
The bony conchae provide a framework to increase surface area over which
air must pass. They are covered by respiratory mucosa which cleans,
warms and humidifies air entering the respiratory system.

iv) Hard and soft palate. Discuss their function.

v) Nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. Define the boundaries. The

epithelium lining these regions is not uniform. How and why does the epithelium
change?

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vi) Opening of the pharyngotympanic tube (auditory tube, Eustachian tube). In

which part of the pharynx is it located? What is the function of the
pharyngotympanic tube?
Nasopharynx
Allows for pressure equalisation on either side of the tympanic membrane.

vii) Larynx. Identify the glottis (consisting of the vocal folds and opening between
them), epiglottis and vestibular folds. What is the primary (and most important)
function of the glottis?
Protection of the airway.

viii) Trachea. Identify the cartilage of the trachea. What shape is the cartilage?
Identify the trachealis muscle. What is the function of the trachealis muscle?
C shaped, deficient posteriorly allows for expansion of oesophagus when swallowing.
Muscle completes ring.

ix) Lungs. Why aren’t they identical?

x) Bronchopulmonary segment. What comprises a bronchopulmonary segment?

Independent functional units of lung tissue, each supplied by a segmental
(tertiary) bronchus.

3 Find the boundaries of the thoracic cavity on the skeleton.

i) What are the bony boundaries?

ribs, sternum and thoracic vertebrae.

ii) What soft tissue structures of the thorax also form part of the boundaries?
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

4 The area of the thoracic cavity between the lungs is known as the mediastinum.
What structures can you identify in the mediastinum?
Pericardium, heart, aorta, pulmonary trunk, vena cavae, lung roots, esophagus, trachea

5 Put the following in correct order to describe the conducting structures that air passes
through on its way from the nose to the lungs: larynx, oropharynx, trachea, nasal
cavity, right and left main (primary) bronchi, nasopharynx, laryngopharynx.

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Mechanics of Breathing
6 The diagram below illustrates the relationships of the pleural membranes to the lungs,
thoracic walls and the diaphragm. (Bloom’s: understand)
i) Label – body wall, diaphragm, parietal pleura, visceral pleura and pleural cavity.
Why is this anatomical arrangement
important for the mechanics of breathing?
The two layers of pleura have a small amount of

fluid between them. Lungs are “stuck” to the

inside of the chest wall & diaphragm by the

surface tension of this fluid. Breathing occurs by

changing chest diameters & the position of the

diaphragm to change lung volume.

ii) Practice Exam Question. Explain why the intrapleural pressure (i.e. the pressure
between the 2 layers of pleura) is negative.
Due to their elasticity, at the end of normal expiration, the chest wall, with its pleura,
tends to expand outward whereas the lungs, with their pleura, tend to recoil inwards.
As the chest wall and lungs are pulling in opposite directions, a slightly negative
pressure is generated in the intrapleural space.

7 What happens if the seal between the parietal and visceral pleura is broken, e.g. if the
thoracic wall is punctured, or excess liquid (blood, pus) accumulates?
If air is sucked through such a wound during inspiration, air may enter the pleural cavity,
breaking the seal between parietal and visceral pleurae and they separate (so what was
a potential space now fills with air causing the very elastic lungs to recoil and collapse).
8 Discuss how the diaphragm works during breathing and how the movement of the ribs
contributes to ventilation.
i) Practice Exam Question. Explain how changes in the position of the diaphragm
and chest diameter influence changes in volume and pressure that contribute to
inflation of the lungs (refer to Boyle’s law).
When the diaphragm contracts inferiorly and the ribs swing up and out during
inspiration, the parietal pleura follows. As the visceral pleura clings to the
parietal layer the lungs expand. Due to the increase in volume, the internal
pressure of the lungs relative to outside drops (Boyle’s law) and air flows in.
ii) Practice Exam Question. Explain how the warming of inhaled air by structures
such as nasal conchae contributes to inflation of the lungs (refer to Charles Law).
Charles law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature. By the time inhaled air has reached the alveoli, it has been warmed
to 37oC. If the air outside of the lungs is cooler than this, then the inhaled volume
will increase due to thermal expansion, contributing further to lung expansion.

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Respiratory Histology

Examine the set of light micrographs and transmission electron micrographs of respiratory
system histology. Having listened to the lectures, you should be able to recognise the
various cells and tissue types and answer the questions that follow.
(Bloom’s: understand)

Conducting Division:
9 Trachea. View the photomicrographs of the trachea.
i) Identify on the photomicrographs the respiratory epithelium, submucosa, mucous
glands, hyaline cartilage, chondrocytes and blood vessels.
ii) What is the function of the C-shaped cartilage rings of the trachea?
To prevent the trachea from collapsing especially when inhaling.

10 Bronchioles. View the photomicrograph of a bronchiole. A characteristic of

bronchioles is the absence of cartilage in their walls.
i) What tissue is found in the walls of bronchioles (instead of cartilage)? Identify this
tissue on the micrograph. What is the function of this tissue in the bronchiole?
Smooth muscle – this contracts or relaxes causing constriction or dilation of the
airway thereby regulating airflow.
ii) Which part of the nervous system influences changes in the diameter of the
bronchioles?
Autonomic
11 Respiratory epithelium. View the photomicrographs of respiratory epithelium. (Note,
these micrographs have used different staining techniques)
i) Name the type of epithelium shown.
Pseudostratified (ciliated) columnar epithelium
ii) Name the cell structures on the apical surface of the epithelial cells labelled A.
Cilia
iii) Name the cells labelled B. What is the function of these cells?
Goblet cell. Secretion of mucus
iv) Practice Exam Question. Explain how cell types A and B function together in the
conducting division of the lung to form the mucociliary escalator: i.e. correlate the
structure and function of cells A & B.
The ciliated psuedostratified columnar epithelium and associated goblet cells
work together to form the mucociliary escalator which functions to remove
debris that has entered the lungs. The goblet cells secrete mucus which traps
inhaled particles. The cilia, which beat within a layer of saline at the cell
surface, function by beating this mucus upwards towards the pharynx where
it is swallowed.

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Respiratory Division:
12 Respiratory Membrane (blood-air barrier). Examine the transmission electron
micrographs of the blood-air barrier in the respiratory division of the airways.
i) On each micrograph identify the alveolar space, capillary, shared basement
membrane and red blood cells.
ii) What type of epithelium lines the alveolus?
Simple squamous.

iii) What type of epithelium lines the capillary?

Simple squamous (endothelium).

iv) How thick is the blood air barrier (approximately)? You can estimate this from the
picture.
On the picture it is around 0.4µm. Normally expect it to be less than 0.5µm.

13 Two other cell types are present within alveoli (but not visible on these micrographs).
i) Practice Exam Question. Great (Type 2) alveolar cells are cuboidal shaped
cells that produce surfactant. What is the role of surfactant in alveoli?
In order for gas exchange to occur, the walls of the alveoli must remain moist.
This moisture creates a potential problem in that during exhalation; the walls of
the alveoli could collapse and stick together like wet pieces of paper, which
would make the lungs very difficult to reinflate. Surfactant coats the alveoli and
smallest bronchioles and prevents them from collapsing during exhalation.

ii) Alveolar macrophages. What is the function of these alveolar macrophages?

The macrophages phagocytose debris that makes it past the mucociliary
escalator.

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14 The histological features you have observed in the lungs reflect the fact that lungs can
be divided into two distinct anatomical and functional sections: the conducting and
respiratory sections. In the space provided below create a summary table as follows:
i) Indicate in the table which structures belong to the conducting and respiratory
divisions.
ii) Using the texts and photomicrographs provided indicate in the table:
a. the distribution of cartilage and smooth muscle (make a note of where each
ends),
b. the types of epithelia found and how its configuration (type/shape) changes
as air moves from larynx to alveolus.

Conducting/
Structures Cartilage/smooth muscle Epithelium
Respiratory

Ciliated pseudostratified
Trachea C Cartilage + SM
columnar

Main (primary) Ciliated pseudostratified

C Cartilage + SM
bronchus columnar

Lobar (secondary) Ciliated pseudostratified

C Cartilage + SM
bronchus columnar

Segmental Ciliated pseudostratified

C Cartilage + SM
(tertiary) bronchus columnar

Larger = ciliated
Bronchiole
pseudostratified columnar.
(1mm or less in C Smooth muscle.
Smaller = ciliated simple
diameter)
columnar / cuboidal.
Terminal Simple cuboidal epithelium -
bronchiole C Smooth muscle cilia present but no goblet
(0.5mm or less) cells.

As above + first alveoli appear

Respiratory Only a small amount of
R = simple squamous lining
bronchiole smooth muscle
alveoli

Alveolar duct R No smooth muscle Simple squamous

Alveolar Sac R No smooth muscle Simple squamous

Alveolus
R No smooth muscle Simple squamous
(0.2mm)

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Spirometry
The figure below shows changes in lung volume over time for a typical adult male.
Using this figure, answer the following questions. (Bloom’s: understand)

[from: Saladin (2001) Anatomy and Physiology: the unity of form and function (2nd ed.) McGraw-Hill]

15 Total lung capacity, as shown in the figure, is 6000mls and this volume can be
separated into a residual volume and the vital capacity. What physical conditions might
diminish total lung capacity? Explain how the decrease would occur.
Pregnancy, obesity, scoliosis, kyphosis, tuberculosis, lung cancer. .
Anything that interferes with the ability of the chest to expand,
the diaphragm to descend or occupies space within the lung. .
16 Practice Exam Question. Residual volume is the amount of air that cannot be
exhaled from the lungs even with maximal effort. How much of the total lung capacity
as shown in the figure is formed by the residual volume and why does it occur?
1200mls. RV occurs because the lungs are stuck to the chest wall via the
pleura. As long as this is the case some air will always remain in the lungs.
because the ribcage cannot be compressed beyond a certain point.

17 Vital capacity is the ability to fully ventilate the lungs in one breath. Vital capacity is
used as an indicator of how pulmonary function responds to anatomical and
physiological changes.
Referring to the figure, determine the total volume of vital capacity. Define vital
capacity in terms of its individual component volumes.
About 4800mls. Vital capacity = Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve volume
+ Expiratory reserve volume

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18 Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled and then exhaled during one cycle of quiet
breathing. The diaphragm is primarily responsible for moving the tidal volume into the
lungs.
i) Using the scale in the figure, calculate the tidal volume.
500mls
ii) In what direction does the diaphragm move when it contracts?
Inferiorly
iii) Does the chest wall need to move during quiet breathing?
No

iv) How does the tidal volume move out of the lungs?
Elastic recoil of the diaphragm (= the elastic recoil of the lungs). Process is passive.

19 Inspiratory capacity is the amount of air that can be inhaled with maximal effort.
i) Name the volumes that make up the inspiratory capacity and read the volume of
this capacity from the figure.
Inspiratory capacity = Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve volume. 3500mls.
ii) During the intake of inspiratory capacity, in what direction do the diaphragm and
chest wall move?
Diaphragm moves inferiorly and the chest wall swings up and out.

iii) When might the inspiratory capacity be required?

Exercise, anxiety, coughing, sneezing, laughing, crying, yawning.

iv) Inspiratory capacity is also employed when expelling abdominal contents.

Contraction of the abdominal muscles helps to maintain the increase in abdominal
pressure created by taking a deep breath. Name another part of respiratory
anatomy and the action it must perform if this build-up of abdominal pressure is to
be maintained while contents are shifted.
Glottis – it must be closed.
20 Expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be exhaled with maximal
effort after the tidal volume has been exhaled.
i) What is the approximate volume (mls) of the expiratory reserve volume, as shown
in the figure?
1300mls
ii) In what direction do the diaphragm and chest wall move when the expiratory
reserve volume is being shifted from the lungs?
Diaphragm moves superiorly and chest wall moves down and in. .
iii) About 150mls of the tidal volume is referred to as the anatomical dead space.
Referring to the anatomy and histology you have covered thus far, explain what
you think this space represents.
The anatomical dead space represents air that fills the conducting division
of the airway so gas exchange cannot occur here, hence the name. .

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If this topic interested you, level 2 units that you could consider enrolling in include:

 ANHB2212 – Human Structure and Development

 ANHB2214 – Human Organs and Systems
 PHYL2001 – Physiology of Human Body Systems
 PHYL2002 – Physiology of Cells
 SSEH2260 – Exercise Physiology

https://handbooks.uwa.edu.au/

In addition to a career in teaching and / or research, other career pathways include:

 Respiratory Therapist
 Physiologist
 Exercise Physiologist
 Physiotherapist
 Ear, Nose and Throat Specialist
 Respiratory Physician
 Sleep Physician
 Sleep Scientist
 Thoracic Surgeon
 Anaesthetist

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