MHAM-COLLEGE OF MEDICINE

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
SECTION OF HISTOLOGY

Name:_GONZALEZ, JAMAICA CARYL N. ___Yr.&sec.___1A_____Date:____10/28/2021_

Exercise #12
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

A. Specimen: TRACHEA
BRONCHUS (EXTRAPULMONARY)

Laboratory Instructions: Focus on the trachea and bronchus. Identify the layers and the
components of each layer. Draw and label accordingly.

Layers:
Mucosa
Lining epithelium
Lamina Propia

Submucosa
Seromucous tracheal glands

Adventitia
Hyaline Cartilage
Trachealla or bronchial muscle
Questions:
1. What are the components of the conducting portion of the respiratory tract?

Consists of the nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi (Gr. bronchos,
windpipe), bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles

2. Differentiate the extrapulmonary from the intrapulmonary bronchi.

Extrapulmonary air conduits are located outside of the lungs and begin
with the nose, pharynx and larynx. The trachea is continuous with the larynx above
and the two primary bronchi below. It is the supporting framework for 16-20 C-
shaped hyaline cartilages. These cartilage "bracelets" are open on the posterior wall
of the trachea adjacent to the esophagus. A bundle of smooth muscle fibers bridges
the gap between the two ends of the cartilage.

Intrapulmonary air conduits extend from the intralobar bronchi to the

terminal bronchioles. When the bronchi enter the lung, the C-shaped cartilages that
characterize the trachea and primary bronchi are replaced by irregular plates or
cartilage that completely surround the cylindrical muscular airway tube. Cartilage
disappears in the terminal bronchioles, which have narrowed to a diameter of 1
millimeter. The terminal bronchioles initially have a ciliated columnar epithelium that
soon transitions to a low cuboidal epithelium. Mucous and seromucous glands and
diffuse lymphatic tissue are associated with smaller bronchi but are not found distal
to the region where there is a loss of cartilage plates.
B. Specimen: LUNGS

Laboratory Instructions: Study the lungs and identify the different segments of the respiratory
tract seen. Note the lining epithelium, presence of glands, goblet cells and cartilage.

a. Intrapulmonary bronchi
b. Terminal bronchiole
c. Respiratory bronchiole
d. Alveolar duct
e. Atria
f. Alveolar sac
g. Alveoli
h. Interalveolar septum
Questions:
1. What are the components of the respiratory portion of the respiratory system?

Where the system’s main function of gas exchange occurs, consisting of

respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli.

2. What composes the blood-air barrier?

The barrier between capillary blood and alveolar air comprising the
alveolar epithelium and capillary endothelium with their adherent basement membranes
and epithelial cell cytoplasm. Gaseous exchange occurs across this membrane.
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Learning Objectives

Given written problems and microscopic slides, the students should be able
to:

1. Identify the components of the conducting and respiratory portion of the

respiratory system and describe their functions.

PORTION COMPONENTS FUNCTIONS

Nasal Cavity Humidify and warm the inspired air.
Removes minute airborne particles and
other debris before the air reaches the lower
airways.

Larynx Passage for air between the pharynx and the

trachea.
To maintaining an open airway, movements
of these cartilages by skeletal muscles
participate in sound production during
phonation
CONDUCTING Pharynx It serves both the respiratory and digestive
PORTION systems by receiving air from the nasal
cavity and air, food, and water from the oral
cavity.

Trachea Conduct air to primary bronchi entering

lungs; some MALT

Bronchi Repeated branching; conduct air deeper into

lungs
 Bronchioles Conduct air; important in
bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation

Terminal Conduct air to respiratory portions of lungs;

Bronchioles exocrine club cells with several protective
and surfactant functions

Respiratory Conduct air deeper, with some gas

Bronchioles exchange, and protective and surfactant
functions of club cells

RESPIRATORY
Alveolar Ducts Conduct air, with much gas exchange
PORTION
Alveoli Sites of all gas exchange; surfactant from
type II pneumocytes; dust cells

2. Understand how its component parts enhances its functional distribution to the
whole system.
The respiratory system consists of two components, the conducting portion, and the
respiratory portion. The conducting portion brings the air from outside to the site of the
respiration. The respiratory portion helps in the exchange of gases and oxygenation of the blood.

3. Enumerate the three divisions of the respiratory system and the components of
each.
DIVISIONS COMPONENTS

THE AIRWAY Mouth, nose,sinuses, pharynx, trachea,

larynx, and bronchial tubes,

THE LUNGS Alveoli, bronchioles, Capillaries, lung

lobe, and pleura

THE MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION Diaphragm and ribs

4. Compare the right and left lung.

CRITERIA LEFT LUNG RIGHT LUNG

Location It is located on the left side of It is located on the right side
the respiratory system
Diaphragm The diaphragm separates the The diaphragm separates the base
base of the lung from the of the lung from the liver
stomach and the spleen
Structure It is narrow and long It is wider and 5 cms shorter than
the left lung.
Bronchus There is only one bronchus There are two bronchi in the right
lung
Lobes It has two lobes, a superior There are three lobes in the right
lobe, and an inferior lobe lung; superior lobe, middle lobe,
and inferior lobe
Number of The lobes are further divided It has 10 segments.
bronchopulmonary into the bronchopulmonary
segments segments. The left lung has
9-10 segments.
Weight The left lung is lighter than The right lung is heavier. The
the right lung. The approx approx weight of the right lung is
weight of the left lung is 650 700 gm
gm
Shares space with The left lung shares space The right lung shares its space with
with the heart the liver
Number of fissures It has one fissure. This It has two fissures, one oblique and
fissure is oblique. one horizontal. The oblique fissure
separates the inferior lobe from the
middle and superior lobes. The
horizontal fissure separates the
superior from the middle lobe

5. Describe the respiratory tract walls in terms of the arrangement, composition,

and function of their layers and cells.

There are four main histological layers within the respiratory system: respiratory mucosa,
which includes epithelium and supporting lamina propria, submucosa, cartilage and/or muscular
layer and adventitia. Respiratory epithelium is ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
found lining most of the respiratory tract; it is not present in the larynx or pharynx. The
epithelium classifies as pseudostratified; though it is a single layer of cells along the basement
membrane, the alignment of the nuclei is not in the same plane and appears as multiple layers.
The role of this unique type of epithelium is to function as a barrier to pathogens and foreign
particles; however, it also operates by preventing infection and tissue injury via the use of the
mucociliary elevator. Function: Just as the skin protects humans from external pathogens and
irritants, the respiratory epithelium acts to protect and effectively clear the airways and lungs of
inhaled pathogens and irritants. The division of the respiratory system into conducting and
respiratory airways delineates their function and roles. The conducting portion, consisting of the
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, which all serve to humidify, warm, filter
air. The respiratory portion is involved in gas exchange. There are three major types of cells
found in respiratory epithelium, and each holds a vital role in regulating how humans breathe. If
any of these components of the barrier are not properly functioning, the body becomes
susceptible to acquiring infections, pathogens or inducing inflammation, and disturbing
hemostasis.

• Humidification & Warming

• Filtration
• Oxidant defense & Response to Injury
• Gas Exchange

6. Distinguish between respiratory tract components based on the difference in

the wall structure.

• The Nose and its Adjacent Structures- the external nose consists of the surface and
skeletal structures that result in the outward appearance of the nose and contribute to its
numerous functions. Underneath the thin skin of the nose are its skeletal features. While the
root and bridge of the nose consist of bone, the protruding portion of the nose is composed of
cartilage.

• Pharynx- The pharynx is a tube formed by skeletal muscle and lined by mucous
membrane that is continuous with that of the nasal cavities. The pharynx is divided into three
major regions: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and the laryngopharynx.

• Larynx- The larynx is a cartilaginous structure inferior to the laryngopharynx that

connects the pharynx to the trachea and helps regulate the volume of air that enters and leaves
the lungs.

• Trachea- The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx toward the lungs. The
trachea is formed by 16 to 20 stacked, C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage that are connected
by dense connective tissue. The trachealis muscle and elastic connective tissue together form
the fibroelastic membrane, a flexible membrane that closes the posterior surface of the trachea,
connecting the C-shaped cartilages. The fibroelastic membrane allows the trachea to stretch
and expand slightly during inhalation and exhalation, whereas the rings of cartilage provide
structural support and prevent the trachea from collapsing.

• Bronchial Tree- The trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi at the
carina. These bronchi are also lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium containing
mucusproducing goblet cells. The carina is a raised structure that contains specialized nervous
tissue that induces violent coughing if a foreign body, such as food, is present. Rings of
cartilage, similar to those of the trachea, support the structure of the bronchi and prevent their
collapse.

• Alveoli an alveolar duct - is a tube composed of smooth muscle and connective

tissue, which opens into a cluster of alveoli. An alveolus is one of the many small, grape-like
sacs that are attached to the alveolar ducts.

7. Describe the structure of the interalveolar

Septum.
 Between neighboring alveoli lie thin interalveolar septa consisting of scattered fibroblasts
and sparse extracellular matrix (ECM), notably elastic and reticular fibers, of connective tissue.
The arrangement of elastic fibers enables alveoli to expand with inspiration and contract
passively with expiration; reticular fibers prevent both collapse and excessive distention of
alveoli. The interalveolar septa are vascularized with the richest capillary networks in the body

8. Identify the histologic components of the blood-air barrier and describe the
function of the blood-air barrier.

The densely anastomosing pulmonary capillaries within the interalveolar septa are
supported by the meshwork of reticular and elastic fibers in the alveolar walls.
Air in the alveoli is separated from capillary blood by three components referred to
collectively as the respiratory membrane or blood-air barrier:
• Two or three highly attenuated, thin cells lining the alveolus
• The fused basal laminae of these cells and the endothelial cells of capillaries
• The thin capillary endothelial cells

9. Compare sympathetic and parasympathetic effects on bronchial smooth

muscle.

The muscle is relaxed and increase the bronchiole diameter by stimulating the
sympathetic nervous system while the bronchial spasm is due to the activation of
parasympathetic nervous system because it can cause bronchoconstriction to the bronchial
muscle.

10. Describe the structure, function, and location of the pleura.

The lung’s outer surface and the internal wall of the thoracic cavity are covered by a
serous membrane called the pleura. The membrane attached to lung tissue is called the visceral
pleura and the membrane lining the thoracic walls is the parietal pleura. The two layers are
continuous at the hilum and are both composed of simple squamous mesothelial cells on a thin
connective tissue layer containing collagen and elastic fibers. The elastic fibers of the visceral
pleura are continuous with those of the pulmonary parenchyma. Between the parietal and
visceral layers, the narrow pleural cavity is entirely lined with the mesothelial cells producing a
thin film of serous fluid, which acts as a lubricant, facilitating the smooth sliding of one surface
over the other during respiratory movements.

11. Identify the organ, tissues and cell types present and distinguish among the
various components of the respiratory system microscopically of respiratory
tract or lung tissue.

RESPIRATORY
LUNGS

12. Identify the layers of the wall of some parts of the respiratory system
particularly the trachea and bronchi.

The wall of the trachea can be divided into four layers:

• mucosa,
• submucosa,
• musculocartilaginous layer, and
 • adventitia.

13. Identify the cells comprising the respiratory system, particularly the cells in
the lung parenchyma.

The lung parenchyma comprises a large number of thin-walled alveoli, forming an

enormous surface area, which serves to maintain proper gas exchange. The alveoli are held
open by the Trans-pulmonary pressure, or pre-stress, which is balanced by tissues forces and
alveolar surface film forces. Gas exchange efficiency is thus inextricably linked to three
including local ventilation, regional blood flow, tissue stiffness, smooth muscle contractility, and
alveolar stability. The main pathway for stress transmission is through the extracellular matrix.
Thus, the mechanical properties of the matrix play a key role both in lung function and biology.
These mechanical properties in turn are determined by the constituents of the tissue, including
elastin, collagen, and proteoglycans. In addition, the macroscopic mechanical properties are
also influenced by the surface tension and, to some extent, the contractile state of the adherent
cells.

14. Identify some diseases that have histologic/pathologic relations with matters
discussed above.

Pneumonia: An infection of your alveoli, usually by bacteria or viruses, including the

coronavirus that causes COVID-19.
Tuberculosis: Pneumonia that slowly gets worse, caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
Emphysema: This happens when the fragile links between alveoli are damaged. Smoking is
the usual cause. (Emphysema also limits airflow, affecting your airways.)
Pulmonary edema: Fluid leaks out of the small blood vessels of your lung into the air sacs and
the area around them. One form is caused by heart failure and back pressure in your lungs’
blood vessels. In another form, injury to your lung causes the leak of fluid.
Lung cancer: It has many forms and may start in any part of your lungs. It most often happens
in the main part of your lung, in or near the air sacs.
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): This is a severe, sudden injury to the lungs
from a serious illness. COVID-19 is one example. Many people who have ARDS need help
breathing from a machine called a ventilator until their lungs recover.
Pneumoconiosis: This is a category of conditions caused by inhaling something that injures
your lungs. Examples include black lung disease from coal dust and asbestosis from asbestos
dust