The system of blood vessels that carries blood from the right ventricle of

PULMONARY
the heart to the lungs and back to the left atrium of the heart.
CIRCULATION

The system of blood vessels that carries blood from the left ventricle of the
SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION heart to the tissues of the body.

GENERAL FEATURES OF BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE

Three Main Types of Blood Vessels:
(1) Arteries
(2) Veins
(3) Capillaries

ARTERIES
- carry blood away from the heart; usually, the blood is oxygenated.
- Blood is pumped from the ventricles of the heart into large, elastic arteries, which
branch repeatedly to form progressively smaller arteries.
- The arteries are normally classified as elastic arteries, muscular arteries, or
arterioles, although they form a continuum from the largest to the smallest
branches.

CAPILLARIES
- Blood flows from arterioles into capillaries.
- It is at the capillaries where exchange of substances such as O2, CO2, nutrients, and
other waste products occurs between the blood and the tissue fluid.
- Capillaries have thinner walls than do arteries.
- Blood flows through capillaries more slowly, and there are far more of them than
of any other blood vessel type.

VEINS
- From the capillaries, blood flows into veins.
- Veins carry blood toward the heart; usually, the blood is deoxygenated
- Compared to arteries, the walls of veins are thinner and contain less elastic tissue
and fewer smooth muscle cells.
- Starting at capillaries and proceeding toward the heart, small-diameter veins
come together to form larger-diameter veins.
- Veins may be classified as venules, small veins, medium-sized veins, or large veins.
 BLOOD
BLOOD VESSEL
VESSEL WALL
WALL
Except INTIMA
TUNICA in capillaries and venules, blood vessel walls consist of three layers, or TUNICS. From
- Innermost layer.
the
- inner to theof
Consists outer wall, the tunics
an endothelium are: of simple squamous epithelial cells, a basement
composed
(1) the tunica intima,
membrane, and a small amount of connective tissue.
(2) the tunica media, and
(3) theMEDIA
TUNICA tunica adventitia, or tunica externa
- Middle layer
- Consists of smooth muscle cells arranged circularly around the blood vessel.

TUNICA ADVENTITIA
- Outermost layer.
- Composed of dense connective tissue adjacent to the tunica media
 ARTERIES
ELASTIC ARTERIES

- The largest-diameter arteries and have the thickest walls

- Compared to other arteries, a greater proportion of their walls is composed of elastic
tissue.
- The Aorta and Pulmonary Trunk are examples of elastic arteries.
- Elastic arteries stretch when the ventricles of the heart pump blood into them.
- The elastic recoil of these arteries prevents blood pressure from falling rapidly and
maintains blood flow while the ventricles are relaxed.
 ARTERIES
ARTERIOLES
ARTERIES
- Transport blood from small arteries to capillaries.
MUSCULAR
- TheyARTERIES
are the smallest arteries in which the three tunics can be identified.
- The tunica media of arterioles consists of only one or two layers of circular smooth
- These
muscleinclude
cells. medium-sized and small arteries.
-- The walls of medium-sized
Small arteries and arteriolesarteries are relatively
are adapted thick compared
for vasodilation to their diameter.
and vasoconstriction.
- Most of the wall’s thickness results from smooth muscle cells of the tunica media
- Medium-sized arteries are frequently called Distributing Arteries because the smooth
muscle tissue enables these vessels to control blood flow to different body regions
- Contraction of the smooth muscle in blood vessels, called Vasoconstriction, decreases
blood vessel diameter and blood flow.
- Relaxation of the smooth muscle in blood vessels, called Vasodilation, increases blood
vessel diameter and blood flow.
 CAPILLARIES

Blood flows from arterioles into capillaries.

Capillaries branch to form networks.

Blood flow through capillary networks is regulated by smooth muscle cells called precapillary sphincters.

These precapillary sphincters are located at the origin of the branches of the capillaries and, by contracting and
relaxing, regulate the amount of blood flow through the various sections of the network

CAPILLARIES

Capillary walls consist of endothelium, which is a layer of simple squamous epithelium surrounded by
delicate loose connective tissue.

The thin walls of capillaries facilitate diffusion between the capillaries and surrounding cells. Each

capillary is 0.5–1 millimeter (mm) long.

Capillaries branch without changing their diameter, which is approximately the same as the
diameter of a red blood cell (7.5 μm or micrometer).
 CAPILLARIES

Red blood cells flow through most capillaries in single file and are frequently folded as they pass
through the smaller-diameter capillaries.

As blood flows through capillaries, blood gives up O2 and nutrients to the tissue spaces and takes up
CO2 and other by-products of metabolism.

Capillary networks are more numerous and more extensive in the lungs and in highly metabolic
tissues, such as the liver, kidneys, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle, than in other tissue types.

Red Blood Cells

flowing in single file
in a capillary.

A ruptured capillary wall with red blood

cells spilling out.

\
 VEINS

Blood flows from capillaries into venules and from venules into small veins.

Venules have a diameter slightly larger than that of capillaries and are composed of
endothelium resting on a delicate connective tissue layer.

The structure of venules, except for their diameter, is very similar to that of

capillaries. Small veins are slightly larger in diameter than venules.

All three tunics are present in small veins.

Medium-sized veins collect blood from small veins and deliver it to large veins.

The predominant layer in veins is the outer tunica adventitia, which consists primarily of dense
collagen fibers.
 VEINS

Consequently, veins are more distensible than arteries.

The connective tissue of the tunica adventitia determines the degree to which they can distend.

Veins that have diameters greater than 2 mm contain valves, which ensure that blood flows toward the
heart but not in the opposite direction.

Each valve consists of folds in the tunica intima that form two flaps.

These valves are similar in shape and function to the semilunar valves of the heart.

There are many valves in medium-sized veins and more valves in veins of the lower limbs
than in veins of the upper limbs. This prevents blood from flowing toward the feet in response to the pull of
gravity
 AORTA
All arteries of the systemic circulation branch directly or indirectly from the
aorta. The aorta is usually considered in three parts—
(1) the ascending aorta,
(2) the aortic arch, and
(3) the descending aorta.
The descending aorta is further divided into the thoracic aorta and the abdominal
aorta The Ascending Aorta is the part of the aorta that passes superiorly from the left
ventricle.

 The right and left coronary arteries arise from the base of the ascending aorta and supply
blood to the heart

The aorta arches posteriorly and to the left as the Aortic Arch.

Three major arteries, which carry blood to the head and upper limbs, originate from the aortic
arch:
(1) the brachiocephalic artery,
(2) the left common carotid artery, and
(3) the left subclavian artery

The Descending Aorta is the longest part of the aorta.

 It extends through the thorax and abdomen to the upper margin of the pelvis.

The part of the descending aorta that extends through the thorax to the diaphragm is called the
Thoracic Aorta.

The part of the descending aorta that extends from the diaphragm to the point at which it
divides into the two common iliac arteries is called the A
 ARTERIES OF THE HEAD AND NECK
The first vessel to branch from the aortic arch is the Brachiocephalic Artery
 (brachiocephalic = “to the arm and head”)
Brachiocephalic branches into right common carotid artery and right subclavian artery.
 Right Common Carotid Artery transports blood to the right side of the head and neck.
 Right Subclavian (“beneath the clavicle”) Artery transports blood to the right upper limb.
There is NO brachiocephalic artery on the left side of the body.
 Instead, both the Left Common Carotid and the Left Subclavian Arteries
branch directly off the aortic arch.
 They are the second and third branches of the aortic arch.
 The Left Common Carotid Artery transports blood to the left side of the head and
neck.
 The Left Subclavian Artery transports blood to the left upper limb.
The common carotid arteries extend superiorly along each side of the neck to the angle of the
mandible, where they branch into internal and external carotid arteries.
External Carotid Arteries – supply structures of the neck, face, nose, and mouth.
Internal Carotid Arteries – contribute to the cerebral arterial circle (Circle of Willis) at the
base of the brain.
 The vessels that supply blood to most of the brain branch from the cerebral arterial
circle.
Some of the blood to the brain is supplied by the Vertebral Arteries, which branch from the
subclavian arteries.
 Branches of the vertebral arteries supply blood to the spinal cord,
as well as to the vertebrae, muscles, and ligaments in the neck.
 Within the cranial cavity, the vertebral arteries unite to form a single basilar artery.
 The Basilar Artery gives off branches that supply blood to the pons,
cerebellum, and midbrain.
Most of the blood supply to the brain is through the Internal Carotid Arteries.
 There is, however, not enough blood supplied to the brain to maintain
life if either the vertebral arteries or the carotid arteries are

blocked.
 ARTERIES OF THE UPPER LIMBS

The arteries of the upper limbs are named differently as they pass into different body

regions. The subclavian artery, located deep to the clavicle, becomes the axillary artery in the

axilla.

When the axillary artery extends into the arm, it is then referred to as the brachial artery.
 Blood pressure measurements are normally taken from the brachial artery.

The brachial artery branches at the elbow to form the ulnar artery and the radial artery, which
supply blood to the forearm and hand.
 The radial artery is the one most commonly used for taking a pulse.
 ABDOMINAL AORTA and Its BRANCHES

The branches of the abdominal aorta can be divided into visceral and parietal groups.
 The Visceral Arteries supply the abdominal organs.
 The Parietal Arteries supply the abdominal wall.

The visceral arteries are divided into paired and unpaired branches.

There are three major unpaired branches:

(1) the
(2) celiac (“belly”) trunk,
(3) the superior mesenteric artery, and
(4) the inferior mesenteric artery.

The Celiac Trunk supplies blood to the stomach, pancreas, spleen, upper duodenum, and liver.

The Superior Mesenteric Artery supplies blood to the small intestine and the upper portion of
the large intestine.

The Inferior Mesenteric Artery supplies blood to the remainder of the large intestine.

There are three paired visceral branches of the abdominal aorta:

 The Renal (“kidney”) Arteries supply the kidneys
 The Suprarenal (“superior to the kidney”) Arteries supply the adrenal glands.
 The Gonadal Arteries:
o The Testicular Arteries supply the testes in males
o The Ovarian Arteries supply the ovaries in females.

The parietal branches of the abdominal aorta supply the diaphragm and abdominal wall.
 The Inferior Phrenic Arteries supply the diaphragm
 The Lumbar Arteries supply the lumbar vertebrae and back muscles.
 The Median Sacral Artery supplies the inferior vertebrae.
 ARTERIES OF THE PELVIS

The Abdominal Aorta divides at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra into two Common Iliac
Arteries.

Each Common Iliac Artery extends a short distance and then divides to form:
 The External Iliac Artery, which enters a lower limb
 The Internal Iliac Artery, which supplies the pelvic area

Visceral branches of the internal iliac artery supply organs such as the urinary bladder, rectum,
uterus, and vagina.

Parietal branches supply blood to the walls and floor of the pelvis; the lumbar, gluteal, and
proximal thigh muscles; and the external genitalia.

ARTERIES OF THE LOWER LIMBS

Like the arteries of the upper limbs, the arteries of the lower limbs are named differently as
they pass into different body regions.

The External Iliac Artery in the pelvis becomes the femoral artery in the thigh.

The Femoral Artery extends down the thigh and becomes the popliteal artery in the popliteal
space, which is the posterior region of the knee.

The Popliteal Artery branches slightly inferior to the knee to give off the Anterior Tibial
Artery and the Posterior Tibial Artery, both of which give rise to arteries that supply blood to
the leg and foot.

The Anterior Tibial Artery becomes the Dorsalis Pedis Artery at the ankle.

The Posterior Tibial Artery gives rise to the Fibular Artery, or Peroneal Artery, which supplies
the lateral leg and foo
 BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION: VEINS

The deoxygenated blood from the tissues of the body returns to the heart through veins.

The Superior Vena Cava returns blood from the head, neck, thorax, and upper limbs to the
right atrium of the heart.

The Inferior Vena Cava returns blood from the abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs to the right
atrium
 VEINS OF THE HEAD AND NECK

The two pairs of major veins that collect blood from the head and neck are the external and internal
jugular veins.

The External Jugular Veins are the more superficial of the two sets.
 They carry blood from the posterior head and neck, emptying primarily into the subclavian veins.

The Internal Jugular Veins are much larger and deeper.

 They carry blood from the brain and the anterior head, face, and neck.

The Internal Jugular Veins join the Subclavian Veins on each side of the body to form the
Brachiocephalic Veins.

The brachiocephalic veins join to form the Superior Vena Cava.

 VEINS OF THE UPPER LIMBS

The veins of the upper limbs can be divided into deep and superficial groups.

The Deep Veins, which carry blood from the deep structures of the upper limbs, follow the
same course as the arteries and are named for their respective arteries.
 The only noteworthy deep veins are the Brachial Veins, which accompany the
brachial artery and empty into the Axillary Vein.

The Superficial Veins carry blood from the superficial structures of the upper limbs and then
empty into the deep veins.

The Cephalic Vein (Cephalic = “Toward the Head”), which empties into the axillary vein,
and the Basilic Vein, which becomes the axillary vein, are the major superficial veins.

The Median Cubital Vein usually connects the cephalic vein or its tributaries with the basilic vein.
 Although this vein varies in size among people, it is usually quite prominent on the
anterior surface of the upper limb at the level of the elbow, an area called the
CUBITAL FOSSA, and is often used as a site for drawing blood.
 VEINS OF THE THORAX

Three major veins return blood from the thorax to the superior vena cava:
 the Right and Left Brachiocephalic Veins and
 the Azygos Vein.

Blood returns from the anterior thoracic wall by way of the Anterior Intercostal Veins.
 These veins empty into the Internal Thoracic Veins, which empty into the Brachiocephalic Veins.

Blood from the posterior thoracic wall is collected by Posterior Intercostal Veins that empty into the
Azygos Vein on the right and the Hemiazygos Vein or the Accessory Hemiazygos Vein on the left.
 The Hemiazygos and Accessory Hemiazygos Veins empty into the Azygos Vein, which
empties into the Superior Vena Cava.
 VEINS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS

Blood from the posterior abdominal wall returns toward the heart through ascending lumbar
veins into the Azygos Vein.
Blood from the rest of the abdomen and from the pelvis and lower limbs returns to the heart
through the Inferior Vena Cava.
The gonads (testes or ovaries), kidneys, adrenal glands, and liver are the only abdominal
organs outside the pelvis from which blood empties directly into the Inferior Vena Cava.
The Internal Iliac Veins return blood from the pelvis and join the External Iliac Veins from the
lower limbs to form the Common Iliac Veins.
The Common Iliac Veins combine to form the Inferior
Vena Cava. The Renal Veins carry blood from the kidneys.
The Suprarenal Veins drain the adrenal glands.
The Gonadal Veins include the Testicular Veins that drain the testes in males and the O
 THE HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM

The liver is a major processing center for substances absorbed by the intestinal tract.
 As such, blood from the capillaries within most of the abdominal viscera, such as the
stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen, drains through a specialized portal system
to the liver.
A Portal System is a system of blood vessels that begins and ends with capillary beds and has
no pumping mechanism, such as the heart, in between.
The hepatic portal system begins with capillaries in the viscera and ends with capillaries in the
liver.
The major vessels of the hepatic portal system are:
(1) The Splenic Vein and
(2) The Superior Mesenteric Vein.
The Inferior Mesenteric Vein empties into the
splenic vein. The Splenic Vein carries blood from the
spleen and pancreas.
The Superior and Inferior Mesenteric Veins carry blood from the intestines.
The splenic vein and the superior mesenteric vein join to form the Hepatic Portal Vein, which
enters the liver.
Blood from the liver flows into hepatic veins, which join the Inferior Vena Cava.
Blood entering the liver through the hepatic portal vein is rich in nutrients collected from
the intestines, but it may also contain a number of toxic substances that are potentially harmful
to body tissues.
 Within the liver, nutrients are taken up and stored or modified, so that they can be
used by other cells of the body.
 Also, within the liver, toxic substances are converted to nontoxic substances.
 These substances can be removed from the blood or carried by the blood to the
kidneys for excretion.
 VEINS OF THE LOWER LIMBS

The veins of the lower limbs, like those of the upper limbs, consist of deep and superficial groups.

The deep veins follow the same path as the arteries and are named for the arteries they
accompany.

The superficial veins consist of the great and small saphenous veins.

The Great Saphenous Vein originates over the dorsal and medial side of the foot and ascends
along the medial side of the leg and thigh to empty into the femoral vein.

The Small Saphenous Vein begins over the lateral side of the foot and joins the Popliteal Vein,
which becomes the femoral vein.

The Femoral Vein empties into the external iliac vein.