Research

Trends in Food Science & Technology 112 (2021) 518–531
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs
Bioactive compounds from by-products of eggplant: Functional properties,

potential applications and advances in valorization methods
Abouzar Karimi a, 1, Milad Kazemi a, 1, Sara Amiri Samani b, Jesus Simal-Gandara c, *
a
Department of Food Science and Engineering, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
c
Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004,
Ourense, Spain
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Background: Eggplant (also known as aubergine) by-products, which consist mostly of peel and calyx, are
Eggplant by-products generated in substantial amounts by industrial food processing sections and usually discarded as waste without
Bioactive compounds further utilization. However, studies have demonstrated that these by-products are superb sources of bioactive
Functional properties
compounds. Therefore, the disposal of eggplant by-products not only gives rise to environmental and economic
Extraction techniques
Zero-waste valorization
consequences but also represents a tremendous loss of valuable materials.
Scope and approach: This review is aimed to assess the potentials of eggplant by-products as a source of bioactive
compounds by evaluating the functional properties and production approaches of the bioactives and exploring
their applications in food and pharmaceutical industries.
Key findings and conclusions: It is estimated that over ten million tonnes of eggplant by-products are generated
annually. The peel is an outstanding source of delphinidin-derived anthocyanins with remarkable antioxidant,
antimicrobial and anticancer properties. Moreover, both peel and calyx are high-yielding sources of pectin with
excellent functional properties. Several methods, from conventional approaches to ultrasound and microwave-
assisted techniques, have been developed and optimized for extraction of anthocyanins and pectin. Further
more, integrated valorization of eggplant by-products, which consists of simultaneous extraction of phenolics
and pectin followed by production of pullulan from the leftovers, has shown promising results. It is also
demonstrated that eggplant peel anthocyanins are potent alternatives to synthetic additives for fortification and
shelf-life improvement of food products. However, further studies are required in regards to the integrated
valorization technique, health-promoting properties and food and pharmaceutical applications of these bioactive
compounds.
1. Introduction 2020). These by-products remain mostly without further utilization.

Thus, they are usually discarded as waste in landfill sites, giving rise to
Every day, a massive amount of agricultural by-products is generated serious environmental complications and economic expenses (Mauro
as a result of fruit and vegetable production and storage, industrial et al., 2020). Furthermore, over the past decades due to a steep rise in
utilization and commercial and household consumption around the both the human population and production of crops, the aforementioned
world. Industrial food processing plants are responsible for a consider issues have only been exacerbated over time. However, most of these
able bulk of these by-products, which consist mostly of unutilized plant by-products could be valorized using various technological and
tissues such as peels, husks, calyxes and seeds (Jimenez-Lopez et al., biotechnological practices and have the potential to yield high levels of
Abbreviations: EB, Eggplant by-products; EP, Eggplant peel; EC, Eggplant calyx; EBP, Eggplant by-product pectin; EPP, Eggplant peel pectin; ECP, Eggplant calyx
pectin; EPE, Eggplant peel extract; TPC, Total phenolic content; WHC, water holding capacity; OHC, Oil holding capacity; DE, degree of esterification; GalA, Gal
acturonic acid; RG-I, Rhamnogalacturonan I; RG-II, Rhamnogalacturonan II; HMP, High methoxyl pectin; LMP, Low methoxyl pectin; SLE, Solid-lipid extraction; SFE,
Supercritical fluid extraction; UAE, Ultrasound-assisted extraction; MAE, Microwave-assisted extraction; GAE, Gallic acid equivalent.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Simal-Gandara).
1
Abouzar Karimi and Milad Kazemi equally contributed to this article.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.04.027
Received 30 December 2020; Received in revised form 30 March 2021; Accepted 11 April 2021
Available online 18 April 2021
0924-2244/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Karimi et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 112 (2021) 518–531
valuable bioactive compounds (Coelho et al., 2020). eggplant cultivation area for the top five countries (China, India, Egypt,
Valorization of fruit and vegetable by-products is an efficient and Turkey, and Iran) is estimated at 1,597,200 ha with a total production of
strategic approach to pull the waste out of the environment, acquire 50,908,619 tonnes (more than 92% of global production) and average
value-added compounds from them and put those compounds back into production yield of ~31.87 tonnes per hectare.
the economy; thereby, addressing both related environmental and eco The amount of generated by-products from an eggplant varies based
nomic concerns. For example, other than reducing the depletion rate of on cultivar, size and ripening stage. However, based on an analysis
natural resources, waste accumulation and landfilling costs, valorization performed by authors on 20 fresh, grade-A, dark eggplants (Solanum
of these by-products could promote innovation, provide business op melongena L. var. esculentum) from the fields of Pishva city in Iran, it is
portunities and ultimately, generate revenue from a formerly costly estimated that an eggplant with an average fresh weight of 198.7 g
waste material (Talekar et al., 2018). Furthermore, consumer demand provides 81 g of calyx and 284 g of peel (total percentage of by-products:
for food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products that contain natural, 18.36%, calyx: 4.07% peel: 14.29%). Thus, it could be estimated that
health-promoting additives instead of synthetic substances, has been around 10,134,330 tonnes of EB is generated annually. However, not all
increasingly growing over the past years. Therefore, these concerns have of these by-products are available, for instance, the by-products gener
attracted the interest of scientists and industries to try to develop diverse ated by restaurants or household consumption are hardly accessible.
techniques for utilization of fruit and vegetable by-products as an Furthermore, the amount of eggplants that become damaged and spoiled
inexpensive, abundant and high potential source of valuable bioactive on the field or during transportation and storage should be excluded
compounds (Arjeh et al., 2020). from this estimation. Even so, a substantial percentage of these
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is a high yielding and affordable 10,134,330 tonnes of EB, which are inexpensive, available and
agricultural crop from the solanaceous family, which is cultivated in a outstanding sources of bioactive compounds, are still being generated by
wide variety of shapes, sizes and colors. Eggplant is native of India, industrial food processing sections. These by-products contain high
while secondary origin sources are from China and Japan. Today, it is amounts of moisture (approximately 90%), along with organic compo
widely cultivated in other parts of Asia, as well as Europe, Africa and nents (Doulabi et al., 2020), meaning that they putrefy easily. Thus, if
America (Niño-Medina et al., 2017). The interest for the cultivation of discarded inappropriately, EB could pose serious threats to the envi
eggplant is rapidly growing around the world due to its high nutritional ronment, such as greenhouse gas emission, unpleasant odor release and
values and extensive applications in formulating various types of fresh, attraction of vermin (Mirmohamadsadeghi et al., 2019). Conclusively,
frozen, and canned foods, such as pickled, fried, grilled, or stuffed valorization could be considered as the most efficient and harmless
eggplant, as well as several cuisines like eggplant kibbeh, kashke approach in regards to the handling of EB.
bademjan and different eggplant stews (Gürbüz et al., 2018; Horincar,
Enachi, Barbu, et al., 2020). However, industries that are manufacturing 3. Bioactive compounds
such products are also responsible for generating considerable amounts
of eggplant by-products (EB), most of which are treated as waste and 3.1. Phenolic compounds
discarded in landfills. Peel and calyx are the main by-products of
eggplant. The peel is an incredibly rich source of anthocyanins (Mauro Phenolic compounds or phenolics are the most studied bioactive
et al., 2020). Moreover, both peel and calyx are great sources of dietary compounds that can be acquired from EB. These compounds are sec
fibers, such as pectin and cellulose (Kazemi et al., 2019a; 2019b). ondary metabolites, produced during plant growth and reproduction
Therefore, regardless of discussed environmental and economic issues, phases for various purposes, for example, as a response to environmental
disposal of EB as waste represents a massive loss of valuable materials. stress, defense against diseases and protection from UV radiation.
In this review, the available information and literature in regards to Eggplant is known to have a considerably high antioxidant potential
EB and their potential as a valuable source of bioactive compounds are among various crops because of its significant amount of phenolic
gathered and summarized. For this purpose, the annual production, compounds. A good portion of these phenolics, approximately 30–60%
main bioactive compounds and valorization methods of EB have been (Mauro et al., 2020), is concentrated at the by-products of this crop,
discussed and possible applications of the bioactive compounds in food especially the peel. Therefore, EB are incredibly rich sources of phenolic
and pharmaceutical industries have been reviewed. compounds, comparing to other agricultural by-products (Gürbüz et al.,
2018). The amount and composition of eggplant phenolics and the
2. Quantification of eggplant by-products percentage of concentrated phenolics in EB could vary depending on the
agronomic condition of the plant (such as plant species, cultivar,
Worldwide eggplant cultivation data are presented in Table 1 developmental stage, etc.) and environmental factors (such as climate
(FAOSTAT, 2019). They show a global production of 55,197,878 tonnes, and season factors, light and water availability, pH, etc.). For instance,
with Asia contributing to more than 94% of total production, followed Luthria et al. (2010) reported that the eggplant cultivar has a much more
by Africa (3.4%), and Europe (1.7%). As seen in Table 1, the total determinative role in the amount of phenolic compounds, comparing to
Table 1
Top 10 eggplant cultivation data (FAOSTAT, 2019) and possible by-product generation.
Country information Statistics of eggplant Possible EPP generation Possible ECP generation
Name Rank (Production) Rank (Yield) Area (ha) Production (t) Yield (Hg/ha) Wet basis (t) Dry basis (t) Wet basis (t) Dry basis (t)
China (mainland) #1 #2 781,695 35,555,562 454,852 5,080,890 462,222 1,447,111 142,222

India #2 #8 727,000 12,680,000 174,415 1,811,972 164,840 516,076 50,720
Egypt #3 #7 43,818 1,180,240 269,350 168,656 15,343 48,036 4721
Turkey #4 #3 23,337 822,659 352,513 117,558 10,695 33,482 3291
Iran #5 #6 21,350 670,158 313,891 95,766 8712 27,275 2681
Indonesia #6 #9 43,954 575,392 130,908 82,224 7480 23,418 2302
Japan #7 #4 8650 301,700 348,786 43,113 3922 12,279 1207
Italy #8 #5 9550 300,620 314,785 42,959 3908 12,235 1202
Philippine #9 #10 21,819 249,890 114,529 35,709 3249 10,171 1000
Spain #10 #1 3470 238,325 706,484 34,057 3098 9700 953
World – – 1,847,787 55,197,878 298,724 7,887,777 717,572 2,246,554 220,792
519
environmental factors. In another study, Mauro et al. (2020) evaluated types of plant anthocyanins are mostly derived from six of them: cya
the effect of the ripening stage on peel anthocyanin and pulp caffeoyl nidin, peonidin, pelargonidin, petunidin, malvidin and delphinidin
quinic acid contents of three different eggplant cultivars. They found out (Tena et al., 2020).
that the ripped Black Bell cultivar presented the highest amounts of peel EP anthocyanins are mostly derived from delphinidin aglycone. How
anthocyanins and the lowest amount of pulp caffeoylquinic acids, while ever, small amounts of cyanidin, peonidin and malvidin derivatives are also
the ripped Black Moon cultivar was the exact opposite and the ripped observed (Condurache et al., 2020; Ferarsa et al., 2018). Fig. 1A illustrates
Birgah cultivar demonstrated balanced percentages of both phenolic the structure of Delphinidin anthocyanidin. Delphinidin glycosides are also
groups. They also suggested that in all three cultivars, eggplant over common in different berry cultivars and red wine. This non-methylated
ripening decreased the amount of anthocyanins while increased the anthocyanidin, along with cyanidin and pelargonidin are the most abun
amount of caffeoylquinic acids. Furthermore, the process conditions dant in nature, being found in 80% of pigmented leaves, 69% of fruits and
(such as storage, methods of extraction, etc.) could also significantly 50% of flowers (Castañeda-Ovando et al., 2009). Among various delphi
affect the amount of obtained phenolic from EB. nidin derivatives, which are responsible for the dark purple color of EP, the
Niño-Medina et al. (2017) precisely reviewed the structure and most significant ones are delphinidin-3-rutinoside (major anthocyanin in
content of various phenolic compounds of eggplant, of which flavonoids non-Japanese eggplant cultivars, especially eggplants in US market,
are mostly concentrated in the peel while phenolic acids are prominent Fig. 1B) and delphinidin-3-(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside, also
in the plant’s flesh. Anthocyanins, a subcategory of flavonoids, are the known as nasunin (major anthocyanin in Japanese eggplant cultivars,
most dominant phenolics in EP, with reported contents varying from 8 to Fig. 1C). Other delphinine-based anthocyanins such as
85 mg per 100 g of peel (Dranca & Oroian, 2016). The structure of these delphinidin-3-rutinoside-5-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside and
bioactive compounds are constructed of two portions. The first one is delphinidin-3-rutinosyl-glucoside are also identified in EP with smaller
called anthocyanidin, a molecule with a C6–C3–C6 skeleton, which is two contents (Gürbüz et al., 2018).
aromatic rings linked by an oxygenated heterocycle with three carbon
atoms. The second portion is composed of one or several sugar mole
3.2. Pectin
cules, which themselves, might be linked to acyl substituents (Belwal
et al., 2020). These sugar molecules are linked to anthocyanidin agly
Pectin, an essential component of the terrestrial plant cell wall, is a
cone through glycoside bonds, mostly, with C3–OH or C3–OH and
complex heteropolysaccharide with a broad range of applications and
C5–OH groups (Zhao et al., 2014). The difference between various types
health-beneficial properties. This multifunctional compound has been
of anthocyanins is mainly dependent on the position, quantity and
the focus of various scientific studies and for the past several years, the
structure of these conjugate sugars, along with the number and position
demand for this compound has been annually increased by 4–5% in
of hydroxyl and methoxyl groups in the anthocyanidin aglycone. More
global markets (Kazemi et al., 2019a).
than 20 types of anthocyanidins are identified, However, the various
The structure of pectin is composed of three main blocks of
Fig. 1. Chemical structures of (A) delphinidin anthocyanidin, (B) delphinidin-3-rutinoside and (C) delphinidin-3-(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside (nasunin).
520
homogalacturonan, rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) and rhamnogalactur and EC using different extraction methods is reported to be in the op
onan II (RG-II). In some cases, other blocks such as xylogalacturonan and timum range of 26.10–33.64% and 18.36%, respectively. (Kazemi et al.,
apiogalacturonan are also observed (Christiaens et al., 2016). Homo 2019a; 2019b; 2019c). In comparison with the extraction yields from
galacturonan, also known as the “smooth region”, accounts for other high-yielding sources, such as citrus peel (~5–26%), tomato
approximately 60–70% of the pectin structure. This block is constructed by-products (~10–35%) and passion fruit peel (~7–30%) the EP illus
of (1 → 4) bonded α-D-galacturonic acid (GalA) units, in which some of trates a promising potential in this regard (Marić et al., 2018).
the units’ C-6 linked carboxyl groups are methyl-esterified (Mellinas
et al., 2020). The second most abundant domain in the structure of 3.3. Pullulan
pectin is RG-I, also known as the “hairy region”, which accounts for
approximately 20–35% of the pectin structure. The backbone of this Pullulan is a linear exo-homopolysaccharide that is produced
block is constructed of L-rhamnose and GalA units, in the form of the through submerged fermentation method by various strains of yeast-like
repeating disaccharide [(→4)-α-D-GalA-(1 → 2)-α-L-Rhamnose-(1→)]n. microorganism, Aureobasidium pullulans. This neutral, water-soluble and
The GalA units in this block could be acetylated or methylated at C-2 and GRAS polymer is a commercially important product with a variety of
C-3 and a large number of rhamnose units are substituted at C-4 by applications in the food, cosmetic, textile and pharmaceutical industries.
neutral sugar side chains of arabinans, galactans and arabinogalactans. The structure of pullulan is mainly composed of repeating units of α (1
These side chains are largely composed of α-L-arabinose and β-D-ga → 6) linked maltotriose units. In some cases, repeating units of panose
lactose (Maxwell et al., 2012). RG-II, the third and most complex and isopanose are also found in pullulan partial acid hydrolysis (Singh
structural domain that accounts for approximately 10% of pectin et al., 2019).
structure, is composed of a homogalacturonan backbone with at least 8 EB could be utilized as a carbon source for production of pullulan
units of GalA, in which some of the units’ C-6 linked carboxyl groups through fermentation process; however, there are a few potential
might be methyl-esterified. This backbone is substituted with side drawbacks related to this case. For example, the pectin in the structure
branches that are constructed from sugars such as rhamnose, xylose, of plant cell wall could limit the access of hydrolytic enzymes to cellu
galactose, fucose, apiose and aceric acid, with more than 20 different lose molecules. Furthermore, EB contains high amounts of phenolic
types of linkages (Christiaens et al., 2016; Mellinas et al., 2020). compounds, which could exert anti-microbial effects on A. pullulans
Extracted pectin from various plants is different in some structural (Talekar et al., 2018). Nevertheless, a method for production of pullulan
characteristics, such as degree of esterification (DE), polymer size dis from EB through integrated valorization has been documented, in which
tribution, the nature and position of the neutral sugar side chains and the pectin and phenolic compounds are initially extracted and then, as
acylation pattern (Wusigale et al., 2020). Furthermore, the extraction an approach to zero-waste valorization, the leftovers are subjected to
method could also significantly affect the pectin structure. However, the enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial fermentation for pullulan produc
most profound factors for functional differentiation of various pectic tion. Based on this method, the production yield of pullulan from EB was
polysaccharides are GalA content and DE. FAO mandates that in order to reported at 16.8 g/L. Furthermore, Obtained pullulan demonstrated α(1
be included in E440 as a food additive, industrial pectic polysaccharides → 6) and α(1 → 4) glucoside bonds (indicative of repeating maltotriose
must have at least 65% polygalacturonic acids in their structure units), acceptable ash and protein contents (~1.8% and ~2.1%,
(Maxwell et al., 2012), which highlights the importance of GalA content respectively) and chemical characteristics similar to the commercial
in this regard. DE is another crucial parameter, which is defined as the pullulan (Kazemi et al., 2019c).
percentage of esterified carboxyl groups in the structure of pectin
(Mellinas et al., 2020). This factor is commonly used for the classifica 4. Functional and biological properties of bioactive compounds
tion of pectic polysaccharides and indicates the gelling, texturizing and
emulsifying properties of this compound. Based on DE, pectin is classi 4.1. Anthocyanins
fied into two groups of high methoxyl pectin (HMP, DE > 50%) and low
methoxyl pectin (LMP, DE ˂ 50%) (Kazemi et al., 2019b). In a review study published by Gürbüz et al. (2018), valuable phy
The structures of eggplant peel pectin (EPP) and eggplant calyx tochemicals and health benefits of eggplant are thoroughly discussed.
pectin (ECP) are reported to have 66.8–69.7% and 60.2% GalA, This section has focused on the biological activities of anthocyanins, the
respectively. The most abundant neutral monosaccharide in the struc most dominant phenolic compounds in EB, with a special emphasis on
ture of EPP is galactose (18.1%), followed by rhamnose (8.8%), arabi delphinidin anthocyanidin and delphinidin glucosides. Anthocyanins
nose (2.8%), xylose (1.3%) and fructose (0.7%), while in the case of ECP, are associated with several substantial biological properties, with the
arabinose is the main neutral monosaccharide (27.8%), followed by most important one being the antioxidant potential.
rhamnose (7.4%), galactose (2.3%), xylose (0.7%) and fructose (0.4%). Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) are two natural
This could indicate that the most common side chains in the RG-I block products created by mitochondria during normal cellular metabolism for
of EPP and ECP are galactans and arabinans, respectively. Furthermore, several purposes, for instance, cytotoxicity against hazardous pathogens
the presence of xylose and fructose could point to the existence of RG-II (Tena et al., 2020). However, these molecules are also perfectly capable of
blocks in the structure of both EPP and ECP. The molar ratios of damaging normal cells, therefore, maintaining a balance between these
homogalacturonan and RG-I in EPP are nearly 58.6% and 38.5%, species and antioxidants is critical for cell survival. If this balance becomes
respectively, which means that this polysaccharide is composed of a disrupted by the overproduction of these species, a phenomenon known as
nearly linear structure. ECP, on the other hand, illustrates molar ratios of oxidative stress will occur. During this phenomenon, normal cells such as
52.8% and 44.9% for homogalacturonan and RG-I, respectively, which proteins, lipids and DNA molecules could be damaged by ROS and RNS,
means that it contains high levels of hairy regions in its structure. which might lead to complications such as cancer, cardiovascular and
Furthermore, based on the value of (Arabinose + Galactose)/Rhamnose, neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, reactive species are usually
it is estimated that attached side chains to the RG-I portion of EPP neutralized or recycled after they are produced, and the cell performs this
((Arabinose+Galactose)/Rhamnose = 2.375) are shorter than ECP function by utilizing antioxidant enzymes, which are produced by the cell
((Arabinose+Galactose)/Rhamnose = 4.067) (Kazemi et al., 2019a; itself, or natural antioxidants such as anthocyanins, which are acquired
2019b). through diet (Fallah et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2014). However, the unde
EPP and ECP are classified as HMP with reported DE of approxi sirable effects of ROS are not exclusive to living cells. Many food products
mately 60.2–68.18% and 60.74%, respectively. Furthermore, EB, espe are also susceptible to oxidation due to the production of free radicals,
cially EP, is one of the highest yielding agricultural by-products which could decrease the food quality by producing off-flavors, off-colors
regarding the extraction of pectin. The extraction yield of pectin from EP and off-odors. Hence, the presence of anthocyanins in food products could
521
neutralize free radicals and improve the shelf life of food and beverages treatment of cancer through various pathways, such as Free-radical
(Horincar, Enachi, Bolea, et al., 2020). Generally, the capability of anti scavenging, Cyclooxygenase, Mitogen-activated protein kinase and in
oxidants in donating hydrogen atoms or electrons and scavenging free flammatory cytokines signaling (Khoo et al., 2017). Studies showed that
radicals defines their antioxidant potential. Some antioxidants are also anthocyanins could be effective on several types of gastrointestinal
capable of chelating metal ions and subsequently, preventing them from cancers (Dharmawansa et al., 2020), skin cancer (Diaconeasa et al.,
engaging in redox reactions. The antioxidant power of anthocyanins is 2020), prostate cancer (Costea et al., 2019) and breast cancer (Iqbal
relevant to a concept known as the structure-activity relationship (Zhao et al., 2018). Delphinidin, in particular, has induced apoptosis and
et al., 2014). Based on this concept, the antioxidant activity of anthocya autophagy in HER-2 positive breast cancer cells (Chen et al., 2018). The
nins depends on their glycosylation and acylation patterns, the number of anti-metastatic effect of this compound on colorectal cancer cells has
hydroxyl and methyl groups in their structure, and catechol moiety and also been demonstrated (Huang et al., 2019). In the case of hepatocel
oxonium ion in their B and C rings, respectively (Fallah et al., 2020). It is lular carcinoma cells (liver cancer), delphinidin has been proven effec
reported that among six common anthocyanidins found in nature, del tive at inhibiting Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition by inhibiting
phinidin possesses the highest antioxidant potential (Yang et al., 2011). several signaling pathways (Lim et al., 2019). It also demonstrated
The number of –OH groups of this molecule surpasses other anthocyani preventive effects on ovarian clear cell carcinoma by inactivating
dins, which could be a reason for higher antioxidant potential of this PI3K/AKT and ERK1/2 MAPK pathways (Lim et al., 2016). The anti
compound. Furthermore, the presence of o-di-hydroxyl group in the B-ring cancer effects of delphinidin and its glycosides have also been demon
of delphinidin, cyanidin and petunidin enables these compounds to form strated in other studies (Han et al., 2019; Kuo et al., 2019; Mazewski
complexes with metal ions, which could contribute to their antioxidant et al., 2019).
activity; however, it also makes them more susceptible to oxidation It could be stated that the antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer
(Castañeda-Ovando et al., 2009). The effect of glycosylation on antioxi effects are the main biological functions of anthocyanins. However,
dant potential is still not definitive, since several studies suggest disputed these compounds have also proven beneficial in prevention and treat
results (Yang et al., 2011). However, the structure of linked sugars might ment of other health-related complications, such as diabetes (Oliveira
affect the antioxidant potential of anthocyanins. In the case of major et al., 2020), stroke (Manolescu et al., 2019) and inflammation (Speer
eggplant anthocyanins, attached sugars in both delphinidin-3-rutinoside et al., 2020).
and delphinidin-3-(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside could act as anti
oxidants and further enhance the antioxidant potential of those anthocy 4.2. Pectin
anins, comparing to an unsubstituted delphinidin aglycone. In comparison
with most other antioxidants, anthocyanins illustrate a much higher The importance of pectin in food and pharmaceutical industries as a
antioxidant potential as a consequence of their exceptional structure. For gelling, thickening, coating and stabilizing agent is well established
example, results from oxygen radical-absorbing capacity analysis illus (Maxwell et al., 2012; Mellinas et al., 2020). However, there are several
trates that the antioxidant capacity of 3-glucosides of delphinidin, malvi functional properties that significantly influence the applicability of
din and petunidin are 3–6 times higher, comparing to Trolox standard. It pectin in food and pharmaceutical products.
was also observed that by employing ferric reducing ability analysis, Water holding capacity (WHC) is one of the most important func
antioxidant power of mentioned anthocyanins was 2–2.5 times higher tional attributes of pectic polysaccharides. It is defined as the amount of
than ascorbic acid (Turturică et al., 2015). In regards to eggplant peel water that a material can retain in its structure against natural and/or
extract (EPE), which is the most common utilization form of EB phenolic synthetic forces (for instance, an applied shear stress). This factor plays a
compounds, antioxidant activity usually follows a linear trend with total crucial role in technological aspects of utilization of pectin since it
phenolic content (TPC), which is directly affected by eggplant cultivar and directly affects the gelling and texturing properties of this compound (de
ripening stage, as well as the extraction method and conditions (Chatterjee Moura et al., 2017). WHC of EPP is measured around 6.1 g/g of pectin
et al., 2013). (Kazemi et al., 2019b), which is higher than commercial apple pectin
Another remarkable attribute of anthocyanins is the antimicrobial (2.00 g/g) (Rubio-Senent et al., 2015), pistachio green hull (4.1 g/g)
potential of these compounds. Anthocyanins are capable of inhibiting (Kazemi et al., 2019d) and Opuntia ficus indica cladodes (5.42 g/g)
microbial populations through several mechanisms, such as destabiliz (Bayar et al., 2018); and lower than commercial citrus pectin (10.35
ing cytoplasm membrane, permeabilizing plasma membrane and g/g) (Rubio-Senent et al., 2015). WHC of ECP is also measured around
destroying the cell wall and intercellular matrix (Cisowska et al., 2011). 4.62 g/g of pectin. However, these values are not definitive and could
Anthocyanins could also interfere with microbial metabolism, by vary based on several physical, chemical and environmental factors. For
directly rendering some substrates unavailable to them or affecting example, Other than temperature, pH and ionic strength of the medium,
intra- and extra-cellular microbial enzymes in several ways WHC is also affected by structure, chemical composition and porosity of
(Niño-Medina et al., 2017). Some anthocyanins are also capable of dis the employed pectic polysaccharide (Kazemi et al., 2019b).
rupting the adhesiveness of microbial cells to body cells, which is, for Similar to WHC, oil holding capacity (OHC) is another important
many pathogens, the prerequisite for colonization and infection (Gato functional factor regarding the utilization of pectin. The definition is the
et al., 2020). Anthocyanins have been proven beneficial in the case of same as WHC, which is the amount of oil that a material can retain per
food-borne pathogens (Khoo et al., 2017), which makes them ideal for unit of weight. This attribute could affect emulsifying and stabilizing
food preservation (Gong et al., 2021) and the development of food properties, therefore, pectic polysaccharides with high OHC could be
packaging (Alizadeh-Sani et al., 2021). In the case of delphinidin, this utilized for stabilizing emulsions and high-fat food products by facili
anthocyanin was patented to treat Staphylococcus aureus infections tating the solubilization or dispersion of two immiscible liquid phases
(Roewer & Broscheit, 2013). Furthermore, a significant number of (Rubio-Senent et al., 2015). OHC of EPP is measured around 2.36 g/g
studies obtained promising results regarding the application of delphi (Kazemi et al., 2019b), which is nearly the same as commercial apple
nidin glycosides, along with other anthocyanins in the form of extracts and citrus pectin (2.22 and 2.59 g/g, respectively) (Rubio-Senent et al.,
on a vast range of microorganisms, most notably Escherichia coli, Pseu 2015) and higher than Opuntia ficus indica cladodes pectin (1.23 g/g)
domonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Serratia (Bayar et al., 2018) and pistachio green hull pectin (2.02 g/g) (Kazemi
marcescens, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria innocua, Enterococcus faecium, et al., 2019d). OHC of ECP is also measured around 1.46 g/g. Similar to
Staphylococcus aureus, Aeromonas hydrophila, C.violaceum, etc. (Cisowska WHC, OHC is also affected by structural, chemical and environmental
et al., 2011; Santos et al., 2020; Tena et al., 2020). factors. For example, DE and DM, two prominent factors in determining
Anthocyanins have also been extensively studied in regards to cancer the hydrophobicity of pectin, could have a notable effect on OHC (de
therapy. (Wu et al., 2020). They could affect the prevention and Moura et al., 2017).
522
Based on evaluation of emulsifying properties, the emulsifying ac OHC, emulsifying properties and foaming capacity, since it is a highly
tivity of EPP and ECP at the temperature of 24 ◦ C is reported to be hydrophilic polymer and lacks hydrophobic substitutions. However, one
around 57.16% and 50.85%, respectively (Kazemi et al., 2019b). The of the great advantages of pullulan is the presence of multiple reactive
measured value for EPP was nearly the same as pistachio green hull sites in its structure, which could be subjected to chemical modification.
pectin (58.3%) (Kazemi et al., 2019d), but higher than Citrus medica peel In a review study conducted by Tiwari et al. (2019), various strategies
pectin (46.5%) (Pasandide et al., 2017) and sour orange peel pectin for derivatization and modification of pullulan have been discussed.
(40.7%) (Hosseini, Khodaiyan, & Yarmand, 2016). Furthermore, emul Regarding the mentioned functional properties, Omar-Aziz et al. (2020)
sions that were prepared using EPP and ECP displayed a very good performed a study, in which pullulan was chemically modified with
emulsion stability over the periods of 1 and 30 days at the temperatures octenyl succinic anhydride to improve its surface activity, emulsifying
of 4 ◦ C and 24 ◦ C. Other than environmental factors, parameters such as properties and foaming capacity. Results from this study demonstrated
concentration, average molecular weight and GalA content could also that the surface tension of an unmodified pullulan solution, with a
significantly affect the emulsifying properties of this compound (Bayar concentration of 0.5% w/w, was measured at 68.23 mN/m. However, it
et al., 2017). was observed that the surface tensions of modified pullulan solutions
Generally, foaming properties of pectin are of less importance in the with degree of substitution (DS) of 0.020 and 0.061 was decreased to
food industry, comparing to other functionalities of this compound. 53.31 Nm/m and 37.77 Nm/m, respectively. The same pattern was also
However, pectin with improved foaming attributes could be employed observed in regards to interfacial tension (24.53, 16.93 and 7.83 mN/m
in various food products, such as aerated foods; and eggplant pectin for untreated pullulan, pullulan with DS of 0.020 and 0.061, respec
presents much better foaming properties, compared to many other tively). Furthermore, the assessment of emulsifying properties showed
pectin sources. Evaluation of foaming capacity and foam stability of EPP that the unmodified pullulan offered no emulsifying capacity (0.00%),
and ECP showed that increasing the concentration of pectin from 2% w/ while this parameter was measured at 100% for both modified pul
v to 4% w/v, improves the foaming properties of the solution; and EPP lulans; also, both of them illustrated more than 92% of emulsion stability
illustrates better functionality than ECP in this matter (Kazemi et al., after 30 days. Unmodified samples also showed no foaming capacity,
2019b). One factor that could directly affect the foaming properties is while this factor was measured at 60.67% and 124% for pullulans with
the surface tension of the solution. It was observed that increasing the DS of 0.020 and 0.061, respectively. After 30 min of storage at 28 ± 2 ◦ C,
concentration of EPP and ECP results in a reduction of the surface ten foam stability for pullulans with DS of 0.020 and 0.061 was measured at
sion, which could lead to improved foaming properties of the solution. 52.38% and 66.99%, respectively. Therefore, it could be concluded that
The reason for the surface tension reduction could be attributed to the with appropriate modifications, pullulan could even be employed in
high TPC of eggplant pectin. Some phenolic compounds can accumulate systems with requirements that are not available in an unmodified
in the air-water interface and increase the surface pressure, which re pullulan sample.
sults in the reduction of surface tension (Di Mattia et al., 2010). The Regardless of the mentioned properties, unmodified Pullulan offers
relationship between the amount of phenolics and surface tension of the some extraordinary characteristics that qualify this substance to be
solution could also justify the better foaming properties of EPP, utilized in the food and pharmaceutical sectors, which will be discussed
comparing to ECP. in the application section.
In comparison with many other sources of pectin, Eggplant by-
products pectin (EBP) illustrates a great potential regarding the anti 5. Valorization methods
oxidant activity. Regardless of the extraction method, eggplant pectin
offers a significant antioxidant potential and low values of 50% inhibi The literature regarding the extraction of bioactive compounds from
tory concentration (IC50) of free radicals. Kazemi et al. (2019a) calcu EB has been summarized in Table 2, into three sections: conventional
lated the IC50 value of EPP to be around 1.39 mg/ml, which illustrates approach, emerging techniques and zero-waste valorization approach.
the great antioxidant potential of this substance. In general, pectic
polysaccharides illustrate an intrinsic antioxidant potential, which de 5.1. Conventional approach (solid-liquid extraction)
pends on galacturonic acid content, molecular weight and degree of
methylation (Bayar et al., 2018). Furthermore, it is possible for plant The most common method for extraction of bioactive compounds
protein molecules to be linked with the extracted pectin and therefore, from EB is solid-liquid extraction (SLE) (sometimes it is referred to as
enhance its antioxidant capacity. However, the most important reason solvent extraction). In this approach, the target tissue is soaked in sol
for the high antioxidant activity of EBP is their considerable content of vent to extract the desired substance. SLE is simple and usually requires
phenolics, which is also the reason why EPP has much higher antioxi no specific equipment, however, high solvent consumption and rela
dant potency (DPPH: ~90% at the concentration of 10 mg/mL) than ECP tively long extraction durations could be some of the drawbacks of this
(DPPH: ~50% at the concentration of 10 mg/mL) (Kazemi et al., approach (Silva et al., 2017).
2019b). Extraction of anthocyanins from EB by SLE is directly affected by
Other than antioxidant potential, pectin has been linked to other several factors such as solvent type, pH, temperature, extraction time,
biological properties, such as anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activ tissue size, liquid/solid ratio and shaking or rotating speed (most of
ities (Maxwell et al., 2012). Although the EBP has not been studied in these factors affect other extraction methods as well). Polar solvents
these subjects, given its promising biological properties, it seems much such as ethanol, methanol and acetone have been commonly used for
needed for shortcomings in this regard to be addressed. extraction of anthocyanins from EB. The use of other solvents, such as
acidified water (Ferarsa et al., 2018), organic acids (Todaro et al., 2009)
4.3. Pullulan and glycerol mixtures (Manousaki et al., 2016; Philippi et al., 2016) has
also been reported. Most of the studies have employed a combination of
As described before, unlike pectin and anthocyanins which are different solvents and water, with various ratios. Ferarsa et al. (2018)
extracted from EB, pullulan is produced through fermentation by A. reported that compared to pure ethanol or water, utilization of 50%
pullulans and EB is used as a carbon source in this process. Therefore, it ethanol increased the extraction yield of EP anthocyanins. They argued
could be stated that the functional properties of obtained pullulan are that in a binary solvent system of ethanol and water with a suitable ratio,
nearly identical and much more influenced by the microorganism and the difference in polarity of solvents could maximize the solubility of all
fermentation conditions, rather than the employed carbon source. compounds. Doulabi et al. (2020) and Dranca and Oroian (2016) also
Contrary to what was discussed earlier about pectin, pullulan does reported the same pattern in this regard. Furthermore, it is reported that
not offer strong features in regards to some functional properties such as the pH of solvent noticeably affects the extraction yield of EP
523
Table 2
Extraction and production methods of bioactive compounds from eggplant by-products.
Substance Method Sample preparation Solvents (Optimum) Process conditions Yielda References
Conventional
approaches
Anthocyanins SLE Peel (cut to 20 mm2) (1): 1.25% Tartaric T: 40 ◦ C, time: 60–80 min, TA: 65.79–76.44 Todaro et al. (2009)
acid LSR: 10 ml/g mg/100 g FW
(2): 1.25% Malic acid
(3) Acidified ethanol
Anthocyanins SLE Peel (grounded) 0.15% HCl in acetone T: 4 ◦ C, time: 4 h, LSR: 4:1 EY: 2.3 g/100 g Hernández-Herrero and
-aqueous acetone FW Frutos (2011)
(30:70 v/v) with
0.15% of HCl
Anthocyanins SLE Peel (shredded and Water-ethanol (1:1) T: 60 ◦ C, time and LSR: N/A TA: 19.75 g/kg Chatterjee et al. (2013)
lyophilized) in 10% citric acid DW
Anthocyanins SLE Peel (dried at 40 ◦ C (1): 70% methanol T: room, time: 40 m, TA: 51.56–82.83 Boulekbache-Makhlouf
and grounded) with 0.2% formic LSR: N/A mg/100 g DW et al. (2013)
acid
(2): 70% ethanol
with 0.2% formic
acid
(3) 70% acetone with
0.2% formic acid
Flavonoids SLE Peel (stored in the Glycerol-ammonium T: 80 ◦ C,time: 3 h Total flavonoids: Manousaki et al. (2016)
dark at 4 ◦ C) acetate (3:1) LSR: 100 ml/g 24.68 mg/g DW
Anthocyanins SLE Peel (chopped) Water/ethanol/citric T: room, time: 60 min TA: 115.43 mg/ Hosseini, Gharachorloo,
acid (50:48:2) LSR: 15 g/100 ml 100 g FW et al. (2016)
Phenolic SLE Peel (Grounded) Acidic water with pH T: 75 ◦ C, time: 60 min TPC: 23.101 mg/ Ferarsa et al. (2018)
compounds 2 LSR: 10:1 g DW
Anthocyanins SLE Peel (Crushed and 50% ethanol with T: 65 ◦ C, time: 3 h, EY: 38.6 g/100 g Akhbari et al. (2019)
dried) 2.5% HCL (v/v) LSR: 50:1 DW
TA: 431 mg/100
g DW
Emerging
approaches
Anthocyanins SFE Peel (shredded and CO2 CO2 flow rate: 2 L/min, pressure: 10 TA: 17.04 g/kg Chatterjee et al. (2013)
lyophilized) MPa, T: 60 ◦ C, time: 90 min DW
LSR: 18:1
Phenolic UAE Peel (dried at 70 ◦ C (1): water/glycerol UP: 140 W, F: 37 kHz, time: 90 min, T TPC: Philippi et al. (2016)
compounds and pulverized) 90% and LSR: (1): 50 ◦ C and 100 ml/g, (2) 13.40–13.51
(2): water/ethanol 80 ◦ C and 82 ml/g mg/g DW
40%
Phenolic UAE Peel (dried at 40 ◦ C (1): 76.6% methanol F, T and time: (1):33.88 kHz, 69.4 ◦ C and (1): TPC: 29.63 Dranca and Oroian (2016)
compounds and powdered) (2): 54.4% methanol 57.5 min; (2): 37 kHz, 55.1 ◦ C 44.85 min g/100 g extract
FW
(2): TA:2410.71
mg/100 g
extract FW
Anthocyanins UAE Peel (dried at 40 ◦ C (1): Ethanol LSR: 10 ml/g TA: (1): 0.69 g/ Dranca and Oroian (2017)
and powdered) (2): Methanol F, T and time: (1): 28.8 kHz, 67.1 ◦ C and kg
(3): 2-propanol 49.5 min, (2): 45 kHz, 50 ◦ C and 53.75 (2): 0.68 g/kg
min (3): 1.71 g/kg
(3): 30.6 kHz, 70 ◦ C and 60 min
Phenolic UAE Peel (cut to 1 × 1 Acidified water UP: 400 W, F:12 KHz, T: room, time: 30 TPC: 29.011 mg/ Ferarsa et al. (2018)
compounds cm2) min, LSR: 10:1 g DW
Anthocyanins UAE Peel (dried at 40 ◦ C) 70% ethanol UP:100 W, F: 40Khz, T: 40◦ , time: N/A, TA: 0.58 mg/g Condurache et al. (2019)
LSR: 20 ml/g DW
Anthocyanins MAE Peel (dried at 30 ◦ C) 73.49% ethanol with MP: 269.82 W, time: 7.98min, EY: 3.27% Doulabi et al. (2020)
pH 3.06 LSR: 5.01 ml/g TA: 6.99 mg/L
Pectin UAE Peel (dried at 45 C
◦
Acidified water with UP: 50 W, T: room, time: 30 min, EY: 33.64 g/100 Kazemi et al. (2019a)
and milled) pH of 1.5 LSR: 20:1 g DW
Pectin MAE (1): Peel (dried at Acidified water with MP: 700 W, T: room, time: 2 min, LSR: EY: (1): 29.17g/ Kazemi et al. (2019b)
45 ◦ C and powdered) pH of 1.5 20:1 100 g DW
(2): Calyx (dried at (2): 18.36 g/100
45 ◦ C and powdered) g DW
Zero-waste
approach
Pectin and SLE Peel (dried at 50 ◦ C Acidified water with T: 90 ◦ C, time 90 min, EY of pectin:: (Kazemi et al., 2019c)
phenolic and grounded) pH of 2.5 LSR: 40 mg/L 26.1 g/100 g DW
compounds EY of phenolics:
20.2 g/100 g DW
Pullulan Fermentation Leftovers from Enzymatic Fermentation processes: Production
extraction of pectin hydrolysate of the Medium: 50 mL of enzymatic yield: 16.8 g/L
and phenolics (dried leftovers (3% w/v) hydrolysate with pH 5.5, supplemented
at 45 ◦ C, powdered) with pH of 5 with 5 g/L of KH2PO4, 1 g/L of NaCl, 0.6
g/L of (NH4)2SO4, 0.5 g/L of
MgSO4⋅7H2O, 0.01 g/L of ZnSO4, 0.01
(continued on next page)
524
Table 2 (continued )
Substance Method Sample preparation Solvents (Optimum) Process conditions Yielda References
Conventional
approaches
g/L of MnSO4, 0.01 g/L of FeSO4 and 4

g/L of yeast extract and 5% (v/v) of
inoculum
T: 28 ◦ C, time: 7 days
FW: fresh weight, DW: dry weight, TA: total anthocyanins, EY: extraction yield TPC: total phenolic content, MP: microwave power, UP: ultrasound power, F: frequency,
SLE: solid lipid extraction, SFE: supercritical fluid extraction, UAE: ultrasound assisted extraction, MAE: microwave-assisted extraction.
a
Amounts of yield are reported according to each study’s definition of this parameter.
anthocyanins (Ferarsa et al., 2018), therefore, most of the studies have target compound in the surrounding solvent (Chemat et al., 2017;
used HCL or citric acid to lower the pH. Anthocyanins are very sensitive Kumar et al., 2021). Other than conventional factors that were
to pH changes. They are easier to extract and more stable at acidic pH mentioned in section 5.1, UAE process is also affected by ultrasound
and usually start degrading at alkaline mediums (Dranca & Oroian, power, frequency and duration. Dranca and Oroian (2016) employed
2016). These compounds are also greatly affected by the applied tem UAE and reported an increase in extraction yield of phenolic compounds
perature. Most literatures recommend temperatures between 40 and from EP, comparing to previous studies with conventional extraction
75 ◦ C as optimum for extraction of anthocyanins from EP. Todaro et al. methods. They also found out that ultrasonic frequency, along with
(2009) reported an increase in extraction yield by increasing the tem temperature and time had a significantly positive linear effect on the
perature up to 40 ◦ C, however, the yield started to decline when the amount of TPC. Ferarsa et al. (2018) performed a comparison between
temperature was further increased. Ferarsa et al. (2018) reported that SLE and UAE in regards to anthocyanin extraction from EP and reported
the highest extraction yield of anthocyanins was measured at 75 ◦ C. It is extraction yields of 23.101 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g and
worth mentioning that the effect of temperature (and other mentioned 29.011 mg GAE/g for SLE and UAE, respectively. Several other studies
parameters) cannot be solely analyzed and it must be considered along have highlighted the benefits of UAE for extraction of phenolics from EB
with other extraction factors. For example, extraction time, along with (Table 2). Kazemi et al. (2019a) utilized UAE for extraction of pectin
temperature, could have a profound effect on measured yield, since from EB. They obtained a desirable yield of 33.64% by applying an ul
exposure to high temperatures during prolonged extraction times could trasound power of 50 W, however, it was observed that increasing the
degrade a good portion of extractable anthocyanins. Extraction time, ultrasound power from 50 W to 150 W led to a decrease in extraction
along with three other parameters of tissue size, liquid/solid ratio and yield of pectin. They argued that the generated energy from cavitation
shaking or rotating speed are mostly associated with mass transfer might have degraded the pectin structure into smaller pectic fractions
principles (Silva et al., 2017). It has been reported that ground EP such as pectic-oligosaccharides and subsequently, affected the extrac
offered a higher extraction yield comparing to square slices, since tion yield. It was also reported that the increase of extraction time and
ground particles offer a larger surface area and improved levels of sol reduction of pH had a positive effect on extraction yield of pectin.
vent and solute diffusivity (Ferarsa et al., 2018). Liquid/solid ratio is MAE is another emerging method that has been used for extraction of
another influential parameter that must be optimized in order to phenolics and pectin from EB. Microwave is an electromagnetic wave,
simultaneously achieve desirable extraction yields and lower levels of which means that it is composed of electric and magnetic fields that
solvent consumption (Todaro et al., 2009). Additional information oscillate to each other in a frequency range between 300 MHz and 300
regarding the extraction of phenolics from EB are provided at Table 2. GHz. This wave has the ability to penetrate into certain materials and
affect polar molecules through two mechanisms of ionic conduction and
dipole rotation, which subsequently generate a considerable amount of
5.2. Emerging methods heat. When microwave enters plant cells, it evaporates the water mol
ecules inside the cell. This phenomenon generates an intense pressure
Over the past two decades, as a result of growing interest and de inside the cells and eventually induces cell rupture, which leads to
mand for bioactive compounds, scientists have strived to develop novel increased contact surface between solvent and tissue and the improve
and more efficient techniques for extraction of these substances. These ment of mass transfer rate (Ekezie et al., 2017). Doulabi et al. (2020)
new methods have mostly focused on the improvement of several areas, used MAE for extraction of EB phenolics and reported that increasing the
such as improvement of extraction time and yield, reduction of solvent microwave power from 100 W to 300 W led to an improvement of
consumption, employment of green and GRAS solvents and simplifica extraction yield. Furthermore, Kazemi, et al. (2019b) employed this
tion of concentration and purification steps (Dranca & Oroian, 2016; technique for extraction of pectin from EP and EC and recorded the
Silva et al., 2017). The result of these efforts was the development of extraction yields of 29.17% and 18.36%, respectively.
various techniques such as ultrasound and microwave-assisted extrac In another attempt for utilization of emerging extraction technolo
tion (UAE and MAE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), pulse electric gies, Chatterjee et al. (2013) compared SLE and SFE methods for
field extraction and Ohmic heating-assisted extraction, some of which extraction of anthocyanins from EP. They reported that an increase in
have been used for the extraction of bioactive compounds from EB. the extraction pressure from 10 MPa to 15 MPa resulted in the reduction
Several studies have employed UAE to obtain phenolic compounds of extraction yield. Furthermore, the comparison between the two
and pectin from EB. The advantages of UAE are the consequences of a methods showed that the SLE, with the extraction yield of 19.75 g/kg
mechanism known as the acoustic cavitation phenomenon. Formation, presented a higher efficiency, comparing to SFE with the yield of 17.04
growth and collapse of air bubbles by ultrasound frequencies in the g/kg.
extraction medium exerts a substantial amount of mechanical energy
toward plant tissue, which leads to the enlargement of cell pores or cell
wall rupture. This incident increases the contact surface between solvent 5.3. Zero-waste valorization approach
and tissue and facilitates the access of solvent to the target compound
and subsequently, improves the extraction mass transfer rate. Cavitation Many of the agro-industrial by-products have the potential to yield
also increases the temperature in the location of bubble collapse, several value-added compounds upon valorization. Therefore, the
therefore, affecting the mass transfer by improving the solubility of the development of methods based on integrated valorization of these by-
525
products could be beneficial from both economic and environmental 6. Applications of bioactive compounds
perspectives. In the case of EB, Kazemi, et al. (2019c) proposed a zero-
wastes approach for simultaneous recovery of pectin and polyphenols 6.1. Phenolic compounds
and production of pullulan from EP. In this technique, EP is initially
subjected to an SLE method that is co-optimized to obtain the highest Up until now, most of the research body concerning the utilization of
possible yields of pectin and polyphenol extraction. At the end of the EB bioactive compounds is focused on the use of extracted phenolic
extraction process, the aqueous extract is subjected to purification steps compounds from the peel of eggplant. This extract is mainly employed as
in order to acquire pectin and polyphenols and the solid leftovers are a colorant and antioxidant agent in food and pharmaceutical products.
subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis using cellulase enzyme. The acquired Horincar, Enachi, Bolea, et al. (2020) used EPE in order to improve the
hydrolysate is then utilized as a carbon source for the production of biological value of lager beer since the beer antioxidants are prone to
pullulan through fermentation process using A.Pullulans. The solid degradation during technological practices, such as boiling, clarifica
leftovers, which are usually discarded at the end of other extraction tion, filtration, etc. Furthermore, higher antioxidant potential could
approaches, contain high amounts of cellulose. Furthermore, the phe diminish the production of trans-2-nonenal and other saturated and
nolics and pectin, which have the potential to prevent microbial growth unsaturated aldehydes due to lipid oxidation, which could affect the
and disrupt the access of hydrolyzing enzymes to cellulose molecules in beer flavor over time. They found out that the addition of 10 mg/mL of
plant cell walls, respectively, are separated from these leftovers (Talekar EPE increased the TPC of the beer samples by 43.73% and total flavo
et al., 2018). Therefore, in the proposed zero-waste approach, the left noid content by 106.02%, while it did not affect the extract, alcohol
overs could be utilized efficiently as a carbon source for the production content, CO2 content, or pH. Furthermore, upon the addition of EPE, the
of pullulan. The details of this approach are summarized in Table 2. samples developed a reddish color and total monomeric anthocyanin
Moreover, Fig. 2 illustrates the differences between zero waste approach content, which was not detectable before, was measured at 0.083 mg of
and other valorization approaches of EB. delphinidin-3-glucoside equivalents/mL of beer. Antioxidant activity
evaluation showed that the antioxidant potential slightly decreased after
a 21 day storage period; however, it was still significantly higher in the
Fig. 2. A comparison between zero-waste approach and other approaches used to valorize eggplant by-products.
526
samples with EPE, compared to control samples. The overall results of weight. All samples exhibited gel-like rheological behavior and
this study demonstrated the successful application of EPE in the lager regarding the textural properties, the addition of encapsulated EPE
beer and could be a promising path for the usage of EPE in other bev reduced the firmness of the sample, but did not affect other textural
erages, as an alternative to artificial preservatives. parameters. Sensory evaluation showed that compared to control sam
Chatterjee et al. (2013) studied the incorporation of ples, the overall acceptance and color scores of the enriched samples was
solvent-extracted and CO2-extracted EPE In jelly crystals and custard, as improved. This study concluded that the encapsulated EPE could be used
a model for non-thermal and thermal food applications, respectively. It as a natural additive for the production of pastry cream, as well as other
was observed that the CO2-extracted EPE contained significantly lower value-added foods such as chocolate, ice cream, jelly and candy
amounts of trace metals and was much more stable, compared to the products.
solvent-extracted EPE. Regarding the food application study, both Other studies aimed to encapsulate EPE as a natural source of color
crystal jelly and custard presented characteristic odor and taste after and antioxidants. Sarabandi et al. (2019) used gum Arabic and malto
treatment with EPE, without any off odor or unsavory aftertaste. In the dextrin as carriers for encapsulation of EPE through spray drying. They
case of product color, which was evaluated using lovebird color values, found out that maltodextrin is a better carrier for this purpose, since the
it was observed that the jelly crystals presented significant red shades production yield and solubility of the maltodextrin powders were
upon the usage of both extracts, compared to the control sample. The higher, compared to the formulations with gum Arabic or the combi
treated custard with solvent-extracted EPE also displayed a red shade. nation of both. The maltodextrin-encapsulated EPE also presented
However, the custard treated with CO2-extracted EPE displayed a darker higher TPC and antioxidant activity. The size of the produced micro
shade of the original golden yellow color of the custard. Results from this capsules in this study ranged between 50 and 70 μm, with maltodextrin
study suggested that the solvent-extracted EPE was more stable at high particles being the smallest. Furthermore, they used
temperatures, while the CO2-extracted EPE, which contained higher maltodextrin-encapsulated EPE for the fortification of gummy candy.
amounts of thermosensitive delphinidin-3-rutinoside, was more suitable Results from sensory evaluation indicated that the addition of 1.5% of
for non-thermal food applications. In another study regarding the encapsulated EPE to gummy candy samples improved the color and
thermal behavior, Zhang, Sun, Wang, et al. (2020) evaluated the effect overall acceptability score of the samples. Chatterjee and Bhattacharjee
of different cooking methods, steaming and boiling, on degradation of (2015) utilized an encapsulator in order to produce calcium alginate
EP anthocyanins. They used cookies prepared with a dietary fiber and beads as a carrier for the encapsulation of EPE. After optimization
anthocyanin dough as a model food. It was observed that as a result of through response surface methodology, optimal samples showed irreg
thermal treatment, the amount of anthocyanins was decreased signifi ularly spherical beads, with an average diameter of 800 μm and an
cantly in all samples; however, the steamed solid cookie showed better encapsulation efficiency of 73.48%. They found out that the shelf life of
anthocyanin retention, compared to boiled cookies (which turned into encapsulated EPE was 1500% higher, compared to non-encapsulated
paste as the result of boiling) and the control sample (a liquid phase EPE. Furthermore, they employed their product as a coloring agent for
containing only anthocyanins and not dietary fiber). The protective ef jelly crystals, which resulted in crystals with significant red shade,
fect of dietary fiber on anthocyanins, especially in the steam solid compared to the color-blank sample. It was observed that the degree of
samples, could be due to the entrapment of anthocyanins into the fiber redness was significantly higher in the samples treated with
matrix. Another possibility is the formation of interactions, such as non-encapsulated EPE; however, the crystals treated with encapsulated
hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, electrostatic interactions and EPE showed much more resemblance to the natural color of EP. In
hydrophobic interactions between the dietary fiber and anthocyanins, another study conducted by Condurache et al. (2019), EPE was encap
which might contribute to their thermo-stability. This study also sulated in 4 different mixtures of carboxymethylcellulose, pectin and
observed that the steaming process was better for anthocyanin retention bioactive peptides through freeze-drying. Bioactive peptides are resul
in solid samples, while boiling was preferable for liquid samples. The ted from the enzymatic hydrolysis of whey proteins and possess
method of thermal treatment has a significant effect on the stability of health-promoting benefits such as antimicrobial, antihypertensive and
eggplant phenolics, especially anthocyanins. Martini et al. (2021) immunomodulatory activities. The encapsulation efficiency of the
studied the effect of four domestic cooking methods on the stability and freeze-dried powders was calculated in the range of 69–77%. It was
bioaccessibility of eggplant phenolic compounds. In the case of antho found out that the powders with the highest content of carboxymeth
cyanins, which are mostly concentrated in the peel, it was observed that ylcellulose displayed a higher percentage of encapsulated EPE, which
the boiling was the best method for anthocyanin retention (43.7% loss of could be related to the improvement of wall material strength as a result
total anthocyanins), followed by frying (60.3% loss), grilling (84.4% of carboxymethylcellulose addition. All of the samples presented satis
loss) and baking (91.2% loss). The results of this study could be inter factory antioxidant activity and after 28 days of storage, the powders
preted into the effect of thermal treatment on the functionality of EP with the highest content of pectin demonstrated better antioxidant ac
anthocyanins. tivity. Results from release study in simulated gastrointestinal medium
In another study by Horincar, Enachi, Barbu, et al. (2020), as an showed that in all of the samples, the release of encapsulated EPE was
alternative to chemically synthetic food additives, encapsulated EPE was low during the gastric phase, but significantly increased during the in
employed to produce value-added pastry cream. The main limiting testinal phase. In both phases, the sample with the highest content of
factor for the utilization of anthocyanins in food products is the stability pectin was the most effective, with 4.28 ± 0.01% release in the gastric
of these compounds, which could be affected by enzymatic activity, medium and 41.47 ± 1.40% release in the intestinal medium. These
temperature, oxygen, pH, metal ions and exposure to light or UV. results point to the significant bioaccessibility improvement of the
Therefore, encapsulation could decrease the degradation rate and con encapsulated EPE. This study also pointed out that the encapsulated EPE
trol the release of anthocyanins, as well as many other bioactive com samples were not cytotoxic toward mouse fibroblast cell cultures, and
pounds (Karimi et al., 2020). In the mentioned study, EPE was even two of the samples significantly improved the viability of the
encapsulated in WPI and acacia gum through freeze-drying, which treated cells. The overall results of this study demonstrated the suc
resulted in microcapsules with an encapsulation efficiency of 94.31%, cessful enhancement of anthocyanin’s bioavailability and controlled
rich phenolic content and high antioxidant activity. Furthermore, pastry release. They also pointed out the benefits of using bioactive peptides as
creams with 10% added encapsulated EPE presented an increase of TPC shell material. Another related study to bioactive peptides and EPE was
by 983.25% and total flavonoid content by 141.01%; also, the antioxi conducted by Condurache et al. (2020). In this study, lactoferrin hy
dant potential was rather stable during a 72 h storage period. Total drolysate which was obtained from enzymatic hydrolysis and ultrafil
monomeric anthocyanin content, which was not detectable before, was tration of bovine lactoferrin, was bound to anthocyanins extracted from
measured at 0.225 mg of delphinidin-3-glucoside equivalents/g dry EP. Results of this study clarified the mechanisms of interactions
527
between EPE anthocyanins and lactoferrin peptides and provided in mixtures on the structural characteristics of curcumin-loaded pullulan
sights for formulating food products and ingredients with improved nanofibers. They studied the effect of certain factors such as viscosity,
bioactive-binding properties. interactions between solvent and polymer and solvent vapor pressure, as
well as the effect of curcumin on size and morphology of produced
6.2. Pectin nanofibers. Results from this research illustrate that employing DMF:
DMSO with the ratio of 7:3 yields defect-free nanofibers with a mean
As summarized in the previous sections, EB is an excellent agricul diameter of 203 ± 32 nm and curcumin encapsulation efficiency of
tural by-product for extraction of pectin and the pectin from this source ~96.5%. Pullulan has also been used as a copolymer with various
illustrates very good functional properties. However, given the novelty polymers in the field of electrospinning. It is reported that by modifying
of this subject, to the best of our knowledge, extracted pectin from EB the solution characteristics such as surface tension, viscosity and elec
has not been employed in any food, pharmaceutic or other products just trical conductivity, pullulan could enhance the electrospinnability of
yet. Nonetheless, there are countless potentials for utilization of this some problematic polymers (Qin et al., 2020). All of the mentioned
compound and several studies have already discussed this subject applications, as well as numerous other studies that their explanation is
thoroughly (Christiaens et al., 2016; Mellinas et al., 2020; Wusigale beyond the scope of this review, highlights the importance of pullulan
et al., 2020). EBP is categorized as HMP, which is widely used as gelling among current research trends and emphasizes the necessity of indus
and thickening agent in the food industry. HMP is capable of forming trialized and convenient production of this substance from cheap and
gels in an environment with high sugar concentration and acidic pH, available materials, such as EB.
which makes this substance ideal for utilization in foods with similar
conditions, such as jams, jellies and marmalades (Christiaens et al.,. 6.4. Industrial application feasibility
2016). Furthermore, HMP is capable of forming thin films under the
aforementioned conditions, which makes this compound useful for All of the mentioned studies regarding the valorization and appli
production of antioxidant, antimicrobial, preservative and pH indicator cation of EB were carried out in small-scale research laboratories.
films (Kumar et al., 2020; Mellinas et al., 2020). EPP could be especially However, in order to truly address the conundrum of generation and
advantageous in this subject, because of its substantial TPC and anti accumulation of agricultural by-products, the scale of the related
oxidant potential and could also be ideal for production of nutritionally research studies must be upgraded to industrial proportions. This might
valuable food products. EPP also illustrates good emulsifying properties not be an easy goal to achieve, since it is costly, time consuming and
and could be employed for production and stabilization of various types requires an intense level of cooperation among scientific communities,
of emulsions (Gong et al., 2020). Recent trends regarding the utilization policy makers, and manufacturing and business sectors; Nevertheless, it
of pectin have focused on the application of pectin and its derivatives in seems absolutely necessary and could actually provide numerous, long
pharmaceutical science and medicine, either as an independent medic term environmental and economic benefits and opportunities (Kazemi
inal substance (Beukema et al., 2020; Zaitseva et al., 2020) or for the et al., 2019c).
development of drug delivery systems such as hydrogels (Amirian et al., To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no large-scale industrial plant
2021), as well as liposomes (Lopes et al., 2021) and other various types or facility for valorization of EB have been developed yet. However, the
of nanoparticles (Zhao et al., 2020). The mentioned studies are just a promising potentials of EB bioactives could guarantee the feasibility of
small portion of the discussion of pectin utilization, and given to desir such facilities. For instance, canning and ready-meal factories with high
able characteristics of EBP, it is most likely going to fit well within this eggplant usage generate a considerable amount of EB every day. These
field in the near future. factories could develop a valorization section along with their main
production line, in which they acquire high value bioactives from their
6.3. Pullulan EB. This approach could significantly reduce the factory’s waste gen
eration and landfilling costs. Furthermore, they could use the acquired
Research in the subject of pullulan production from EB is still at its bioactives for fortification and improvement of their own products or
early stages and up until now, to the best of our knowledge, acquired sell them for profit. Another approach for valorization of EB is the
pullulan from EB has not been employed in any researches, products, or development of independent valorization facilities near or inside the
industries. However, based on the aforementioned information food processing industrial zones. This method is especially beneficial if
regarding this product, it seems beneficial to address the shortage of the industrial zone is located near the eggplant cultivation fields or in a
research attempts in this regard. Several review studies have attentively region with high consumption of eggplant products and could reduce
addressed various aspects of pullulan application (Singh et al., 2019; costs and generate revenue for the business owners and provide jobs for
Tiwari et al., 2019). Other than usual uses in food products as a thick the local community.
ening, gelling and stabilizing agent, in the past few years, many studies
utilized pullulan in different aspects of food and pharmaceutical in 7. Conclusion and future prospects
dustries, especially in the fields of hydrogel and film production, along
with fiber fabrication through electrospinning. The stair-step type Eggplant peel and calyx, the main by-products of eggplant fruit, are
structure and excellent mechanical properties of pullulan molecules mostly generated by industrial food processing sections. These by-
enable this substance to offer an incredible film and fiber-forming products are inexpensive, readily available for utilization and have the
properties (Celebioglu & Uyar, 2021). Recently, pullulan, usually in potential to yield substantial amounts of anthocyanins and pectin. EB
combinations with other polymers, has been utilized for preparation of anthocyanins, which are mostly consisted of delphinidin glycosides,
films and coating for various purposes, such as fruit preservation offer superb health-promoting benefits such as antioxidant, antimicro
(Pobiega et al., 2020), food packaging (Luís et al., 2020), edible films bial and anticancer activities. EB pectin also illustrates great functional
(Kowalczyk et al., 2020) and drug delivery (Shah et al., 2020). More properties such as high levels of WHC and OHC, very good emulsifying
over, hydrogel fabrication from pullulan, sometimes in combination and foaming properties and significant levels of antioxidant activity.
with other polymers, has been another popular trend in the past few Both of these bioactive compounds have been separately extracted from
years (Zhang, Sun, Zhang, et al., 2020). Furthermore, the particular EB by employing the conventional SLE technique, as well as more effi
structure, as well as high water solubility and special rheological cient emerging methods such as UAE and MAE. Furthermore, by
properties, makes pullulan an ideal substance for production of uniform employing an integrated valorization technique, it is possible and ad
and flawless micro and nanofibers by electrospinning. Guerrini et al. vantageous to simultaneously extract anthocyanins and pectin from EB
(2021) evaluated the effect of different solvents and solvent binary and then, as an approach to zero-waste valorization, utilize the leftovers
528
as a potential carbon source for the production of pullulan through Food Science and Nutrition, 56(6), 1021–1042. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10408398.2012.753029
fermentation. Given the substantial economic and environmental ad
Cisowska, A., Wojnicz, D., & Hendrich, A. B. (2011). Anthocyanins as antimicrobial
vantages, it seems necessary for integrated valorization techniques of agents of natural plant origin [Review]. Natural Product Communications, 6(1),
agricultural by-products to be further studied. Moreover, EB anthocya 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578x1100600136
nins (in the form of EPE) have been successfully employed for fortifi Coelho, M. C., Pereira, R. N., Rodrigues, A. S., Teixeira, J. A., & Pintado, M. E. (2020).
The use of emergent technologies to extract added value compounds from grape by-
cation of several model foods as an alternative to artificial preservatives. products [Review]. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 106, 182–197. https://doi.
However, further research is needed in regards to the application and org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.09.028
health-promoting effects of bioactive compounds from EB, especially in Condurache, N. N., Aprodu, I., Crăciunescu, O., Tatia, R., Horincar, G., Barbu, V.,
Enachi, E., Râpeanu, G., Bahrim, G. E., Oancea, A., & Stănciuc, N. (2019). Probing
the case of pectin and pullulan. Ultimately, it could be concluded that EB the functionality of bioactives from eggplant peel extracts through extraction and
are excellent sources of bioactive compounds, valorization is the most microencapsulation in different polymers and whey protein hydrolysates, 2019/08/
beneficial approach to deal with these by-products and the acquired 01 Food and Bioprocess Technology, 12(8), 1316–1329. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-019-02302-1.
bioactive compounds have great functional and health-promoting Condurache, N. N., Aprodu, I., Grigore-Gurgu, L., Petre, B. A., Enachi, E., Râpeanu, G.,
properties and could be significantly useful in food and pharmaceu Bahrim, G. E., & Stănciuc, N. (2020). Fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular
tical industries. modeling of anthocyanins binding to bovine lactoferrin peptides, 2020/07/15/ Food
Chemistry, 318, 126508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126508.
Costea, T., Nagy, P., Ganea, C., Szöllősi, J., & Mocanu, M. M. (2019). Molecular
References mechanisms and bioavailability of polyphenols in prostate cancer [Review].
International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/
Akhbari, M., Hamedi, S., & Aghamiri, Z. S. (2019). Optimization of total phenol and ijms20051062. Article 1062.
anthocyanin extraction from the peels of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and Dharmawansa, K. V. S., Hoskin, D. W., & Vasantha Rupasinghe, H. P. (2020).
biological activity of the extracts [Article]. Journal of Food Measurement and Chemopreventive effect of dietary anthocyanins against gastrointestinal cancers: A
Characterization, 13(4), 3183–3197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-019-00241-1 review of recent advances and perspectives [review]. International Journal of
Alizadeh-Sani, M., Tavassoli, M., McClements, D. J., & Hamishehkar, H. (2021). Molecular Sciences, 21(18), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186555. Article
Multifunctional halochromic packaging materials: Saffron petal anthocyanin loaded- 6555.
chitosan nanofiber/methyl cellulose matrices [Article]. Food Hydrocolloids, 111. Di Mattia, C. D., Sacchetti, G., Mastrocola, D., Sarker, D. K., & Pittia, P. (2010). Surface
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106237. Article 106237. properties of phenolic compounds and their influence on the dispersion degree and
Amirian, J., Zeng, Y., Shekh, M. I., Sharma, G., Stadler, F. J., Song, J., Du, B., & Zhu, Y. oxidative stability of olive oil O/W emulsions, 2010/08/01/ Food Hydrocolloids, 24
(2021). In-situ crosslinked hydrogel based on amidated pectin/oxidized chitosan as (6), 652–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.03.007.
potential wound dressing for skin repairing [Article]. Carbohydrate Polymers, 251. Diaconeasa, Z., Ştirbu, I., Xiao, J., Leopold, N., Ayvaz, Z., Danciu, C., Ayvaz, H.,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117005. Article 117005. Stănilă, A., Nistor, M., & Socaciu, C. (2020). Anthocyanins, vibrant color pigments,
Arjeh, E., Akhavan, H.-R., Barzegar, M., & Carbonell-Barrachina, Á. A. (2020). Bio-active and their role in skin cancer prevention [Review]. Biomedicines, 8(9). https://doi.
compounds and functional properties of pistachio hull: A review, 2020/03/01/ org/10.3390/BIOMEDICINES8090336. Article 336.
Trends in Food Science & Technology, 97, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Doulabi, M., Golmakani, M. T., & Ansari, S. (2020). Evaluation and optimization of
tifs.2019.12.031. microwave-assisted extraction of bioactive compounds from eggplant peel by-
Bayar, N., Bouallegue, T., Achour, M., Kriaa, M., Bougatef, A., & Kammoun, R. (2017). product [Article]. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 44(11). https://doi.
Ultrasonic extraction of pectin from Opuntia ficus indica cladodes after mucilage org/10.1111/jfpp.14853. Article e14853.
removal: Optimization of experimental conditions and evaluation of chemical and Dranca, F., & Oroian, M. (2016). Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of total
functional properties, 2017/11/15/ Food Chemistry, 235, 275–282. https://doi.org/ monomeric anthocyanin (TMA) and total phenolic content (TPC) from eggplant
10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.05.029. (Solanum melongena L.) peel, 2016/07/01/ Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 31, 637–646.
Bayar, N., Friji, M., & Kammoun, R. (2018). Optimization of enzymatic extraction of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2015.11.008.
pectin from Opuntia ficus indica cladodes after mucilage removal, 2018/02/15/ Dranca, F., & Oroian, M. (2017). Total monomeric anthocyanin, total phenolic content
Food Chemistry, 241, 127–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.08.051. and antioxidant activity of extracts from eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) peel using
Belwal, T., Singh, G., Jeandet, P., Pandey, A., Giri, L., Ramola, S., Bhatt, I. D., ultrasonic treatments [article]. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 40(1). https://
Venskutonis, P. R., Georgiev, M. I., Clément, C., & Luo, Z. (2020). Anthocyanins, doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12312. Article e12312.
multi-functional natural products of industrial relevance: Recent biotechnological Ekezie, F.-G. C., Sun, D.-W., & Cheng, J.-H. (2017). Acceleration of microwave-assisted
advances, 2020/11/01/ Biotechnology Advances, 43, Article 107600. https://doi.org/ extraction processes of food components by integrating technologies and applying
10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107600. emerging solvents: A review of latest developments, 2017/09/01/ Trends in Food
Beukema, M., Faas, M. M., & de Vos, P. (2020). The effects of different dietary fiber Science & Technology, 67, 160–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.06.006.
pectin structures on the gastrointestinal immune barrier: Impact via gut microbiota Fallah, A. A., Sarmast, E., & Jafari, T. (2020). Effect of dietary anthocyanins on
and direct effects on immune cells [review]. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 52 biomarkers of oxidative stress and antioxidative capacity: A systematic review and
(9), 1364–1376. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-0449-2 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, 2020/05/01/ Journal of Functional
Boulekbache-Makhlouf, L., Medouni, L., Medouni-Adrar, S., Arkoub, L., & Madani, K. Foods, 68, 103912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2020.103912.
(2013). Effect of solvents extraction on phenolic content and antioxidant activity of FAOSTAT. (2019). Statistical database. Available at: http://www.fao.
the byproduct of eggplant, 2013/08/01/ Industrial Crops and Products, 49, 668–674. org/faostat/en/#data/QC/ (accessed 29 Dec 2020).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.06.009. Ferarsa, S., Zhang, W., Moulai-Mostefa, N., Ding, L., Jaffrin, M. Y., & Grimi, N. (2018).
Castañeda-Ovando, A., Pacheco-Hernández, M.d. L., Páez-Hernández, M. E., Recovery of anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds from purple eggplant peels
Rodríguez, J. A., & Galán-Vidal, C. A. (2009). Chemical studies of anthocyanins: A and pulps using ultrasonic-assisted extraction, 2018/05/01/ Food and Bioproducts
review, 2009/04/15/ Food Chemistry, 113(4), 859–871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Processing, 109, 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2018.02.006.
foodchem.2008.09.001. Gato, E., Rosalowska, A., Martínez-Guitián, M., Lores, M., Bou, G., & Pérez, A. (2020).
Celebioglu, A., & Uyar, T. (2021). Electrohydrodynamic encapsulation of eugenol- Anti-adhesive activity of a Vaccinium corymbosum polyphenolic extract targeting
cyclodextrin complexes in pullulan nanofibers [Article]. Food Hydrocolloids, 111. intestinal colonization by Klebsiella pneumoniae [Article]. Biomedicine &
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106264. Article 106264. Pharmacotherapy, 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110885. Article
Chatterjee, D., & Bhattacharjee, P. (2015). Encapsulation of colour from peels of eggplant 110885.
in calcium alginate matrix, 2015/06/01 Nutrafoods, 14(2), 87–96. https://doi.org/ Gong, S., Fei, P., Sun, Q., Guo, L., Jiang, L., Duo, K., Bi, X., & Yun, X. (2021). Action mode
10.1007/s13749-015-0001-5. of cranberry anthocyanin on physiological and morphological properties of
Chatterjee, D., Jadhav, N. T., & Bhattacharjee, P. (2013). Solvent and supercritical Staphylococcus aureus and its application in cooked meat [Article]. Food
carbon dioxide extraction of color from eggplants: Characterization and food Microbiology, 94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2020.103632. Article 103632.
applications [Article]. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und -Technologie- Food Science and Gong, C., Lee, M. C., Godec, M., Zhang, Z., & Abbaspourrad, A. (2020). Ultrasonic
Technology, 51(1), 319–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2012.09.012 encapsulation of cinnamon flavor to impart heat stability for baking applications,
Chemat, F., Rombaut, N., Sicaire, A.-G., Meullemiestre, A., Fabiano-Tixier, A.-S., & Abert- 2020/02/01/ Food Hydrocolloids, 99, Article 105316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Vian, M. (2017). Ultrasound assisted extraction of food and natural products. foodhyd.2019.105316.
Mechanisms, techniques, combinations, protocols and applications. A review, 2017/ Guerrini, L. M., Oliveira, M. P., Stapait, C. C., Maric, M., Santos, A. M., &
01/01/ Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 34, 540–560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Demarquette, N. R. (2021). Evaluation of different solvents and solubility
ultsonch.2016.06.035. parameters on the morphology and diameter of electrospun pullulan nanofibers for
Chen, J., Zhu, Y., Zhang, W., Peng, X., Zhou, J., Li, F., Han, B., Liu, X., Ou, Y., & Yu, X. curcumin entrapment [Article]. Carbohydrate Polymers, 251. https://doi.org/
(2018). Delphinidin induced protective autophagy via mTOR pathway suppression 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117127. Article 117127.
and AMPK pathway activation in HER-2 positive breast cancer cells [Article]. BMC Gürbüz, N., Uluişik, S., Frary, A., Frary, A., & Doğanlar, S. (2018). Health benefits and
Cancer, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-018-4231-y. Article 342. bioactive compounds of eggplant, 2018/12/01/ Food Chemistry, 268, 602–610.
Christiaens, S., Van Buggenhout, S., Houben, K., Jamsazzadeh Kermani, Z., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.06.093.
Moelants, K. R. N., Ngouémazong, E. D., Van Loey, A., & Hendrickx, M. E. G. (2016). Han, B., Peng, X., Cheng, D., Zhu, Y., Du, J., Li, J., & Yu, X. (2019). Delphinidin
Process–structure–function relations of pectin in food [review]. Critical Reviews in suppresses breast carcinogenesis through the HOTAIR/microRNA-34a axis [Article].
Cancer Science, 110(10), 3089–3097. https://doi.org/10.1111/cas.14133
529
Hernández-Herrero, J. A., & Frutos, M. J. (2011). Degradation kinetics of pigment, colour liposomes [Article]. Food Hydrocolloids, 112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
and stability of the antioxidant capacity in juice model systems from six anthocyanin foodhyd.2020.106320. Article 106320.
sources [Article]. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 46(12), Luís, Â., Ramos, A., & Domingues, F. (2020). Pullulan films containing rockrose essential
2550–2557. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02780.x oil for potential food packaging applications [Article]. Antibiotics, 9(10), 1–20.
Horincar, G., Enachi, E., Barbu, V., Andronoiu, D. G., Râpeanu, G., Stănciuc, N., & https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9100681. Article 681.
Aprodu, I. (2020). Value-added pastry cream enriched with microencapsulated Luthria, D., Singh, A. P., Wilson, T., Vorsa, N., Banuelos, G. S., & Vinyard, B. T. (2010).
bioactive compounds from eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) peel [Article]. Influence of conventional and organic agricultural practices on the phenolic content
Antioxidants, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9040351. Article 351. in eggplant pulp: Plant-to-plant variation, 2010/07/15/ Food Chemistry, 121(2),
Horincar, G., Enachi, E., Bolea, C., Râpeanu, G., & Aprodu, I. (2020). Value-added lager 406–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.055.
beer enriched with eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) peel extract [Article]. Manolescu, B. N., Oprea, E., Mititelu, M., Ruta, L., & Farcasanu, I. (2019). Dietary
Molecules, 25(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030731. Article 731. anthocyanins and stroke: A review of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic
Hosseini, S., Gharachorloo, M., Ghiassi-Tarzi, B., & Ghavami, M. (2016a). Evaluation of studies [review]. Nutrients, 11(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11071479. Article
the organic acids ability for extraction of anthocyanins and phenolic compounds 1479.
from different sources and their degradation kinetics during cold storage [Article]. Manousaki, A., Jancheva, M., Grigorakis, S., & Makris, D. P. (2016). Extraction of
Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 66(4), 261–269. https://doi.org/ antioxidant phenolics from agri-food waste biomass using a newly designed glycerol-
10.1515/pjfns-2015-0057 based natural low-transition temperature mixture: A comparison with conventional
Hosseini, S. S., Khodaiyan, F., & Yarmand, M. S. (2016). Aqueous extraction of pectin eco-friendly solvents [article]. Recycling, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/
from sour orange peel and its preliminary physicochemical properties, 2016/01/01/ recycling1010194
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 82, 920–926. https://doi.org/ Marić, M., Grassino, A. N., Zhu, Z., Barba, F. J., Brnčić, M., & Rimac Brnčić, S. (2018). An
10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.11.007. overview of the traditional and innovative approaches for pectin extraction from
Huang, C. C., Hung, C. H., Hung, T. W., Lin, Y. C., Wang, C. J., & Kao, S. H. (2019). plant food wastes and by-products: Ultrasound-, microwaves-, and enzyme-assisted
Dietary delphinidin inhibits human colorectal cancer metastasis associating with extraction, 2018/06/01/ Trends in Food Science & Technology, 76, 28–37. https://doi.
upregulation of miR-204-3p and suppression of the integrin/FAK axis [Article]. org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.03.022.
Scientific Reports, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-55505-z. Article Martini, S., Conte, A., Cattivelli, A., & Tagliazucchi, D. (2021). Domestic cooking
18954. methods affect the stability and bioaccessibility of dark purple eggplant (Solanum
Iqbal, J., Abbasi, B. A., Batool, R., Mahmood, T., Ali, B., Khalil, A. T., Kanwal, S., melongena) phenolic compounds, 2021/03/30/ Food Chemistry, 341, Article
Shah, S. A., & Ahmad, R. (2018). Potential phytocompounds for developing breast 128298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128298.
cancer therapeutics: Nature’s healing touch [Review]. European Journal of Mauro, R. P., Agnello, M., Rizzo, V., Graziani, G., Fogliano, V., Leonardi, C., &
Pharmacology, 827, 125–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2018.03.007 Giuffrida, F. (2020). Recovery of eggplant field waste as a source of phytochemicals,
Jimenez-Lopez, C., Fraga-Corral, M., Carpena, M., García-Oliveira, P., Echave, J., 2020/02/05/ Scientia Horticulturae, 261, 109023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Pereira, A. G., Lourenço-Lopes, C., Prieto, M. A., & Simal-Gandara, J. (2020). scienta.2019.109023.
Agriculture waste valorisation as a source of antioxidant phenolic compounds within Maxwell, E. G., Belshaw, N. J., Waldron, K. W., & Morris, V. J. (2012). Pectin - an
a circular and sustainable bioeconomy [Review]. Food and Function, 11(6), emerging new bioactive food polysaccharide [Review]. Trends in Food Science &
4853–4877. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0fo00937g Technology, 24(2), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2011.11.002
Karimi, A., Askari, G., Yarmand, M. S., Salami, M., & EmamDjomeh, Z. (2020). Mazewski, C., Kim, M. S., & Gonzalez de Mejia, E. (2019). Anthocyanins, delphinidin-3-
Development, modification and characterization of ursolic acid-loaded gelatin O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, inhibit immune checkpoints in human
nanoparticles through electrospraying technique, 2020/11/01/ Food and Bioproducts colorectal cancer cells in vitro and in silico [Article]. Article 11560 Scientific Reports,
Processing, 124, 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2020.08.018. 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47903-0.
Kazemi, M., Khodaiyan, F., & Hosseini, S. S. (2019a). Eggplant peel as a high potential Mellinas, C., Ramos, M., Jiménez, A., & Garrigós, M. C. (2020). Recent trends in the use
source of high methylated pectin: Ultrasonic extraction optimization and of pectin from agro-waste residues as a natural-based biopolymer for food packaging
characterization, 2019/05/01/ Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie, 105, applications [Review]. Materials, 13(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13030673.
182–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.01.060. Article 673.
Kazemi, M., Khodaiyan, F., & Hosseini, S. S. (2019b). Utilization of food processing Mirmohamadsadeghi, S., Karimi, K., Tabatabaei, M., & Aghbashlo, M. (2019). Biogas
wastes of eggplant as a high potential pectin source and characterization of extracted production from food wastes: A review on recent developments and future
pectin, 2019/10/01/ Food Chemistry, 294, 339–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. perspectives [article]. Bioresource Technology Reports, 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodchem.2019.05.063. biteb.2019.100202. Article 100202.
Kazemi, M., Khodaiyan, F., Hosseini, S. S., & Najari, Z. (2019c). An integrated de Moura, F. A., Macagnan, F. T., dos Santos, L. R., Bizzani, M., de Oliveira
valorization of industrial waste of eggplant: Simultaneous recovery of pectin, Petkowicz, C. L., & da Silva, L. P. (2017). Characterization and physicochemical
phenolics and sequential production of pullulan, 2019/12/01/ Waste Management, properties of pectins extracted from agroindustrial by-products [Article]. Journal of
100, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.09.013. Food Science & Technology, 54(10), 3111–3117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-
Kazemi, M., Khodaiyan, F., Labbafi, M., Saeid Hosseini, S., & Hojjati, M. (2019d). 017-2747-9
Pistachio green hull pectin: Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction and Niño-Medina, G., Urías-Orona, V., Muy-Rangel, M. D., & Heredia, J. B. (2017). Structure
evaluation of its physicochemical, structural and functional properties [Article]. and content of phenolics in eggplant (Solanum melongena) - a review, 2017/07/01/
Food Chemistry, 271, 663–672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.07.212 South African Journal of Botany, 111, 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Khoo, H. E., Azlan, A., Tang, S. T., & Lim, S. M. (2017). Anthocyanidins and sajb.2017.03.016.
anthocyanins: Colored pigments as food, pharmaceutical ingredients, and the Oliveira, H., Fernandes, A., Brás, N. F., Mateus, N., de Freitas, V., & Fernandes, I. (2020).
potential health benefits [Review]. Food & Nutrition Research, 61. https://doi.org/ Anthocyanins as antidiabetic agents—in vitro and in silico approaches of preventive
10.1080/16546628.2017.1361779. Article 1361779. and therapeutic effects [Review]. Molecules, 25(17). https://doi.org/10.3390/
Kowalczyk, D., Skrzypek, T., Basiura-Cembala, M., Łupina, K., & Mężyńska, M. (2020). molecules25173813. Article 3813.
The effect of potassium sorbate on the physicochemical properties of edible films Omar-Aziz, M., Yarmand, M. S., Khodaiyan, F., Mousavi, M., Gharaghani, M.,
based on pullulan, gelatin and their blends [Article]. Food Hydrocolloids, 105. Kennedy, J. F., & Hosseini, S. S. (2020). Chemical modification of pullulan
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105837. Article 105837. exopolysaccharide by octenyl succinic anhydride: Optimization, physicochemical,
Kumar, K., Srivastav, S., & Sharanagat, V. S. (2021). Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) structural and functional properties, 2020/12/01/ International Journal of Biological
of bioactive compounds from fruit and vegetable processing by-products: A review, Macromolecules, 164, 3485–3495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.08.158.
2021/01/01/ Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 70, Article 105325. https://doi.org/ Pasandide, B., Khodaiyan, F., Mousavi, Z. E., & Hosseini, S. S. (2017). Optimization of
10.1016/j.ultsonch.2020.105325. aqueous pectin extraction from Citrus medica peel, 2017/12/15/ Carbohydrate
Kumar, M., Tomar, M., Saurabh, V., Mahajan, T., Punia, S., Contreras, M. D. M., Polymers, 178, 27–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.08.098.
Rudra, S. G., Kaur, C., & Kennedy, J. F. (2020). Emerging trends in pectin extraction Philippi, K., Tsamandouras, N., Grigorakis, S., & Makris, D. P. (2016). Ultrasound-
and its anti-microbial functionalization using natural bioactives for application in assisted green extraction of eggplant peel (Solanum melongena) polyphenols using
food packaging [Review]. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 105, 223–237. aqueous mixtures of glycerol and ethanol: Optimisation and kinetics [article].
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.09.009 Environmental Processes, 3(2), 369–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-016-0140-
Kuo, H. C. D., Wu, R., Li, S., Yang, A. Y., & Kong, A. N. (2019). Anthocyanin delphinidin 8
prevents neoplastic transformation of mouse skin JB6 P+ cells: Epigenetic Re- Pobiega, K., Igielska, M., Włodarczyk, P., & Gniewosz, M. (2020). The use of pullulan
activation of Nrf2-ARE pathway [article]. The AAPS Journal, 21(5). https://doi.org/ coatings with propolis extract to extend the shelf life of blueberry (Vaccinium
10.1208/s12248-019-0355-5. Article 83. corymbosum) fruit [Article]. International Journal of Food Science and Technology.
Lim, W., Jeong, W., & Song, G. (2016). Delphinidin suppresses proliferation and https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.14753
migration of human ovarian clear cell carcinoma cells through blocking AKT and Qin, Z., Jia, X., Liu, Q., Kong, B., & Wang, H. (2020). Enhancing physical properties of
ERK1/2 MAPK signaling pathways [Article]. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, chitosan/pullulan electrospinning nanofibers via green crosslinking strategies
422, 172–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2015.12.013 [Article]. Carbohydrate Polymers, 247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Lim, W. C., Kim, H., & Ko, H. (2019). Delphinidin inhibits epidermal growth factor- carbpol.2020.116734. Article 116734.
induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in hepatocellular carcinoma cells Roewer, N., & Broscheit, J. (2013). Use of delphinidin against Staphylococcus aureus. US
[Article]. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 120(6), 9887–9899. https://doi.org/ Patent No. 14/389,492; 2013.
10.1002/jcb.28271 Rubio-Senent, F., Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, G., Lama-Muñoz, A., & Fernández-Bolaños, J.
Lopes, N. A., Mertins, O., Barreto Pinilla, C. M., & Brandelli, A. (2021). Nisin induces (2015). Pectin extracted from thermally treated olive oil by-products:
lamellar to cubic liquid-crystalline transition in pectin and polygalacturonic acid Characterization, physico-chemical properties, in vitro bile acid and glucose binding,
530
2015/01/01/ Food Hydrocolloids, 43, 311–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Turturică, M., Oancea, A. M., Râpeanu, G., & Bahrim, G. (2015). Anthocyanins: Naturally
foodhyd.2014.06.001. occurring fruit pigments with functional properties [Review]. Fascicle VI: Food
Santos, C. A., Almeida, F. A., Quecán, B. X. V., Pereira, P. A. P., Gandra, K. M. B., Technology, 39(1), 9–24. Annals of the University Dunarea de Jos of Galati https
Cunha, L. R., & Pinto, U. M. (2020). Bioactive properties of Syzygium cumini (L.) ://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84946543892&partnerID=4
Skeels pulp and seed phenolic extracts [article]. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11. https:// 0&md5=e316874401586ffb2c97eba1f8134ff9.
doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00990. Article 990. Wu, X., Li, M., Xiao, Z., Daglia, M., Dragan, S., Delmas, D., Vong, C. T., Wang, Y.,
Sarabandi, K., Jafari, S. M., Mahoonak, A. S., & Mohammadi, A. (2019). Application of Zhao, Y., Shen, J., Nabavi, S. M., Sureda, A., Cao, H., Simal-Gandara, J., Wang, M.,
gum Arabic and maltodextrin for encapsulation of eggplant peel extract as a natural Sun, C., Wang, S., & Xiao, J. (2020). Dietary polyphenols for managing cancers:
antioxidant and color source, 2019/11/01/ International Journal of Biological What have we ignored? [Review]. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 101,
Macromolecules, 140, 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.08.133. 150–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.05.017
Shah, A., Ashames, A. A., Buabeid, M. A., & Murtaza, G. (2020). Synthesis, in vitro Wusigale, Liang, L., & Luo, Y. (2020). Casein and pectin: Structures, interactions, and
characterization and antibacterial efficacy of moxifloxacin-loaded chitosan-pullulan- applications, 2020/03/01/ Trends in Food Science & Technology, 97, 391–403.
silver-nanocomposite films [Article]. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.01.027.
55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2019.101366. Article 101366. Yang, M., Koo, S. I., Song, W. O., & Chun, O. K. (2011). Food matrix affecting
Silva, S., Costa, E. M., Calhau, C., Morais, R. M., & Pintado, M. E. (2017). Anthocyanin anthocyanin bioavailability: Review [Review]. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 18(2),
extraction from plant tissues: A review [article]. Critical Reviews in Food Science and 291–300. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986711794088380
Nutrition, 57(14), 3072–3083. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1087963 Zaitseva, O., Khudyakov, A., Sergushkina, M., Solomina, O., & Polezhaeva, T. (2020).
Singh, R. S., Kaur, N., & Kennedy, J. F. (2019). Pullulan production from agro-industrial Pectins as a universal medicine [Review]. Fitoterapia, 146. https://doi.org/10.1016/
waste and its applications in food industry: A review, 2019/08/01/ Carbohydrate j.fitote.2020.104676. Article 104676.
Polymers, 217, 46–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.04.050. Zhang, M., Sun, H., Wang, Y., Piao, C., Cai, D., Wang, Y., Liu, J., & Cheng, Z. (2020).
Speer, H., D’Cunha, N. M., Alexopoulos, N. I., McKune, A. J., & Naumovski, N. (2020). Preparation and characterization of a novel porous whey protein concentrate/
Anthocyanins and human health—a focus on oxidative stress, inflammation and pullulan gel induced by heating for Cu2+ absorption [Article]. Food Chemistry, 322.
disease [Review]. Antioxidants, 9(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9050366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126772. Article 126772.
Article 366. Zhang, Y., Sun, Y., Zhang, H., Mai, Q., Zhang, B., Li, H., & Deng, Z. (2020). The
Talekar, S., Patti, A. F., Vijayraghavan, R., & Arora, A. (2018). An integrated green degradation rules of anthocyanins from eggplant peel and antioxidant capacity in
biorefinery approach towards simultaneous recovery of pectin and polyphenols fortified model food system during the thermal treatments, 2020/12/01/ Food
coupled with bioethanol production from waste pomegranate peels, 2018/10/01/ Bioscience, 38, Article 100701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100701.
Bioresource Technology, 266, 322–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Zhao, C. L., Chen, Z. J., Bai, X. S., Ding, C., Long, T. J., Wei, F. G., & Miao, K. R. (2014).
biortech.2018.06.072. Structure–activity relationships of anthocyanidin glycosylation, 2014/08/01
Tena, N., Martín, J., & Asuero, A. G. (2020). State of the art of anthocyanins: Antioxidant Molecular Diversity, 18(3), 687–700. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11030-014-9520-z.
activity, sources, bioavailability, and therapeutic effect in human health [Review]. Zhao, X., Zhang, X., Tie, S., Hou, S., Wang, H., Song, Y., Rai, R., & Tan, M. (2020). Facile
Antioxidants, 9(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9050451. Article 451. synthesis of nano-nanocarriers from chitosan and pectin with improved stability and
Tiwari, S., Patil, R., Dubey, S. K., & Bahadur, P. (2019). Derivatization approaches and biocompatibility for anthocyanins delivery: An in vitro and in vivo study [Article].
applications of pullulan, 2019/07/01/ Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 269, Food Hydrocolloids, 109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106114. Article
296–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2019.04.014. 106114.
Todaro, A., Cimino, F., Rapisarda, P., Catalano, A. E., Barbagallo, R. N., & Spagna, G.
(2009). Recovery of anthocyanins from eggplant peel [Article]. Food Chemistry, 114
(2), 434–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.102
531

Research

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Research

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Research

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Trends in Food Science & Technology 112 (2021) 518–531

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

Bioactive compounds from by-products of eggplant: Functional properties,

1. Introduction 2020). These by-products remain mostly without further utilization.

China (mainland) #1 #2 781,695 35,555,562 454,852 5,080,890 462,222 1,447,111 142,222

g/L of MnSO4, 0.01 g/L of FeSO4 and 4

You might also like