4

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 11

Shanlax International Journal of English

Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2017 ISSN: 2320-2645 UGC Approval No: 44248 Impact Factor: 3.125

ISSUES IN TRANSLATING ELLIPSIS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO


THE TAMIL CLASSICAL CANKAM PURANANURU POEM – 191

Article Particulars
Received: 1.12.2017 Accepted: 7.12.2017 Published: 23.12.2017

K.SYED ALI BHADHUSHA


Assistant Professor, Department of English, Sadakathullah Appa College (Autonomous)
Rahmath Nagar, Palayamkottai, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India

Preliminaries
The present paper analyses the problems and possibilities of translating the Tamil
Classical Cankam Puram poem into English. The act of translating a Classical work of art
is a means of understanding an age-old culture, a distant author and an invaluable
document of custom and heritage. Putting such a utilitarian task into an objective test
would certainly contribute for the successful accomplishment of the process in the
further attempts. In the course of study the source language poem has been analysed
with particular focus on lexical and syntactic problems of translation. The study is a
comparative analysis of three different translations of the cankam purananuru poem, as
rendered by A. K. Ramanujan, P. N. Appuswami and M. L. Thangappa. The critical study
would account for the variations in each of the translated version in the light of standard
techniques, procedures, principles and theories of translation as propounded by Eugene
Nida and Peter Newmark. The effort has been attempted via assessing the similarities
and differences among the three different translations of the Tamil poem from the
é\Sôàñ Purananuru ‘four hundred public poems’ anthology.
As far as the English rendering of the cankam poems is concerned, there have been
a number of translations from time to time. Ever since 1957, there have been nearly fifty
six English versions of cankam poetry of which five are exclusively of cankam puram
poems. The first, K. Kailasapathy‘s Tamil Heroic Poetry, was published in 1968. The most
recent translator of cankam poems is Vaidehi Herbert, an NRI in the United States of
America. She published her translations of puram poems in 2015. Though it is sixty eight
years since the first English translation of the cankam poetry was published, there have
been very few critical analyses and reviews of the great work. At this juncture the

17
Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2017 ISSN: 2320-2645

present attempt to critically analyse the multiple English versions of the puram poem
would be a fruitful and timely task.
Generally there is no single method of translation. It depends upon the range of text
types, their corresponding translation criteria and the variables involved. In some cases
group translation improves the chances of success. Similarly multiple translations of the
same text contribute to the theory of interpretation significantly. In this way translation
gives an idea of framework of techniques, principles, restricted rules and hints for
translating texts or criticizing translations. Anyhow the so called principles and
procedures cannot be predicted before beginning to translate a work of art. The fact is
that a number of translation rules are only in the unconscious competence of the
translator.
For a systematic discussion, the present article has been divided into three sections.
In the first section the full text of the SL poem has been given followed by the English
translations. Then in the second section, the resemblance and variation among the
translations have been highlighted and commented upon with illustrative examples.
Lastly in the third section, the most successful and least successful areas in the making of
the three translations have been discussed parallelly with models. The effective and
appreciable aspects of the rendering have been discussed in detail with suitable
contextual examples. Wherever Tamil words or phrases are needed to be quoted, they
are given along with the transliteration and translation of the same.
According to Nida “the translator, besides the knowledge of the content, must have
also knowledge of the subtleties of meaning, emotive value of words and the stylistic
features that add to the flavour and the feel of the message. The translator should have
the same empathic spirit which the author had and the capacity to impersonate the
demeanour, speech and ways of the author with the utmost verisimilitude (50)”.

The Nature of Cankam Puram Poems


Among the eight cankam anthologies, é\Sôàñ purananuru ‘four hundred public
poems’ and T¾tñlTjç pathitrupathu ‘an anthology of poems in praise of Chera Kings’
are puram poems. They are concerned with the life outside family, kings, wars, and the
greatness of places, the generosity of rulers, ethics and the philosophies of scholars.
While Pathitrupathu is limited to the glory of Chera kings in hundred and eight verses,
Purananuru consists of an assortment of themes in three hundred and ninety seven
poems. Of the original four hundred poems, two have been lost and one poem is there
without several lines.

The Puram Conventions


The puram poems have been categorised by the Tolkappiyam and by the
colophons according to the ¾ûQ tinai ‘poetic situation’ and within each tinai,
according to the çû\ turai ‘poetic theme’. The tinais of puram poems are seven

18
Shanlax International Journal of English

according to the Tolkappiyam. They are: ùYfº Vetci ‘cattle raid and recovery of
cattle’, Ygº Vanci ‘invasion’, FÆû] ulinai ‘siege and defence of fort’, çmûT tumpai
‘pitched battle’, YôûL vakai ‘victory’, Lôgº kanci ‘transience’ and TôPôi patan
‘praise of kings’. These tinais have eight to twenty one turais which are relevant to them.
The total number of turai is 138.
A large number of puram poems are concerned with the praise of kings. Such
poems belong to the category called TôPôi ¾ûQ patan tinai ‘praise of kings’ in
which a bard asks a king for a gift. They often tell of a king’s valour in battle, describing
the sad condition of his enemies, his enemies’ wives or his enemies’ lands. Some poems
in this category describe the wilderness the bard has had in order to arrive at the king’s
palace or camp; then they speak of the sufferings of the bard, his family and they end
with an appeal for a gift. Often they include passages that relate the beauty or
extraordinary fertility of the king’s land etc.
Another common way of praising a king is to contrast his cruelty towards his enemies
with his generosity towards suppliants and others dependent on him. In Tamil, a king is
often praised by saying that he is unaffected by bad omens, a theme whose purport is
that the king’s greatness and sacred power are so extraordinary that the disposition of
other sacred powers makes no difference to him or his kingdom.

Tinai
Tinai is a class of nouns based on human and nonhuman distinction. It is a
procedure to be followed in a domestic or public context as found in Tamil literary
conventions and Turai means a branch.
What makes poetry translations so unique is the simultaneous importance given to
the form and substance of poetry. The success of translation of poetry lies in the
rendering of these two elements as closely as possible to the SL poem. The following is
an analysis of the Purananuru poem.

An Analysis of the Tamil Cankam Poem


Purananuru Poem: 191.
‘Vôiå TX BL, SûW CX BáRp
Vôeá B¸Vo?’ G] Å]î¾o BÂu,
UôiP Gu Uû]ÅùVôå, UdLðm ¿WmÀ]o;
Vôu LiPû]Vo Gu Cû[Vìm; úYkRòm
Buñ AÅkç APe¸V ùLôsûLf
Nôuú\ôo TXo, Vôu Yôïm FúW

¾ûQ: ùTôçÅVp çû\: ùTôìiùUôÆd Lôgº


(úLôlùTìgúNôZu YPd¸ìkRôòûZf ùNu\ ÀºWôkûRVôûW, ‘úLhám LôXm TXYôúXô? SûW
èUdá CpûXVôúXô?’ Gu\ Nôuú\ôodá AYo Tô¼Vç.)

19
Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2017 ISSN: 2320-2645

The English Translations


AKR PNA MLT
Why My Hair is Not Gray The Secret of Youth Without Worries
If you ask me how it is ‘Your years are many we’ve heard, ‘How is it that
Yet not a hair of your head is grey, you have no
that I’m so full of years
grey hair
and yet my hair is not What’s your secret?’ You ask me. - ripe old
even at this
gray, age?’
My noble wife and all my children you ask me.
it’s because Are greatly learned and full of wisdom; Let me tell you:
my wife is virtuous, My servants anticipate every wish of mine; My wife is a gem of
my children are mature; My king does no evil at all; a woman.

younger men wish But protects all his subjects evermore. My sons and daughters
what I wish, I have companions in plenty are full of virtue.
and the king only
In the village where I live, My household servants
protects,
doesn’t do what are quick to read my
Men who are wide in their learning,
shouldn’t mind
be done. With their passions all quenched, My country is
And with humility and modesty in protected
Moreover, my town all their ways. by a king
has several noble men, who commits no
wise and self-possessed. Purananuru-191: wrong.
-PICIRANTAI And my native village
Picirantaiyar -Pisirandaiyar
Purananuru 191 PURANANURU 191

Pisirantaiyar has written the poem. Once he goes to King Kopperunchozhan to sing
a song in praise of his glory and to receive gifts. The scholars in the court inform him of
the King’s death. The poet becomes sad. While the poet is in a desperate mood, the
scholars surprisingly enquire about the poet’s black hairs despite his old age. Hence
Pisirantaiyar says that his hairs have not gone grey as he has got the virtuous wife and
children; the younger men around obey him sincerely. The King in his land does not
harm his subjects but protects them and also there are many principled and self-
controlled elder men of profound knowledge in the town where the poet lives. Thus he
is leading a contented life with the result that his hair remains black at this old age.
The cankam poem briefly describes five categories of people who are the integral
part of the society at large. They are, an individual, a couple, family, society and
generation. Thus the following section deals with the rendering of the above mentioned
Lexical items and why the translators have variously used certain equivalents for them.

The Principle of Contextual Consistency


With regard to the translation of Lexical items, Peter Newmark in A Textbook of
Translation (32) remarks: ‘the chief difficulties in translating are lexical, not grammatical,
i.e. words, collocations, fixed phrases and idioms. Most nouns, verbs and adjectives can

20
Shanlax International Journal of English

be used figuratively and therefore can have figurative meanings - the more common
the word, the more contagious and accessible the figurative meanings’.
The contextual consistency points to the necessity of looking at the meaning of a
particular word or phrase or structure in the given context than in isolation. It is possible
that the translator has fixed meanings of particular word or phrase or structure in his
mind and tends to apply that meaning without taking into account the actual meaning
in that particular context. Such an attempt at verbal consistency would result in
mistranslation because words derive their meanings from the context. Therefore
contextual consistency has priority over verbal consistency.
The poem - 191 is a representation of a section of the Tamil people in the cankam
age. It subtly describes the characteristics and qualities of the people. In the poem a
hierarchical order of people and their personal nature have been described one by
one. They are, UôiP Gu Uû]Å maanda yen manaivi ‘my honoured wife’ , UdLs
makkal ‘children’, Cû[Vo izhaiyar ‘young men’ and úYkRu veindhan ‘king’. The
following table shows how the translators have differed in employing the suitable
equivalents in their translations.
Table 1
S.No SL AKR PNA MLT As pointed above, in the
1 virtuous noble a gem of a woman
Source Language Text, there
2 Uû]Å wife wife wife
3 UdLs children children sons and daughters are some words which have
4 Cû[Vo younger men servants servants more than one meaning. This
5 úYkRu king king king
presents a problem to the
translator. He has to choose only that meaning which suits the context. This principle of
observing the Contextual consistency can be investigated in the present study. Thus the
SL word, UdLs makkal can mean either (1) people in general or (2) one’s children / sons
and daughters. Similarly the Tamil words, Cû[Vo izhaiyar can mean either (1) a young
person or (2) a servant and UôiP maanda can mean (1) honoured or (2) dead. The
words, UôiP maanda ‘honoured’, Uû]Å manaivi ‘wife’ and úYkRu veindhan ‘king’
have been contextually translated as ‘virtuous’, ‘wife’ and ‘king’ respectively by AKR,
PNA and MLT, because these words have not posed any problem to the translators.
Since one of the objectives of the present study is to account for the changes and
differences in the three translations, it is essential here to analyse and find out why the
translators have differed in their translations.
As far as the translation of the lexical item, UdLs makkal is concerned, all the three
translators have rightly chosen either ‘children’ or ‘sons and daughters’. None of them
has rendered it as ‘people’ which will not be suitable here. AKR and PNA have
translated UdLs makkal as‘children’ whereas MLT has translated it by ‘sons and
daughters’. When we analyse these two terms ‘children’ is neutral in gender and is
more generic. However, it may suggest ‘very small children’.

21
Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2017 ISSN: 2320-2645

The general perception is that the term ‘children’ is mostly supposed to refer to
‘young ones’. But the Oxford Advanced Learners’ dictionary defines ‘children’ as ‘a
young human who is not yet an adult’ and also ‘a son or daughter of any age’.
However, the connotative meaning associated with ‘children’ viz. non-adults could be
very well avoided. This is perhaps the reason why MLT has preferred ‘sons and
daughters’ which is more likely to fit into the context of an old man having no grey hairs.
Next the SL lexical item, Cû[Vo izhaiyar has been rendered in two different ways.
Accordingly AKR has translated it as ‘younger men’ while PNA and MLT have translated
the same as ‘servants’. The issue here is why the Tamil word, Cû[Vo izhaiyar has been
rendered as ‘servants’ by both PNA and MLT in their respective TL versions.
There is a Source language synonym for Cû[Vo viz. ஏவலo -
o yeivaler ‘a like-minded fellow at one’s beck and call –

able to grasp the likelihood of his master’s intention for performing the duties’. This
particular meaning of the availability of obedient and intelligent servants around the old
man with black hair suits the context better.
Due to the semantic change over the temporal dimension, the word has lost one of
the two meanings now. As a result, in the present context the Tamil word, Cû[Vo
izhaiyar generally means ‘people who are young in age’ and the meaning of servant
has disappeared. Somehow translating Cû[Vo izhaiyar as either ‘young men’ or
‘servant’ does not affect the overall message of the poem. The translators, PNA and
MLT have correctly taken note of the diachronic change in the meaning of Cû[Vo
izhaiyar and have gone by the meaning that could apply in the cankam era.
Then, there is an instance of ellipsis in the concluding part of the poem. It is, Buñ,
AÅkç, APe¸V ùLôsûLf Nôuú\ôo aantru, avindhu, attangiya kolkaich cantror ‘the
principled elder men who are full of profound knowledge and self-controlled to the
core’. The Tamil words, Buñ, AÅkç, APe¸V are elliptical. They have compressed
ideas. The implied items need be brought out explicitly for the benefit of the reader of a
translation. The left out words can be recovered easily by the SL reader in the original
text. Thus the corresponding section studies whether the translators have filled out in their
rendering, the elliptical words, omitted in the source language text.

Translation of Ellipsis
Ellipsis means deliberate omission of a word or of words which are readily implied by
the context. It is an artful and arresting means of securing economy of expression.
The concise descriptive phrase delineates the typical nature of the elderly men who
lived in the cankam age. The phrase reads as:

Buñ AÅkç APe¸V ùLôsûLf


A A A A
Nôuú\ôo TXo, Vôu Yôïm FúW

22
Shanlax International Journal of English

O
The above phrase which is highly condensed with suggestive thoughts is in an
Abstract + Abstract + Abstract + Abstract + Object construction. In order to grasp its
extended meaning, it would be relevant and appropriate to have the paraphrase of
the text. Thus the intralingual translation of it is given below for a reference.
C]m, ùUôÆ, ùUn, LpÅ, úLsÅ Utñm Oô]m B¸V StáQeL[ôp ¿WmÀ, T½V úYi¼V
EVokúRôÃPm T½kç. TôojRp, úLhPp, êLoRp, ãûYjRp Utñm ùRôåRp B¸V Ikç
éXuLû[ëm LhådúLôlTôL ûYjçd ùLôiås[. EVÃV úLôhTôåLû[ RuÉPj¾p
ùLôiås[ ùTÃúVôo TXo Sôu Yôïm FÃp Es[]o. G]úY R]dá SûWê¼ CpûX Gu\ôo
éXYo,
Thus the elder men of the poet’s land are full of profound knowledge and
considerable wisdom. They are deeply as well as widely learned. Though such people
have many good and admirable qualities and personal characteristics, they behave
modestly and humbly with people who deserve respect. In addition, they have kept
under control the five senses such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching.
They never let loose their passions. Since the land has many such principled, elder men,
the poet’s hairs have not gone grey, even though he is very old. In the following table,
the SL ellipses have been elaborated and their corresponding TL text too has been
provided for the sake of clarity.
Table 2
S.No SLT SL Paraphrase English Translation
The elder men are full of profound
U]m, ùUôÆ, ùUn, LpÅ, knowledge and considerable wisdom.
úLsÅ Utñm Oô]m B¸V They are deeply as well as widely
1 Buñ
StáQeL[ôp learned. Such people have many good
¿WmÀAs;s]o, and admirable qualities and personal
characteristics.
TôojRp, úLhPp, êLoRp, They have controlled the five senses
ãûYjRp Utñm ùRôåRp
AÅkç such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting
2 B¸V Ikç éXeLû[ëm
LhådúLôlTôL ûYjç and touching. They never let loose their
ùLôiås[]o passions.
g½V úYi¼V
EVokúRôÃPm T½kç They behave modestly and humbly with
3 APe¸V SPd¸u\]o people who deserve respect.

EVÃV úLôhTôh¼û]
ùLôsûLf The land has many such principled,
4 RuÉPj¾p ùLôiås[
Nôuú\ôo
Nôuú\ôo elder men.
The most important issue here is whether to translate word for word or sense for
sense. Translating word for word would be a literal translation. As Susan Bassnett
(1980:42) rightly points out: “So the word for word vs. sense for sense lines can be seen
emerging again and again with different degrees of emphasis in accordance with
differing concepts of language and communication.”

23
Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2017 ISSN: 2320-2645

Here the Tamil word, Buñ – LpÅ Oô]j¾p Buñ which means, ‘a person who has
deep and wide learning’. The ellipsis – in learning – needs be brought out in the
translation. Otherwise it will be unclear as to what he is wide or deep in.
Then, AÅkç – Ikç éXeLû[ëm LhådúLôlTôL ûYjç ùLôiå. It means, ‘a person
who has controlled all the five senses’. The verb, AÅkç ‘controlled’ does not have the
‘object’ here, the ‘object’ is all the five senses viz. seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and
touching. The senses are the gateway for sensual pleasures. The great people are
those who keep their senses under check and control. If the elliptical object is not
mentioned in the translation the reader would not know it. So the translator is expected
to expand the elliptical phrase.
APe¸V - T½V úYi¼V EVokúRôÃPm T½kç. This means ‘one who humbles himself
before great people’ and also rendering it merely as ‘one who lowers himself would not
be clear’.
The table which is given below crystallises how the three translators have reacted to
the SL ellipses. It contains the source language text and the three different translations.
Of the three versions, PNA’s rendering is highlighted so as to mark how the translator has
tried to fill up the SL ellipses.
Table 3
S.No SL AKR PNA MLT
Buñ, AÅkç, Noble men, Men who are wide in their Elder men of
APe¸V wise and learning, with their passions all profound
1 ùLôsûLf Self - quenched, And with humility learning, wisdom
Nôuú\ôo possessed. and modesty in all their ways. and humility.
Filling out elliptical expressions is very important in translation. The SL readers due to
their proficiency in their mother tongue would obviously fill in the missing terms,
grammatical units and grasp the meaning from the syntactic or semotactic markers.
Though ellipsis occurs in all languages the particular structures which permit such
omitted words are by no means identical from language to language. Accordingly an
expression almost obligatorily elliptical in one language may not be permitted in
another. Thus it is the work of the translator to explicate the meaning in the TL.
Thus these three words, Buñ, aantru, AÅkç avindhu and APe¸V attangiya do in
fact carry a larger semantic map. The implied lexical items are part of that.
Accordingly, it would not be possible to translate them by single words. Expanding the
phrase so as to include the implied elements is quite obligatory. It does not matter if
more number of words has to be used to render what is apparently a single word in the
SLT. Trying to impose restrictions in terms of number of words is a feature of the Formal
Correspondence method. Employing the freedom to choose any number of words so
as to be closer to the actual meaning specified is a characteristic of the Dynamic
Equivalent method. Here PNA alone has taken full cognisance of the elliptical nature of
the phrase and has brought out the implicit elements explicitly. The other translator,

24
Shanlax International Journal of English

particularly AKR’s choice of single words such as noble, wise, do not convey the full
gamut of the meaning. Since the translator has attempted to be as brief as the original,
the highlight of the poem could not be expressed effectively in his translation. If a non-
native reader happens to go through the English version, he may not be in a position to
grasp the intensity of the ideal way of life of the cankam men,
According to Nida formal equivalence is source-oriented; it attempts to translate
word for word. In that, the sentence boundaries are respected. Nouns are translated
by nouns, verbs by verbs, adjectives by adjectives and so on. Form has priority over
meaning. As a result, the translation may not be clear. It usually contains unnatural,
unclear and even misleading expressions. Therefore Nida prefers the dynamic
equivalence. Here the translation is reader-oriented. It attempts to translate sense for
sense. Sentence boundaries are not respected. Idioms and ellipses are translated in
such a way that the reader understands the intended meaning. The reader of a
translation is expected to get the same effect which the source produced on its
readers. Thus the translation is clear. As Susan Bassnett rightly remarks, “equivalence in
translation, then, should not be approached as a search for sameness, since sameness
cannot exist between two TL versions of the same text, let alone between the SL and the
TL version.” PNA has taken some effort to bring out the meaning of the ellipses. With the
long descriptive phrases as illustrated in the table above, the translator’s attempt is
appreciable. He has increased the sentence length to elaborate on the ellipses.
In this way, Mildred L. Larson, in his book Meaning – Based Translation: A Guide to
Cross – Language Equivalence views; “the chunks of experience embodied in lexemes
will inevitably differ from each other which rules out any neat correspondences at the
lexical level between the languages. Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon,
grammatical structure, communication situation and cultural context of the source
language text, analysing it in order to determine its meaning and then reconstructing
this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate
in the receptor language and its cultural context (P. 3)”.
Conclusion
The Classical Cankam Puram poem has had a lot of poetic features. They must be
properly and carefully analysed in determining precisely what sort of style or form a
translator should follow in the making of the readable translation of the cankam Tamil
poem. Through the above analysis, it is observed that the translators have used various
techniques for bringing out the message of the SL poem meaningfully.
Though there is no such thing as a perfect or ideal translation, there are satisfactory
and good translations. A good translator is the one who is never satisfied but is always
trying to improve his means of expression and he is also conscious that each language
has its own inimitable genius. If the translator keeps too closely to the grammar and the
words of the original language, then his translation may run the risk of becoming
unnatural, ambiguous and may even render wrong meaning. He should have a clear

25
Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2017 ISSN: 2320-2645

knowledge, verified facts, appropriate language and acceptable usage. A good


translation is creative, intuitive, inspired, spontaneous, free and natural. A sensitive
translator should prepare himself to tackle both linguistic and extra-linguistic problems at
all levels. His translation along with the content of the original should also carry its
cultural canvass. It must be, like the original, a contribution to the reading audience.

References
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Madras: Macmillan, 1979.
2. Aiyangar, Srinivasa M. Tamil Studies: Essays on the History of the Tamil People,
Language, Religion and Literature. New Delhi: Asian Education Sercvices, 1982.
3. Arooran, Nambi K. Glimpses of Tamil Culture based on Periyapuranam, Madura:
Koodal Publishers, 1977.
4. Anandhan, S. Tamil Illakkiya Varalaru. Truchy: The Printing House, 2004
5. Brislin, Richard W., ed. Translation: Applications and Research. New York: Gardner
Press, 1976.
6. Boobathi, S. Tamilnaatin Mozhichoolal. Thanjur: Tamil University Press, 1998.
7. Catford, J.C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
8. Caldwell, Robert. A comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of
Languages. Madras: University of Madras, 1976.
9. Chaudhuri, Sukanta. Translation and Understanding. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 1999.
10. Corbett, Edward P.J. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. USA: Oxford
University Press, 1971.
11. Frenz, Horst. ‘The Art of Translation’, Comparative Literature: Method and
Perspectives, eds. Stalknecht and Frenz. Carbondale: Southern Illionois University
Press, 1971.
12. Hart, George. The Poems of Ancient Tamil: Their Milieu and Their Sanskrit
Counterparts. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
13. Hudson, R.A. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
14. Hatim, Basil and Ian Mason. Discourse and the Translator. Longman: new York, 1990.
15. Kalyani. P.K. Tanslation Studies. New Delhi: Creative Books, 2001.
16. Kothari, Rita. Translating India. New Delhi: Foundation Books Pvt. Ltd, 2006.
17. Lazarus, Rev. John. A Tamil Grammar. Chennai: Pioneer Book Services, 1985.
18. Lefevere, Andre. Translation History Culture: A Source Book. London: Routledge, 1992.
19. Larson, Mildred L. Meaning – Based Translation: A Guide to Cross – Language
Equivalence. 2nd Ed. Lanham: University Press of America and Summer Institute of
Linguistics, 1998.
20. McGuire, Susan Bassnett. Translation Studies. New York: Routledge, 1991.
21. Mudaliyar, Subramnia C.K. ed. Periyapuranam. Coimbatore: Tamil Sangam, 1954.
22. Mukherjee, Sujit. Translation as Discovery. Bombay: Orient Longman, 1994.

26
Shanlax International Journal of English

23. ---. Translation as Recovery. Delhi: Pencraft International, 2004.


24. Nimbi, Narkavirasa. Nambiakapporul, Chennai: Saiva Sithantha Noorpathippu
Kalakam,1958.
25. Nair, Sreedevi K. Aspects of Translation. New Delhi: Creative Books, 1996.
26. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988.
27. ---. Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon, 1981.
28. Nida, Eugene A. and Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation.
Netherlands: Brill, 1974.
29. Nida, Eugene A. Language Structure and Translation. Standford: Standford UP, 1975.
30. ---. Toward a Science of Translating. London: Brill, 1964.
31. Nida, Eugene A. and Waard, Jan de. From One Language to Another, Functional
Equivalence in Bible Translating. Nashville. Nelson, 1986.
32. Nihamathullah. A. Procedures of Translating. Tirunelveli: Shameem Publication, 2009.
33. ---.Techniques of Translation. Tirunelveli: Shameem Publication, 2009.
34. Sathees, A. Tamil Yappu Marabukal: Purananutru Yappiyal. Chennai: New Century
Book House, 2014
35. Varadarajan, Mu. A History of Tamil Literature. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1988.

27

You might also like