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Global maize production, utilization, and consumption

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 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. ISSN 0077-8923

A N N A L S O F T H E N E W Y O R K A C A D E M Y O F SC I E N C E S
Issue: Technical Considerations for Maize Flour and Corn Meal Fortification in Public Health

Global maize production, utilization, and consumption

Peter Ranum,1 Juan Pablo Peña-Rosas,2 and Maria Nieves Garcia-Casal3
1
Independent consultant, Tucson, Arizona. 2 Evidence and Programme Guidance Unit, Department of Nutrition for Health and
Development, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 3 Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Center for Experimental
Medicine, Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research, Caracas, Venezuela

Address for correspondence: Maria Nieves Garcia-Casal, Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Center for Experimental Medicine,
Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research, Carretera Panamericana Km 11, Caracas 1020-A, Venezuela.
[email protected]

Maize (Zea mays), also called corn, is believed to have originated in central Mexico 7000 years ago from a wild grass,
and Native Americans transformed maize into a better source of food. Maize contains approximately 72% starch, 10%
protein, and 4% fat, supplying an energy density of 365 Kcal/100 g and is grown throughout the world, with the United
States, China, and Brazil being the top three maize-producing countries in the world, producing approximately 563
of the 717 million metric tons/year. Maize can be processed into a variety of food and industrial products, including
starch, sweeteners, oil, beverages, glue, industrial alcohol, and fuel ethanol. In the last 10 years, the use of maize for
fuel production significantly increased, accounting for approximately 40% of the maize production in the United
States. As the ethanol industry absorbs a larger share of the maize crop, higher prices for maize will intensify demand
competition and could affect maize prices for animal and human consumption. Low production costs, along with
the high consumption of maize flour and cornmeal, especially where micronutrient deficiencies are common public
health problems, make this food staple an ideal food vehicle for fortification.

Keywords: maize; corn; production; consumption; varieties

because milling removes some of the outer layers, or

Introduction
bran, which is generally used as animal feed. As with
Cereal grains are the fruits of cultivated grasses. They all cereals, most micronutrients are concentrated in
provide humankind with more nourishment than the outer layers of the maize grain; thus, removing
any other food class and nearly half of the total these layers in the milling process results in the loss
caloric requirement. While there are about a dozen of most vitamins and minerals.2,3
cereal crops used for food, only wheat, maize, and Consumption can be better estimated by adjust-
rice are important human food sources, accounting ing the values of cereal crops used for food and
for 94% of all cereal consumption.1 The consump- human food sources by considering the extraction
tion of these cereals varies widely by region; wheat is rate (i.e., the proportion of flour or meal produced
the preferred cereal in Central Asia, the Middle East, from the whole-grain cereal). In most countries,
South and North America, and Europe. Rice is the the extraction rate for maize varies from 60% to
major cereal in Asia, while maize (also referred to as 100% depending on the product. The range for yel-
corn) is preferred in Southern and Eastern Africa, low maize goods is 60–65% in the United States.
Central America, and Mexico. Higher extraction rate levels are found in other
The way in which maize is processed and con- countries. In South Africa, for example, the ex-
sumed varies greatly from country to country, with traction rates for super, sifted, and unsifted maize
maize flour and meal being two of the most popular are 62%, 79–89%, and 99%, respectively.4 Newly
products.2 developed maize varieties with a very short grow-
The actual human consumption of these cere- ing season produce a softer, smaller kernel of white
als is somewhat lower than the estimated figures maize. These varieties (smaller and softer) can also
because of waste, use in nonfood products, and cause tremendous problems in the milling process,
doi: 10.1111/nyas.12396
Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1312 (2014) 105–112 
C 2014 New York Academy of Sciences. 105
The World Health Organization retains copyright and all other rights in the manuscript of this article as submitted for publication.
Maize production, utilization, and consumption Ranum et al.

leading to a poor extraction rate.5 The changes in des of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, as evidenced by
nutritional profile (ash, fat, and fiber content) at the presence of popcorn in South America and the
the lower extraction rates will be less than those ob- wide genetic diversity present in the Andean maize,
served at the higher extraction levels, as in the case of especially in the highlands of Peru.10,11
wheat.6,7 Biological and archaeological approaches to de-
Maize contains about 72% starch, 10% pro- termine where and when maize was initially do-
tein, and 4% fat, supplying an energy density of mesticated continue to evolve through the use of
365 Kcal/100 g,8 as compared to rice and wheat, but genetic research and complex methodologies.12,13
has lower protein content. Maize provides many of Some authors consider maize to have started from
the B vitamins and essential minerals along with a wild grass, called teosinte, which is quite differ-
fiber, but lacks some other nutrients, such as vita- ent from the maize of today, while others suggest
min B12 and vitamin C, and is, in general, a poor the formation of a hybrid of two wild grasses—a
source of calcium, folate, and iron. Iron absorption, perennial subspecies of teosinte (Zea diploperennis)
particularly the nonheme iron present in maize, can and a species of Tripsacum. By systematically col-
be inhibited by some components or foods in the lecting and cultivating plants best suited for human
diet, such as vegetables, tea (e.g., oxalates), coffee consumption, Native Americans transformed maize
(e.g., polyphenols), eggs (e.g., phosvitin), and milk over a couple 1000 years to a plant with larger cobs
(e.g., calcium).6,8 In countries where anemia and and more rows of kernels, making it a better source
iron deficiency are considered moderate or severe of food.13 This provided enough food for the bulk
public health problems, the fortification of maize of their diet for an entire year, allowing people to
flour and cornmeal with iron and other vitamins live in one location for an extended period of time.
and minerals has been used to improve micronutri- The spread of maize from its center of origin in
ent intake and prevent iron deficiency.9 Mexico to various parts of the world has been re-
markable and rapid with respect to its evolution as
History of maize
a cultivated plant and as a variety of food products.
In the Western world, the term maize is used in- The inhabitants of several indigenous tribes in Cen-
terchangeably with corn. The reason for this is that tral America and Mexico brought the plant to other
all grains were called corn under early British and regions of Latin America, the Caribbean, and then to
American trade and the name was retained for the United States and Canada. European explorers
maize because it was the most common grain in took maize to Europe and later traders took maize
commerce. Although the origin of the word maize to Asia and Africa.14–16
is also controversial, it is generally accepted that One limitation with maize is that while it con-
the word has its origin in Arawac tribes of the in- tains the vitamin niacin, it is in a bound form that
digenous people of the Caribbean. On the basis of is not readily available to the body. It is also low in
this common name, Linnaeus included the name tryptophan, a niacin precursor. In order for niacin
as species epithet in the botanical classification Zea to be released from the bound form, it needs to have
(Zea mays L.).10 the pH increased before entering the low pH of the
It is considered that maize was one of the first stomach. Early natives in Latin America stumbled
plants cultivated by farmers between 7000 and upon a process, called nixtamalization, which in-
10,000 years ago, with evidence of maize as food volved soaking the whole maize in a lime solution
coming from some archaeological sites in Mexico (calcium hydroxide), followed by grinding to pro-
where some small corn cobs, estimated at more than duce a paste, called masa, from which tortillas are
5000 years old, were found in caves. The discovery made.17 This process had two benefits: it converted
of fossil pollen and cave corncobs in archaeological the hard maize kernels into a more digestible form
areas support the position that maize originated in and released the bound niacin. Without this pro-
Mexico. Other theories describe maize as originating cess there would have been much higher incidences
in the region of the Himalayas in Asia, the product of of pellagra due to niacin deficiency.18 In Europe,
a cross between Coix spp. and some Andropogoneas North America, and Africa, where the nixtamaliza-
(probably of the Sorghum species), both parental tion process was not used, pellagra became a prob-
chromosomes with five pairs, or in the high An- lem in some areas. One of the real success stories

106 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1312 (2014) 105–112  C 2014 New York Academy of Sciences.

The World Health Organization retains copyright and all other rights in the manuscript of this article as submitted for publication.
Ranum et al. Maize production, utilization, and consumption

of cereal fortification was the addition of niacin to become the major type of maize grown in many
maize meal beginning in 1941, which contributed to countries, including the United States where 85%
the elimination of pellagra as a major health prob- of the crop is GM. European and African countries
lem in the Southeastern United States. Pellagra was originally banned GM maize, but while still very
not a public health problem in other parts of the controversial, this position may be changing as the
world, perhaps because they had a more varied diet benefits of Bt corn become accepted. In fact, as of
that provided sufficient amounts of niacin.19 2011, herbicide-resistant GM maize was grown in
14 countries.21 By 2012, 26 varieties of herbicide-
Types of maize
resistant GM maize were authorized for import into
Different types of maize are grown throughout the the European Union,22 and in 2012, the European
world, with one important difference being color. Union was reported to import 30 million tons of GM
Maize kernels can be different colors ranging from crops. The GM maize MON810 was cultivated on
white to yellow to red to black. Most of the maize almost 89,000 hectares in five European countries,
grown in the United States is yellow, whereas people particularly in regions with high infestation levels
in Africa, Central America, and the southern United of maize borer (a pest affecting both the quality and
States prefer white maize. Yellow maize is not popu- quantity of the harvest).22
lar in Africa for reasons associated with the percep- There does not appear to be any nutritional differ-
tion of social status: apparently it is associated with ence with Bt maize; therefore, its presence or absence
food-aid programs and is perceived as being con- should have no effect on fortification technology
sumed only by poor people. Also, the feed industry or policy.23–26 Other recent papers address maize
consumes mostly yellow maize in the manufacture milling and the different types of milled products
of animal feed.4 But the main reason for the pref- made from maize. The main products, all of which
erence for white maize is simply one of tradition: can and are being fortified, are meal, flour, pre-
people are used to eating a white product in these cooked meal, dry masa or hominy flour, and break-
countries, usually the whiter the better. This prefer- fast cereals. In addition, there are mixtures with
ence means a lower consumption of ␤-carotene and other ingredients, such as Corn Soy Blend, used for
␤-cryptoxanthin, vitamin A precursors, present in infant and food-aid feeding. Some products, such
higher concentrations in yellow and orange maize. as corn chips and masa dough, may not be suitable
This also shows up in the preference for meal and for fortification.6
flour made with higher extraction rates, which are
Maize production, utilization,
whiter than the whole-grain products, but also with
and economics
lower contents of fiber, vitamins, and minerals.20
The quality of white maize is important since it af- Maize is grown throughout the world, although
fects the milling performance, grading, and yield of there are large differences in yields (Table 1). The
high-quality products. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
There is a classification of maize on the basis of the United Nations indices of agricultural production
size and composition of the endosperm, resulting in include commodities that are considered edible and
an artificial definition by kernel type as follows: dent, contain nutrients, and show the relative level of
flint, waxy, flour, sweet, pop, Indian, and pod corn. the aggregate volume of agricultural production
Another difference or classification criterion is the for each year in comparison with the base period
sweetness or amount of sugar. The amount of resid- 1999–2001. It is estimated that in 2012, the total
ual sugar depends on the variety of maize and when world production of maize was 875,226,630 tons,27
it is harvested from the field. Sweet maize stores with the United States, China, and Brazil harvesting
poorly and must be eaten fresh, canned, or frozen 31%, 24%, and 8% of the total production of maize,
before the kernels age, becoming small, tough, and respectively.
starchy. Sweet varieties cannot be fortified.15,16 Food balance sheets developed by the FAO are
Genetically modified (GM) herbicide-resistant commonly used as a data source for estimating pat-
maize (e.g., Bt corn, a variant of maize that has terns, levels, and trends of national diets, and are
been genetically altered to express one or more pro- referred to as the FAOSTAT food balance sheets,
teins from the bacteria, Bacillus thuringeiensis) has in reference to the database that gathers the data.

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1312 (2014) 105–112 

C 2014 New York Academy of Sciences. 107
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Maize production, utilization, and consumption Ranum et al.

Table 1. Corn production in 2012 by country, national-level data from FAO food balance sheets do
FAOSTAT27 not provide any information on food consumption
Maize production in 2011 by individuals or populations.29
Country (million MT/year) Maize data reported in FAOSTAT food balance
sheets are reported at the farm-level with respect
United States of America 274 to grains. Although of interest for a maize flour
China 208 fortification program, the FAOSTAT food balance
Brazil 71 sheet does not report data on the amount of maize
Mexico 22 flour available for consumption and the data must
Argentina 21 be calculated manually. In order to calculate the
India 21 amount of flour available for consumption (and the
Ukraine 21 daily g/capita availability) in a country, the extrac-
Indonesia 19 tion rate reported by the milling industry is applied.
France 16 For maize flour, the extraction rate varies in differ-
Canada 12 ent countries depending on the type of flour. Some
South Africa 12 procedures have been established to estimate food
balance sheet data for maize flour and cornmeal; al-
though these procedures are not discussed explicitly
It presents a comprehensive picture of the pattern in the Food Balance Sheet Handbook, they would
of a country’s food supply during a specified ref- follow the same protocol outlined for wheat flour
erence period. The FAOSTAT food balance sheets data.28
show maize availability for human consumption, An important part of maize production is being
which corresponds to the sources of supply and its used to generate ethanol fuel (ethyl alcohol), the
utilization. The total quantity of maize produced in same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages.
a country added to the total quantity imported and It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a bio-
adjusted to any change in stocks that may have oc- fuel additive for gasoline. Maize is the primary feed-
curred since the beginning of the reference period stuff used to produce ethanol. Strong demand for
gives the supply available during that period. On the ethanol production has resulted in increased maize
utilization side, a distinction is made between the prices and has provided incentives to increase maize
quantities of maize exported, fed to livestock and acreage. There are various social, economic, envi-
used for seed, losses during storage and transporta- ronmental, and technical issues with biofuel pro-
tion, and supplies available for human consump- duction and use, including the effect of moderating
tion. The per capita supply of maize available for oil prices and the “food versus fuel” debate.30
human consumption is then obtained by dividing Both maize dry-milling and wet-milling methods
the respective quantity by the related data on the of producing ethanol generate a variety of econom-
population actually partaking in it. Data on per ically valuable coproducts, the most prominent of
capita maize supply are expressed with respect to which is distillers’ dried grains with solubles, which
quantity and by applying appropriate food compo- can be used as a feed ingredient for livestock.
sition factors for maize, including dietary energy The United States is the world’s largest producer
value, protein, and fat content.27 Owing to the low of maize and dominates world maize trade. Ex-
cost and high accessibility of FAOSTAT food bal- ports account for a relatively small portion of de-
ance sheet data, they have historically been the main mand for U.S. maize—approximately 15%. Experts
data source of food fortification program design– consider that the low demand for exports means
related information. However, their ability to iden- that maize prices are largely determined by sup-
tify potentially fortifiable or already fortified foods ply and demand relationships in the U.S. mar-
is constrained by the fact that the data are lim- ket, and the rest of the world usually adjusts to
ited to maize as a primary commodity and do not prevailing U.S. prices. The large influence of U.S.
capture processed potential vehicles, such as maize maize supply makes world maize trade. Argen-
flour and cornmeal, or distinguish the proportion of tine farmers plant their maize after discovering the
these items consumed that are purchased.28 Also, the size of the U.S. crop, thereby providing a quick,

108 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1312 (2014) 105–112  C 2014 New York Academy of Sciences.

The World Health Organization retains copyright and all other rights in the manuscript of this article as submitted for publication.
Ranum et al. Maize production, utilization, and consumption

Table 2. Domestic corn use in the United States from 1980 to 2013 in billion of bushels

Corn use 1980 1990 2000 2010 2013

Animal feed and residual 4.16 4.75 5.73 4.79 5.00

Food, seed, and industrial 0.81 1.08 1.15 1.25 1.46
Ethanol production 0.02 0.42 0.83 5.00 5.00
Total 4.99 6.25 7.71 11.04 11.46

Source: Adapted from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).31

market-oriented supply response to short U.S. Maize consumption by country and World
crops. Several countries, including Brazil, Ukraine, Health Organization region
Romania, and South Africa, have had significant
Estimated maize consumption in grams per person
maize exports when crops were large or interna-
per day in countries where maize is considered an
tional prices were attractive.31 China has been a
important food source (i.e., above 50 g/person/day)
significant source of uncertainty in world maize
were corrected for an average 80% extraction rate,
trade, swinging from being the second largest ex-
using the FAOSTAT food balance sheets with 2009
porter in some years to occasionally importing
data by World Health Organization (WHO) re-
significant quantities. China’s maize exports are
gion (Table 3). It is clear that maize is a staple in
largely a function of government export subsidies
the African region where the consumption ranges
and tax rebates, because the prices in China are
from 52 to 328 g/person/day and the region of
mostly higher than those in the world market.
the Americas where the highest consumption was
While a large maize producer, Mexico processes
267 g/person/day in Mexico. The results may vary
much of its production of white maize into human
according to the extraction rate, which varies in each
food products, but has turned to imported yellow
country by type of flour milled as well as by the maize
maize for livestock feed to support increased meat
type used. No consumption above 50 g/person/day
production.31
was estimated in the Western Pacific Region.
The analysis of the use of maize in the United
Other data sources to estimate maize flour con-
States for the last 30 years shows that it has been used
sumption have been proposed. Household Con-
mainly for animal feeding, followed by human con-
sumption and Expenditures Surveys, which include
sumption and alcohol production (Table 2). How-
Household Income and Expenditure Surveys, Liv-
ever, in the last 10 years, the use of maize for fuel
ing Standards Monitoring Surveys, and National
production significantly increased.32 As the ethanol
Household Budget Surveys, can help to address the
industry absorbs a larger share of the maize crop,
food consumption information gap. Some coun-
higher prices for maize will intensify demand com-
tries such as Zambia have introduced specific food
petition among domestic industries and external
item categories in order to be able to obtain more
buyers. This could also affect maize prices for ani-
precise data with which to assess the feasibility of
mal and human consumption, although maize has
or to design fortification programs. In 2006, the
historically been one of the least expensive foods and
Zambia Living Standards Measurement Study asked
food ingredient available. It is estimated that nearly
about households’ consumption of maize with a fo-
40% has been used in recent years to make ethanol
cus on breakfast mealie meal, roller mealie meal, and
for fuel. Of this, 27% becomes ethanol and 12% is
hammer-milled meal, in addition to maize grain, in
the distillers’ dry grain residue that goes to animal
order to be able to distinguish those maize meal
feed, making the total animal feed use at 50%.32 Ex-
consumers who purchase their product from large-
ports accounted for 13% and 4% are used to make
scale, modern roller mills.29
high-glucose corn syrup. Part of the remaining 7% is
Major importers of maize in 2009 were Japan,
used to make corn oil, cornstarch, corn syrups, and
South Korea, and Mexico.27 Experts from the U.S.
other industrial applications, while some is used to
Department of Agriculture31 consider Japan, while
make whiskey and other alcoholic beverages.
producing almost no coarse grains, to be a very large

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1312 (2014) 105–112 

C 2014 New York Academy of Sciences. 109
The World Health Organization retains copyright and all other rights in the manuscript of this article as submitted for publication.
Maize production, utilization, and consumption Ranum et al.

Table 3. Countries with the highest maize consumption Table 3. Continued

(g/person/day) by WHO region
Maize consumption
Maize consumption WHO region Country (g/person/day)
WHO region Country (g/person/day)
Korea, DPR 93
African region Lesotho 328 Morocco 84
Malawi 293 Indonesia 79
Zambia 243 European region Bosnia and 181
Zimbabwe 241 Herzegovina
South Africa 222 Romania 85
Kenya 171 Slovenia 75
Togo 160 Israel 64
Swaziland 152 Macedonia 59
Tanzania 128 Kyrgyzstan 58
Namibia 127 Eastern Egypt 127
Benin 119 Mediterranean
Mozambique 116 region
Burkina Faso 107 Note: Estimated at 80% extraction from 3-year average
Ethiopia 94 (2007–2009) FAOSTAT1 data.
Angola 81
Botswana 78
Cameroon 75 meat producer; therefore, the country is a steady
Cape Verde 72 buyer of maize, with attention to quality. In recent
Central 71 years, Japanese imports of maize for livestock feed
African have declined, while imports for industrial use and
Republic starch manufacturing have increased. South Korea,
Mali 70 the second largest importer of maize in the world, is
Seychelles 69 price conscious and willing to buy maize from the
Senegal 62 cheapest source or switch to wheat or other grains.
Nigeria 60 Mexico is a growing importer.
Ghana 53 World production of maize has shown a slight but
Uganda 52 steady increase over the years, but human consump-
Region of the Mexico 267 tion of the grain has remained steady. It is thought
Americas Guatemala 187 that the majority of the increase in production has
Honduras 169 corresponded to an increase in the use of maize for
El Salvador 157 animal feed. However, maize is still a staple food for
Nicaragua 148 many people, especially in Africa.
Venezuela 135 Maize has food, feed, and industrial uses. It is
Paraguay 121 a major component of livestock feed. The amount
Colombia 92 of maize used for feed also depends on the crop’s
Bolivia 86 supply and price, the amount of supplemental in-
Cuba 66 gredients used in feed rations, and the supplies and
Uruguay 63 prices of competing ingredients.
Belize 61
Brazil 55 Acknowledgments
Panama 53 This work received financial support from the De-
Haiti 50 partment of Nutrition for Health and Development,
Southeast Asia Timor-Leste 190 Evidence and Programme Guidance Unit, WHO
region Nepal 98 (Geneva, Switzerland). WHO thanks the Interna-
Continued tional Micronutrient Malnutrition Prevention and

110 Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1312 (2014) 105–112  C 2014 New York Academy of Sciences.

The World Health Organization retains copyright and all other rights in the manuscript of this article as submitted for publication.
Ranum et al. Maize production, utilization, and consumption

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