Y E A R 1 C H E M I ST R Y E Q U AT I O N S ( E D E XC E L )

MOLE CALCULATIONS
number of moles = mass / molar mass number of moles = concentration x volume
(g) (g.mol-1) (mol.dm-3) (dm3)

w n
n M c v
Avogadro’s Constant = 6.02 x 1023 atoms or molecules = 1 mole

MOLAR GAS CONSTANT

1 mole of ANY gas occupies 24.0 dm3 at room temperature & pressure

v
n 24.0

IDEAL GAS EQUATION

P = Pressure (pa) V = volume (m3) n = no. of moles
R = Gas Constant (8.31 J.K-1.mol-1) T = Temperature (K)

PV = nRT

P = nRT V = nRT n = PV T = PV
V P RT nR

For changes in conditions: P1V1 = P2V2

T1 T2
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 Y E A R 1 C H E M I ST R Y E Q U AT I O N S ( E D E XC E L )

MASS SPECTROSCOPY

Relative Atomic Mass = (mass isotope 1 x abundance) + (mass isotope 2 x abundance) + …

(Ar) ∑abundance

OTHER EQUATIONS

% by mass = mass of element in 1 mole

Mr

Where M1, M2 etc is the

Empirical formula = M1 : M2 : M3 mass or % composition of
Mr1 Mr2 Mr2 element 1, 2 etc

then divide each by the smallest number to give empirical formula

% Atom Economy = mass of desired product x100 You can use mass or
total mass of all products number of moles here!

% Yield = actual yield x100 You can replace masses

theoretical yield with Mr values here too!

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 Y E A R 1 P H Y S I C A L C H E M I ST R Y ( E D E XC E L )

ENTHALPY
Q = energy transferred (J) m = mass of solution (g)
△T = change in temperature ( C or K)
o
c = specific heat capacity (J.K-1.mol-1)

Q = m.c.△T

△H = Q
(J.mol-1) n
Don’t forget to add a sign for △H! Divide by 1000 for kJ.mol-1

△H reaction = ∑reactant mean bond enthalpies - ∑product mean bond enthalpies

(kJ.mol-1) (kJ.mol-1) (kJ.mol-1)

EQUILIBRIA
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD

c d Where:
Kc = [C] [D] [A] = concentration
a b -3
[A] [B] (mol.dm )
a = no. of moles from
equation

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 Y E A R 1 P E R I O D I C I T Y ( E D E XC E L )

COMMON IONS
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
GROUP 1 = + GROUP 7 = -
GROUP 2 = 2+ GROUP 6 = 2-
H+ GROUP 5 = 3-
Ag+
Zn2+
Pb2+
Al3+
(Transition metals are variable)
e.g. Fe2+, Fe3+

MOLECULAR IONS
NH4+ OH- NO3- CN-
ammonium hydroxide nitrate cyanide

H3O+ CO32- SO42- PO43-

hydronium carbonate sulfate phosphate

ACIDS & BASES

ACIDS BASES
HCl hydrochloric acid NaOH sodium hydroxide
HNO3 nitric acid KOH potassium hydroxide
H2SO4 sulphuric acid Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide
H3PO4 phosphoric acid CuO copper (II) oxide
CH3COOH ethanoic acid

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 Y E A R 1 P E R I O D I C I T Y ( E D E XC E L )

COMMON OXIDATION STATES

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
GROUP 1 = +I F = -I
GROUP 2 = +II O = -II
H = +I Cl = -I

}
Ag = +I Br = -I
Zn = +II I = -I Most common oxidation
states, but may be positive
Pb = +II or +IV N = -III when covalently bonded to
more highly electronegative
Al = + III S = -II elements.
(Transition metals are variable) P = -III i.e. F or O
Fe = +II or +III
Cu = +II (sometimes +I)
C = +II or +IV

GROUP 1 SALTS: ALL SOLUBLE

NITRATE SALTS = ALL SOLUBLE

GROUP 2 SALTS: HYDROXIDES INCREASE IN SOLUBILITY DOWN THE GROUP

SULFATES DECREASE IN SOLUBILITY DOWN THE GROUP
CARBONATES ARE NOT SOLUBLE

Ag SALTS: ALL INSOLUBLE EXCEPT AgNO3

Pb SALTS ALL INSOLUBLE EXCEPT Pb(NO3)2

GROUP 7 SALTS: ALL SOLUBLE EXCEPT AgX and PbX2

CO3 SALTS: ALL INSOLUBLE EXEPT GROUP 1

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 Y E A R 1 C H E M I ST R Y P R A C T I C A L S ( E D E XC E L )

No. Practical Detail Done?

1 Moles Determination Use apparatus to record the volume of a gas

Prepare a standard solution from a solid acid

2 Prepare a Standard and use it to find the concentration of a solution
Solution & Titration of sodium hydroxide

3 Use titration tofu the concentration of a solution f

Titration hydrochloric acid

4 Rates of Reaction Investigate the rates of hydrolysis of haloalkanes

5 Use reflux and distillation techniques to oxidise

Oxidation of ethanol and alcohol and isolate the product

6 Nucleophilic Chlorination of a 2-methylpropan-2-ol using

Subsctitution conc. hydrochloric acid

Use chemical tests to identify:

Testing for inorganic
7 and organic - Group 2, Group 7, OH-, CO32- and SO42- ions
substances in solution.
- A carboxylic acid, an alcohol and an aldehyde.
Determine the enthalpy change of a reaction
using Hess’ law.
8 Enthalpy Changes i.e. Determine the △H experimentally for two
reactions and apply to Hess’ Law to find another
unknown △H.

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 Y E A R 2 P H Y S I C A L C H E M I ST R Y ( E D E XC E L )

THERMODYNAMICS

ϴ ϴ ϴ
△H solution = △H latt diss + ∑△H hydration
(ENDOTHERMIC) (EXOTHERMIC)

△S system = ∑△S products - ∑△S reactants △S surroundings = -△H

(J.K-1.mol-1) T

△S total = △S system + △S surroundings

△G = △H - T △S T = △H △G = -△S T +△H
(kJ.mol ) -1
△S

Always divide △S by 1000 When calculating the For the △G Vs T Graph!

to match your units! temperature at which a Equivalent to:
reaction becomes / ceases y = mx + c
being feasible

△G = -R T lnK lnK = △G T = △G
-RT -R lnK
Links Gibbs Free Energy
and the Equilibrium
Constant “K"

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 Y E A R 2 P H Y S I C A L C H E M I ST R Y ( E D E XC E L )

RATE EQUATIONS & ARRHENIUS

order order
Rate = k [A] [B]
(mol.dm-3.s-1)

K= Rate
order order
[A] [B]

K = A e RT )
(-Ea
OR lnK = (-EaRT ) + lnA OR lnK = -Ea
R
x
1
T + lnA

For the lnK Vs 1/T Graph!

Standard Arrhenius Natural Log of
Arrhenius Equivalent to:
y = mx + c

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 Y E A R 2 P H Y S I C A L C H E M I ST R Y ( E D E XC E L )

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
o o
EMF = Most Positive E - Most Negative E
(V)
OR
o o
EMF = E Cell being Reduced - E Cell being Oxidised

ACIDS & BASES

-pH
pH = -log [H+] and [H+] = 10

Ka = [H+] [X-]
[HX]

-14 2 -6
Kw = 1.00 x 10 mol .dm
Kw = [H+] [OH-] at 298K

ACID BUFFERS Weak Acid Concentration

Ka of Weak Acid

[H+] = Ka x [HX]
Salt Concentration
-
[X ]

Then pH = -log [H+]

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 Y E A R 2 T R A N S I T I O N M E TA L S ( E D E XC E L )

COMMON OXIDATION STATES

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
+II, +III
+II, +III +II, +III
+III +IV +IV, +VI +II, +III +II, +III +II +I, +II +II
+IV, +V +VI
+VII

COMMON COMPLEX COLOURS

-
+H2O + limited OH (aq) -
+ Excess NH3(aq) + conc. HCl (aq)
+ Excess OH (aq)
or NH3(aq)
2+
[Fe(H2O)6] (aq) [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2] (s)

Iron II GREEN GREEN NVR NVR NVR

PRECIPITATE
SOLUTION
(may oxidise to brown)

3+ -
[Fe(H2O)6] (aq) [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3] (s) FeCl4

Iron III YELLOW BROWN

NVR NVR
YELLOW
SOLUTION PRECIPITATE SOLUTION

2+ 2+ -
[Co(H2O)6] (aq) [Co(H2O)4(OH)2] (s) [Co(NH3)6] (aq) CoCl4

Cobalt PINK BLUE/GREEN

NVR
BROWN BLUE
SOLUTION PRECIPITATE SOLUTION SOLUTION

2+ 2-
[Cu(H2O)6] (aq) [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] (s) [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+(aq) CuCl4

Copper LIGHT BLUE BLUE

NVR
ROYAL BLUE YELLOW /
GREEN
SOLUTION PRECIPITATE SOLUTION SOLUTION

3+ 3- 3+
[Cr(H2O)6] (aq) [Cr(H2O)3(OH)3] (s) [Cr(OH)6] (aq) [Cr(NH3)6] (aq)

Chromium *VIOLET GREY/GREEN GREEN PURPLE

NVR
SOLUTION PRECIPITATE SOLUTION SOLUTION

* Officially violet in colour, but is green when produced from the oxidation of
alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate

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 Y E A R 2 T R A N S I T I O N M E TA L S ( E D E XC E L )

VANADIUM
-
H+ / Zn can reduce vanadium in VO3 (aq)

- + 2+ 3+ 2+
Species VO3 VO2 VO V V
Oxidation
+V +V +IV +III +II
State
Colour of
YELLOW YELLOW BLUE GREEN PURPLE
solution

WHY COMPLEXES ARE COLOURED

△E = h.f
△E = Difference in energy between d orbitals
h = Planck’s Constant (6.63 x 10-34 J.S-1) f = Frequency (Hz)

c =λ.f
c = Speed of light (3.00 x 108 m.s-1)
λ = Wavelength (nm) f = Frequency (Hz)

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 Y E A R 2 C H E M I ST R Y P R A C T I C A L S ( E D E XC E L )

No. Practical Detail Done?

pH Curve: Investigate how pH changes when a weak acid

9 Find the Ka for a reacts with a strong base and determine the Ka
Weak Acid for the weak acid

10 Set up an Set up an electrochemical cell and measure EMF

electrochemical cell

11 Use the REDOX to determine the concentration of

REDOX Titration an unknown solution

Preparation of a
12 Produce transition metal complexes via the
Transition Metal addition of NaOH(aq) and NH3(aq)
Complex

13 Measure rate by The “Iodine Clock” Reaction

initial rate method Iodide (V) + H2O2

14 Find the Activation Measure the rate of reaction. Use Arrhenius to

Energy of a Reaction determine the activation energy for that reaction

15 Use test tube reactions to determine the identity

Analysis of Unknowns of some organic and inorganic unknowns

16 Preparation of an Produce a pure sample of an organic solid

organic solid (e.g. Aspirin) and test its purity

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