EXTENT

Archaeological excavation of excavation of an ancient Buddhist temple was

conducted at Larkana district in Sind. During excavation, archaeologists
discovered pre-historic clay-pots and a few pieces of artistic works made of
stone. The ruins of a very old civilisation were beneath the ground wherein the
actual excavation was being carried on. The name of the place was ‘Mohenjo-
Daro’.

Archaeologists further discovered in Harappa the same ruins of the civilisation

as were found at Mohenjodaro. Harappa was in the Montgomery district of the
Punjab and was 650 kilometers away from Mohenjodaro.

After 1947, governments of India and Pakistan took initiative to conduct

excavations in more other places, and discovered relics of the Indus
Civilization. It is found that the circumferential extension of the civilisation
over the area was 1550 kilometers.

Even special and important ruins similar to those found at the Indus valley have
been discovered in places far away from the areas near the river, Indus.

At Rangur, Lothal in Gujarat, and in some other places near the Nerboda, same
traces as those at Harappa have been found. It is as if these areas bore witness to
the transformation of Harappan civilisation. At Lothal, houses, streets and
thorough fares, public baths, sewer systems, harbors far small ships, docks etc.
have been unearthed in copies number. These deserve mention along with the
relics of Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

Salient Features of the Harappan Culture

Town Planning
The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town-planning on
the lines of the grid system - that is streets and lanes cutting across one another
almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks.
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high
podium of mud brick. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town
containing brick houses, which Great Bath at Mohenjodaro were inhabited by
the common people. The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of
constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important
characteristics of the Harappan culture. Another remarkable feature was the
underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains which
were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath
measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth. Flights of steps at
either end lead to the surface. There are side rooms for changing clothes. The
floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large well
in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It
must have served as a ritual bathing site. The largest building in Mohenjodaro is
a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet breadth. But in the citadel of
Harappa we find as many as six granaries.

Economic life

There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as

agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley were the main crops
grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton. Surplus grain is stored in granaries.
Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is
not yet firmly established. A number of other animals were hunted for food
including deer.
Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick makers, stone
cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers. Bronze and copper
vessels are the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft.

Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places. Pottery remains plain and
in some places red and black painted pottery is found. Beads were manufactured
from a wide variety of semi-precious stones. other parts of India. Foreign trade
was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran Gold, copper,
tin and several semi-precious stones were imported. Main exports were several
agricultural products such as wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of
finished products including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and
ivory products. There is much evidence to prove the trade links between the
Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have been found in
Mesopotamia. Trade was of the barter type. The seals and the terracotta models
of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts and oxen for land transport
and boats and ships for river and sea transport.
Social Life
Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the Harappans.
The dress of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth, one upper
garment and the other lower garment. Beads were worn by men and women.
Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and
finger-rings were worn by women. These ornaments were made of gold, silver,
copper, bronze and semi precious stones. The use of cosmetics was common.
Various household articles made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have
been found at Mohenjodaro. Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are
made of copper. Children's toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls and dice
were used for games. Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull
fighting were other pastimes. There were numerous specimens of weapons of
war such as axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and
bronze.
Arts
The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of workmanship. Figures
of men and women, animals and birds made of terracotta and the carvings on
the seals show the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor. The figure of a
dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made of bronze is remarkable for its
workmanship. Its right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm, covered with
bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture. Two stone statues from Harappa,
one representing the back view of a man and the other of a dancer are also
specimens of their sculpture. The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of
the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted with various
designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial motifs
consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and
trees. On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock.
Script
The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The number of signs
is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their
variants. The script was mostly written from right to left. In a few long seals the
boustrophedon method - writing in the reverse direction in alternative lines -
was adopted. Parpola and his Scandinavian colleagues came to the conclusion
that the language of the Harappans was Dravidian. A group of Soviet scholars
accepts this view.

Other scholars provide different view connecting the Harappan script with that
of Brahmi. The mystery of the Harappan script still exists and there is no doubt
that the decipherment of Harappan script will throw much light on this culture.
Religion
From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the
religious life of the Harappans. The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva)
represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns.
He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing
a different direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The chief female deity was
the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter times, Linga
worship was prevalent. Trees and animals were also worshipped by the
Harappans. They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as
protection against them.

Burial Methods
The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa,
Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial practices of the
Harappans. Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at
Mohenjodaro. At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the
use of coffins. Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa. The practice of pot
burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is
no clear evidence for the practice of Sati.
Decline of the Harappan Culture
There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the decline of the
Harappan culture. Various theories have been postulated. Natural calamities like
recurring floods, drying up of rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to
excessive exploitation and occasional earthquakes might have caused the
decline of the Harappan cities. According to some scholars the final blow was
delivered by the invasion of Aryans. The destruction of forts is mentioned in the
Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled together at
Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners. The Aryans had
superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to
become masters of this region.