Agric Notes

CHAPTER ONE
AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION.
 Agricultural production is the use of cultivated plants or animals to produce products for
sustaining or enhancing human life
 Agricultural production is the use of crops and animal products to enhance human life
sustainably.
 Importance of agricultural production

1. it’s the main source of raw materials
Many raw materials, whether it’s cotton, sugar, wood, or palm oil, come from agriculture. These
materials are essential to major industries in ways many people aren’t even aware of, such as the
manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, diesel fuel, plastic, and more. In fact, raw m
nnnnnnnnnnnnnnaterials are so important in production that the economic health of a country
strongly depends on how many raw materials it possesses.
2. it’s important to international trade
Raw materials from agriculture make up a huge portion of what’s traded internationally. Countries
with plenty of those supplies export them and trade for materials they don’t have. If a country’s
agriculture suffers for some reason, prices can go up and it disrupts the flow of trade. Currently,
the EU is the first trader of agricultural products in the world, both for imports and exports.
3. It plays a big role in a nation’s revenue
Speaking of trade, developing countries still get most of their national income from agricultural
exports. While developed countries don’t depend on agriculture as much as they used to, their
economies would definitely take a hit if all exports suddenly stopped.
4. It provides employment
The agricultural industry is still one of the biggest sources of employment and in many areas, it’s
actually booming. Whether it’s working as a farmer, harvester, technician for farm equipment,
scientist, and so on, there are plenty of jobs available in this field. In developing countries,
agricultural jobs help reduce high rates of unemployment. When it comes to reducing poverty,
evidence shows that focusing on agriculture is significantly more effective than investing in other
areas.
5. It’s crucial to a country’s development
Notes For Certificate In General Agriculture By Classroom And Commercial Agriculture Consultancy-Agency Page 1 of 122
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Economic development is tied to a country’s agriculture sector. When trade, national revenue, and
employment are combined in a positive way, a country enjoys reduced poverty and boosted
economic growth. Because strong agriculture results in benefits fairly quickly, focusing on it is one
of the best ways to speed up development and improve a country’s standing in the world.
6. It can help heal the environment
Agriculture possesses the power to harm or heal. When farmers prioritize biodiversity on their land,
it benefits the earth. Having more biodiversity results in healthier soil, less erosion,
better water conservation, and healthier pollinators. This is all good news for the environment as a
whole, making agriculture an important part of the cycle of life.
7. It goes hand-in-hand with war
Agriculture is such an important part of a country’s infrastructure, it makes sense it would impact
conflicts and war. Throughout history, the need for land to grow food fueled many conflicts. In
more modern times, specifically WWI, America’s farming industry boomed because they needed to
supply Europe with agricultural products. For countries who don’t have assistance, war can break
down the agricultural sector, affecting people for decades to come. When discussing agriculture,
it’s impossible to not at least mention its connection to conflict.
8. It’s the source of our food supply
Arguably the most important aspect of agriculture is that it’s the source of the world’s food supply.
No matter where or what you are eating, the ingredients in your meals came from somewhere. All
roads lead to agriculture. In countries dealing with food insecurity and severe malnourishment, it’s
because their agriculture sectors are suffering. When agriculture thrives, fewer people go hungry.
9. It drives innovation in technology
Because healthy agriculture is so essential to a country’s well-being, it’s been the setting of some of
the most exciting innovations in technology. Through artificial intelligence, blockchain software,
gene manipulation, and more, scientists and farmers have been figuring out ways to increase crop
productivity, use less water, and reduce negative impacts on the environment. For scientists and
tech companies, agribusiness is one of the most fascinating and productive fields to work in.
10. The state of agriculture reflects our future
When it comes to pollution and climate change, the environment and agriculture suffer the quickest
and with the most clear consequences. If effective changes aren’t made, climate change’s impact
on agriculture will decimate a country’s economy and eventually wipe out the food supply. To get a
better idea about where humanity is going to end up, look at agriculture. What’s being done to
adapt to a rapidly-changing climate? What will our food supply look like? The state of agriculture
is a good litmus test of what we can expect the future to look like
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CHAPTER TWO
CROP ECOLOGY.
 Ecology is the study of organisms, the environment and how the organisms interact with
each other and their environment.

Environmental Factors Affecting Plant Growth
 Plant growth and geographic distribution are greatly affected by the environment. If any
environmental factor is less than ideal, it limits a plant's growth and/or distribution. For
example, only plants adapted to limited amounts of water can live in deserts.
 Either directly or indirectly, most plant problems are caused by environmental stress.
 In some cases, poor environmental conditions (e.g., too little water) damage a plant
directly.
 In other cases, environmental stress weakens a plant and makes it more susceptible to
disease or insect attack.
 Environmental factors that affect plant growth include light, temperature, water, humidity,
and nutrition.
 It is important to understand how these factors affect plant growth and development.
 With a basic understanding of these factors, you may be able to manipulate plants to meet
your needs, whether for increased leaf, flower, or fruit production.
 By recognizing the roles of these factors, you also will be better able to diagnose plant
problems caused by environmental stress.
 Light
Three principal characteristics of light affect plant growth: quantity, quality, and duration.
Quantity

Light quantity refers to the intensity, or concentration, of sunlight. It varies with the
seasons.
 The maximum amount of light is present in summer, and the minimum in winter.
 Up to a point, the more sunlight a plant receives, the greater its capacity for producing food
via photosynthesis.
 You can manipulate light quantity to achieve different plant growth patterns.
 Increase light by surrounding plants with reflective materials, a white background, or
supplemental lights. Decrease it by shading plants with cheesecloth or woven shade cloths.
Quality
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 Light quality refers to the color (wavelength) of light.
 Sunlight supplies the complete range of wavelengths and can be broken up by a prism into
bands of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
 Blue and red light, which plants absorb, have the greatest effect on plant growth.
Blue light is responsible primarily for vegetative (leaf) growth.
Red light, when combined with blue light, encourages flowering. Plants look green to us because
they reflect, rather than absorb, green light.
Knowing which light source to use is important for manipulating plant growth. For example,
fluorescent (cool white) light is high in the blue wavelength. It encourages leafy growth and is
excellent for starting seedlings. Incandescent light is high in the red or orange range, but generally
produces too much heat to be a valuable light source for plants. Fluorescent grow-lights attempt to
imitate sunlight with a mixture of red and blue wavelengths, but they are costly and generally no
better than regular fluorescent lights.
Duration

Duration, or photoperiod, refers to the amount of time a plant is exposed to light.
Photoperiod controls flowering in many plants.
 Scientists initially thought the length of light period triggered flowering and other
responses within plants.
 Thus, they describe plants as short-day or long-day, depending on what conditions they
flower under.
 We now know that it is not the length of the light period, but rather the length of
uninterrupted darkness, that is critical to floral development.
 Plants are classified into three categories: short-day (long-night), long-day (short-night), or
day-neutral, depending on their response to the duration of light or darkness.
 Short-day plants form flowers only when day length is less than about 12 hours.
 Many spring- and fall-flowering plants, such as chrysanthemum, poinsettia, and Christmas
cactus, are in this category.
 In contrast, long-day plants form flowers only when day length exceeds 12 hours. Most
summer flowering plants (e.g., rudbeckia, California poppy, and aster), as well as many
vegetables (beet, radish, lettuce, spinach, and potato), are in this category.
 Day-neutral plants form flowers regardless of day length. Examples are tomato, corn,
cucumber, and some strawberry cultivars. Some plants do not fit into any category, but may
respond to combinations of day lengths. Petunias, for example, flower regardless of day
length, but flower earlier and more profusely with long days.
 You can easily manipulate photoperiod to stimulate flowering. For example,
chrysanthemums normally flower in the short days of spring or fall, but you can get them to
bloom in midsummer by covering them with a cloth that completely blocks out light for 12
hours each day.
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 After several weeks of this treatment, the artificial dark period no longer is needed, and the
plants will bloom as if it were spring or fall. This method also is used to make poinsettias
flower in time for Christmas.
 To bring a long-day plant into flower when day length is less than 12 hours, expose the
plant to supplemental light. After a few weeks, flower buds will form.
 Temperature
 Temperature influences most plant processes, including photosynthesis, transpiration,
respiration, germination, and flowering.
 As temperature increases (up to a point), photosynthesis, transpiration, and respiration
increase.
 When combined with day-length, temperature also affects the change from vegetative
(leafy) to reproductive (flowering) growth. Depending on the situation and the specific
plant, the effect of temperature can either speed up or slow down this transition.
Germination
The temperature required for germination varies by species. Generally, cool-season crops (e.g.,
spinach, radish, and lettuce) germinate best at 55° to 65°F, while warm-season crops (e.g., tomato,
petunia, and lobelia) germinate best at 65° to 75°F.
Flowering
Sometimes horticulturists use temperature in combination with day length to manipulate flowering.
For example, a Christmas cactus forms flowers as a result of short days and low temperatures. To
encourage a Christmas cactus to bloom, place it in a room with more than 12 hours of darkness
each day and a temperature of 50° to 55°F until flower buds form.
If temperatures are high and days are long, cool-season crops such as spinach will flower (bolt).
However, if temperatures are too cool, fruit will not set on warm-season crops such as tomato.
Crop quality
Low temperatures reduce energy use and increase sugar storage. Thus, leaving crops such as ripe
winter squash on the vine during cool, fall nights increases their sweetness.
Adverse temperatures, however, cause stunted growth and poor-quality vegetables. For example,
high temperatures cause bitter lettuce.
Photosynthesis and respiration
 Thermoperiod refers to daily temperature change. Plants grow best when daytime
temperature is about 10 to 15 degrees higher than nighttime temperature.
 Under these conditions, plants photosynthesize (build up) and respire (break down) during
optimum daytime temperatures and then curtail respiration at night.
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 However, not all plants grow best under the same range between nighttime and daytime
temperatures. For example, snapdragons grow best at nighttime temperatures of 55°F;
poinsettias, at 62°F.
 Temperatures higher than needed increase respiration, sometimes above the rate of
photosynthesis. Thus, photosynthetic are used faster than they are produced. For growth to
occur, photosynthesis must be greater than respiration.
 Daytime temperatures that are too low often produce poor growth by slowing down
photosynthesis. The result is reduced yield (i.e., fruit or grain production).
Breaking dormancy
Some plants that grow in cold regions need a certain number of days of low temperature
(dormancy). Knowing the period of low temperature required by a plant, if any, is essential in
getting it to grow to its potential.
Peaches are a prime example; most varieties require 700 to 1,000 hours between 32° and 45°F
before breaking their rest period and beginning growth. Lilies need 6 weeks of temperatures at or
slightly below 33°F before blooming.
Daffodils can be forced to flower by storing the bulbs at 35° to 40°F in October. The cold
temperature allows the bulbs to mature. When transferred to a greenhouse in midwinter, they begin
to grow, and flowers are ready to cut in 3 to 4 weeks.
Hardiness
Plants are classified as hardy or nonhardy depending on their ability to withstand cold
temperatures. Hardy plants are those that are adapted to the cold temperatures of their growing
environment.
Woody plants in the temperate zone have very sophisticated means for sensing the progression
from fall to winter. Decreasing day length and temperature trigger hormonal changes that cause
leaves to stop photosynthesizing and to ship nutrients to twigs, buds, stems, and roots.
An abscission layer forms where each petiole joins a stem, and the leaves eventually fall off.
Changes within the trunk and stem tissues over a relatively short period of time "freeze-proof" the
plant.
Winter injury to hardy plants generally occurs when temperatures drop too quickly in the fall
before a plant has progressed to full dormancy. In other cases, a plant may break dormancy in mid-
or late winter if the weather is unseasonably warm. If a sudden, severe cold snap follows the warm
spell, otherwise hardy plants can be seriously damaged.
It is worth noting that the tops of hardy plants are much more cold-tolerant than the roots. Plants
that normally are hardy to 10°F may be killed if they are in containers and the roots are exposed to
20°F.
Winter injury also may occur because of desiccation (drying out) of plant tissues. People often
forget that plants need water even during winter. When the soil is frozen, water movement into a
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plant is severely restricted. On a windy winter day, broadleaf evergreens can become water-
deficient in a few minutes, and the leaves or needles then turn brown. To minimize the risk of this
type of injury, make sure your plants go into the winter well-watered.
 Water and Humidity
Most growing plants contain about 90 percent water. Water plays many roles in plants. It is:
 A primary component in photosynthesis and respiration
 Responsible for turgor pressure in cells (Like air in an inflated balloon, water is responsible
for the fullness and firmness of plant tissue. Turgor is needed to maintain cell shape and
ensure cell growth.)
 A solvent for minerals and carbohydrates moving through the plant
 Responsible for cooling leaves as it evaporates from leaf tissue during transpiration
 A regulator of stomatal opening and closing, thus controlling transpiration and, to some
degree, photosynthesis
 The source of pressure to move roots through the soil
 The medium in which most biochemical reactions take place
 Relative humidity is the ratio of water vapor in the air to the amount of water the air could
hold at the current temperature and pressure. Warm air can hold more water vapor than cold
air. Relative humidity (RH) is expressed by the following equation:
RH = water in air ÷ water air could hold (at constant temperature and pressure)
Relative humidity is given as a percent. For example, if a pound of air at 75°F could hold 4 grams
of water vapor, and there are only 3 grams of water in the air, then the relative humidity (RH) is:
3 ÷ 4 = 0.75 = 75%
 Water vapor moves from an area of high relative humidity to one of low relative humidity.
 The greater the difference in humidity, the faster water moves. This factor is important
because the rate of water movement directly affects a plant's transpiration rate.
 The relative humidity in the air spaces between leaf cells approaches 100 percent. When a
stoma opens, water vapor inside the leaf rushes out into the surrounding air (Figure 25), and
a bubble of high humidity forms around the stoma.
 By saturating this small area of air, the bubble reduces the difference in relative humidity
between the air spaces within the leaf and the air adjacent to the leaf. As a result,
transpiration slows down.
 If wind blows the humidity bubble away, however, transpiration increases. Thus,
transpiration usually is at its peak on hot, dry, windy days. On the other hand, transpiration
generally is quite slow when temperatures are cool, humidity is high, and there is no wind.
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Hot, dry conditions generally occur during the summer, which partially explains why plants wilt
quickly in the summer. If a constant supply of water is not available to be absorbed by the roots and
moved to the leaves, turgor pressure is lost and leaves go limp.
 Plant Nutrition
Plant nutrition often is confused with fertilization. Plant nutrition refers to a plant's need for and use
of basic chemical elements. Fertilization is the term used when these materials are added to the
environment around a plant. A lot must happen before a chemical element in a fertilizer can be
used by a plant.
Plants need 17 elements for normal growth. Three of them--carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen--are
found in air and water. The rest are found in the soil.
Six soil elements are called macronutrients because they are used in relatively large amounts by
plants. They are nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Plant macronutrients
Leaches
from soil/ Signs of
Element Absorbed as Signs of excess Notes
Mobility in deficiency
plant
In general, the best

NH4+:NO3- ratio is
Reduced
1:1. Under low
growth,
Succulent sugar conditions
yellowing
growth; dark (low light), high
(chlorosis).
green color; NH4+ can cause
Reds and
Leachable, weak, spindly leaf curl. Uptake is
NO3-, purples may
especially growth; few inhibited by high P
Nitrogen (nitrate), intensify in
NO3-. fruits. May levels. The N:K
(N) NH4+ some plants.
Mobile in cause brittle ratio is extremely
(ammonium) Reduced
plants. growth, important. Indoors,
lateral bud
especially under the best N:K ratio
breaks.
high is 1:1 unless light
Symptoms
temperatures. is extremely high.
appear first on
In soils with a high
older growth.
C:N ratio, more N
should be supplied.
Phosphorus H2PO4-, Normally Shows up as Reduced Rapidly bound

(P) HPO4- not micronutrient growth. Color (fixed) on soil (P)
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particles. Under
acid conditions,
fixed with Fe, Mg,
may intensify;
and Al. Under
browning or
alkaline conditions,
leachable, purpling of
fixed with Ca.
but may foliage in
Important for
leach from some plants.
young plant and
soil high in deficiency of Thin stems,
(phosphate) seedling growth.
bark or peat. Zn, Fe, or Co. reduced lateral
High P interferes
Not readily bud breaks,
with micronutrient
mobile in loss of lower
absorption and N
plants. leaves,
absorption. Used in
reduced
relatively small
flowering.
amounts when
compared to N and
K.
Reduced
growth,
shortened
inter-nodes.
N:K balance is
Marginal burn
important. High
Causes N or scorch
N:low K favors
Can leach in deficiency in (brown leaf
vegetative growth;
Potassium sandy soils. plant and may edges),
K+ low N:high K
(K) Mobile in affect the uptake necrotic (dead)
promotes
plants. of other positive spots in
reproductive
ions. leaves.
growth (flowers,
Reduction of
fruit).
lateral bud
breaks,
tendency to
wilt readily.
Magnesium Mg++ Leachable. Interferes with Reduction in Mg commonly is

(Mg) Mobile in Ca uptake. growth. deficient in foliage
plants. Marginal plants because it is
chlorosis, leached and not
interveinal replaced. Epsom
chlorosis salts at a rate of 1
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teaspoon per gallon
(yellow may be used two
between the times per year. Mg
veins) in some also can be
species (may absorbed by leaves
occur on if sprayed in a
middle or weak solution.
lower leaves). Dolomitic
Reduction in limestone can be
seed applied in outdoor
production, situations to
cupped leaves. correct a
deficiency.
Ca is important to
Inhibition of
pH control and
Normally High Ca usually bud growth,
rarely is deficient if
not causes high pH, death of root
the correct pH is
leachable. which then tips. Cupping
maintained. Water
Moderately precipitates of maturing
stress (too much or
Calcium limited many leaves, weak
Ca++ too little) can affect
(Ca) mobility in micronutrients growth.
Ca relations within
plants. so that they Blossom-end
plants, causing
Interferes become rot of many
deficiency in the
with Mg unavailable to fruits, pits on
location where Ca
absorption. plants. root
was needed at the
vegetables.
time of stress.
S often is a carrier
or impurity in
General
Sulfur excess fertilizers and
Leachable, yellowing of
SO4- usually is in the rarely is deficient.
Sulfur (S) not mobile affected leaves
(sulfate) form of air It also may be
in plants. or the entire
pollution. absorbed fro the air
plant.
and is a by-product
of combustion.
Eight other soil elements are used in much smaller amounts and are called micronutrients or trace
elements. They are iron, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, boron, copper, cobalt, and chlorine.
Plant micronutrients
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Absorbed
Element Signs of excess Signs of deficiency Notes
as
Rare except on
Soil high in Ca, Mn, P,
flooded soils. Add Fe in the
or heavy metals (Cu,
Interveinal chlorosis, chelate form. The
Fe++, Fe++ Zn); high pH; poorly
Iron (Fe) primarily on young type of chelate
+ drained soil; oxygen-
tissue, which needed depends
deficient soil; nematode
eventually may turn on soil pH.
attack on roots.
white.
BO3- Blackening or death Failure to set seed,

Boron (B) of tissue between internal breakdown,
Borate veins. death of apical buds.
"Little leaf" (reduction

Shows up as Fe
in leaf size), short
deficiency. Also
Zinc (Zn) Zn++ internodes, distorted or
interferes with Mg
puckered leaf margins,
absorption.
interveinal chlorosis.
Can occur at low pH.

New growth small, May be found in
Copper (Cu) Cu++, Cu+ Shows up as Fe
misshapen, wilted. some peat soils.
deficiency.
Reduction in growth, Interveinal chlorosis of

Manganese brown spotting on leaves followed by Found under acid
Mn++
(Mn) leaves. Shows up as brown spots, producing conditions.
Fe deficiency. a checkered effect.
Interveinal chlorosis on
Molybdenum MoO4- older or midstem leaves,
(Mo) (molybdate) twisted leaves
(whiptail).
Leaves wilt, then

Salt injury, leaf burn.
become bronze, then
Chlorine (Cl) Cl- May increase
chlorotic, then die; club
succulence.
roots.
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Most of the nutrients a plant needs are dissolved in water and then absorbed by its roots. In fact, 98
percent are absorbed from the soil-water solution, and only about 2 percent are actually extracted
from soil particles.
 Fertilizers
Fertilizers are materials containing plant nutrients that are added to the environment around a plant.
Generally, they are added to the water or soil, but some can be sprayed on leaves. This method is
called foliar fertilization. It should be done carefully with a dilute solution, because a high fertilizer
concentration can injure leaf cells. The nutrient, however, does need to pass through the thin layer
of wax (cutin) on the leaf surface.
Fertilizers are not plant food! Plants produce their own food from water, carbon dioxide, and solar
energy through photosynthesis. This food (sugars and carbohydrates) is combined with plant
nutrients to produce proteins, enzymes, vitamins, and other elements essential to growth.
Nutrient absorption
Anything that reduces or stops sugar production in leaves can lower nutrient absorption. Thus, if a
plant is under stress because of low light or extreme temperatures, nutrient deficiency may develop.
A plant's developmental stage or rate of growth also may affect the amount of nutrients absorbed.
Many plants have a rest (dormant) period during part of the year. During this time, few nutrients
are absorbed. Plants also may absorb different nutrients as flower buds begin to develop than they
do during periods of rapid vegetative growth.
CHAPTER THREE
LAND PREPARATION
 Land preparation involves all those activities that make land suitable for planting eg
ploughing, harrowing, ridging and rolling
 Seed bed: this is a piece of land prepared ready for planting. To achieve good germination
of seeds the following must be achieved:
 Suitable size of clods

 Good depth
 Looseness of soil
 Absence of weeds
Reasons for land preparation

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 To kill weeds
 To incorporate manure and other organic matter in the soil
 To destroy different stages of crop pest such as eggs, larva or adult stages by burying
them and exposing them to the heat
 To encourage the penetration of roots in the soil
 To make subsequent operation easy
 To encourage water penetration in the soil
Operations in land preparation
1. Land clearing
2. Primary cultivation
3. Secondary cultivation
4. Tertiary operations
1. Land clearing
This is the removal of vegetation cover from the surface before land is cultivated. Its done to
prepare land for cultivation as well as a method of land reclaimation
Conditions that necessitate land clearing
 When opening up virgin land

 Where a stalk growing crop was previously planted
 Where the interval between primary and secondary cultivation is long such that land is
reverted back to its original virgin state
 Where land was left fallow for a long time
Methods of land clearing
1. Tree felling
2. Burning
3. Slashing
4. Use of chemicals
5. a) Tree felling
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This involves cutting down trees. Axes, pangas, are used and small power saws where the trees are
few. Bulldozers and root rakers are used where trees are on large scale. After cutting down the
trees, destumping or removal of stumps and disposal of trash is done.
1. b) Burning
here fire is set on the vegetation cover. Should be done when the speed of wind is low to avoid
spread of fire to other fields. Burning should be discouraged because:
 it destroys organic matter

 kills soil micro organisms
 also destroys plants nutrients
1. c) Slashing
Small bushes or grasses can be cleared by slashing. Slashers or pangas are used in a small area,
while a tractor drawn mower can be used in large areas
1. d) Use of chemicals
Chemicals used to kill weeds are called herbicides. They kill weeds faster and more easily.
2. Primary cultivation
This is the initial opening of land either after land clearing or following a previous crop. Primary
cultivation should be done well before the onset of rains to give time for all operations to be done
in good time.
Importance of primary cultivation
 To remove weeds
 To burry organic matter for easy decomposition
 To facilitate water infiltration and aeration
 To destroy soil borne pests by exposing them to predators and sun
 To make planting easy
Ways of carrying out primary cultivation
1. Hand digging
2. Mechanical cultivation
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3. Use of ox plough
4. a) Hand digging
This is mainly the use of simple hand tools such as jembes, mattocks and fork jembes to cut and
turn the soil slices.
1. b) Mechanical cultivation
Where large pieces of land is involved, farmers use tractor mounted implements which include
mould board, disc ploughs. Also there is use of sub soilers to break the hard pan.
1. c) Use of an ox plough
This is use of ploughs drawn (pulled) by animals such as donkeys, camels, oxen etc. common in
areas where such animals are available and the terrain is flat.
Aspects to be considered when carrying out primary cultivation
1. i) Time of cultivation
2. ii) Depth of cultivation
iii) Choice of implements
1. i) Time of cultivation
land preparation should be done early enough before the onset of rains.
Reasons for early cultivation
 To give weeds and other vegetation enough time to dry up and decompose into organic
matter
 To allow carbon dioxide and other gases to diffuse out of the soil while being replaced
by oxygen required in seed germination and growth of soil organisms
 Also gives time for subsequent operations to be done giving way for early planting
1. ii) Depth of cultivation
factors that determine the depth of ploughing are:
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 The type of crop to be planted: Deep rooted crops require a soil which has been
cultivated deeply, because it will facilitate easy root penetration. Shallow rooted crops
may not need deep cultivation
 The implements available: There are some implements which canot cut the soil beyond
a certain depth. Such implements can be sharpened or weight be added
 Type of soil: heavy soils are hard particularly when they are dry. Simple implements
such as jembes tend to dig shallowly on such hard soils
iii) Choice of implements
Choice of implements used in primary cultivation is determined by:
 The condition of the land: If the land has a lot of stones and stumps, it would be
advisable for one to choose a disc plough which would not break easily when working
on such land. A jembe cannot be used efficiently on land which has a lot of couch grass
because it cannot pull all the rhizomes.
 The type of tilth required: very fine tilth requires the use of different types of
implements
 The depth of cultivation needed: heavy implements are necessary when deep
cultivation is needed and light implements are required when shallow cultivation is
necessary
3. Secondary cultivation
These are operations which follow the primary cultivation and means seedbed refinement practices
before planting, also called harrowing
Importance of secondary cultivation
 To remove any weeds that might have germinated after primary cultivation
 To break the soil clods into small pieces for easy planting
 To level the field on order to achieve a uniform depth of planting
 To incorporate organic matter into the soil in order to encourage decomposition before
planting
Factors that determine the number of times of secondary cultivation
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 Size of planting materials: Big seeds such as those of groundnuts, maize etc require a
fairly rough seedbed, and small seeds such as those of finger millets require fine seedbed
 Slope of the land: When the land is very steep, less cultivation should be done to
discourage soil erosion
 The moisture content of the soil: In dry soils less cultivation are preferred so as to
conserve the available moisture
 Condition of the soil after primary tillage: where there is plenty of trash, more
harrowing operations should be carried out to incorporate most of the trash into the soil
N/B: Implements used for secondary cultivation are: pangas, jembes, fork jembes, and garden
rakes. Tractor drawn harrows eg discs, spike toothed and spring tine harrows
4. Tertiary operations
These are operations carried out to suit production of certain crops. They are carried out after land
clearing primary cultivation and secondary tillage. They include:
1. Leveling
2. Rolling
3. Ridging
4. a) Leveling
This is the practice of making the soil surface flat and uniform so as to promote easy germination
of small seeded crops such as wheat, grasses, and barley. It facilitates uniform germination of
seeds.
1. b) Rolling
This is done to compact soil which is loose or fine tilth. Its done to prevent small seeds from being
carried away by wind and to prevent soil erosion. Also increases seed soil contact. Implements used
are: simple hand tools and heavy rollers
1. c) Ridging
This is the process of digging soil in a continuous line and heaping it on one side to form a bund
( ridge) and a furrow. The ridges are important for planting root crops like Irish potatoes, cassava
etc. ridging helps in: tuber expansion and easy harvesting of root crops.
N/B: Other tillage operations include:
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1. Sub soiling
2. Minimum tillage
3. Sub soiling
This is the process of cultivating the soil for the purpose of breaking up the hard pans which might
have formed as a result of continuous use of heavy machinery in land preparation. Implements used
in sub soiling are:
 Sub soiler
 Chisel ploughs
 Cultivators
Importance of sub soiling
 Helps to break up hard pans

 Helps to facilitate gaseous exchange in the soil
 Also brings to the surface, minerals which might have leached to the deeper layers
N/B: hard pan is an impervious layer of soil found within the sub soil.
2. Minimum tillage
This is the application of a combination of farming practices aimed at least disturbance to the soil.
Reasons for carrying out minimum tillage
 To reduce the cost of cultivation or ploughing by reducing the number of operations

 To control soil erosion, mulching and cover cropping greatly reduce chances of soil
erosion
 To maintain soil structure, continuous cultivation destroys soil structure hence its
avoided
 To conserve moisture, continuous cultivation exposes the soil to the heat of the sun thus
enhance evaporation of available moisture
 To prevent disturbance of roots and underground structures for example tubers and bulbs
 To prevent exposure of humus to adverse conditions such as the suns heat that cause
volatilization of nitrogen
Ways of carrying out minimum tillage
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 Application of herbicides in controlling weeds
 Use of mulch on the soil surface. Mulch prevents weeds from growing by smothering
them
 Timing cultivation, late weeding of cotton crop, for example often produces a clean
seedbed for finger millet to be sown without further cultivation
 Restricting cultivation to the area where seeds are to be planted. Weeds in the rest of the
field are controlled by slashing
 Establishment of cover crop on the field
 Uprooting or slashing weeds on perennial crops
Methods to Improve Farming Productivity.
1. Implementation of land reforms
For improving the production, land reforms are the first and predominant point.
Machines, tractors, and implements do land reforms. These machines have the qualities that make
rugged farming areas smooth to work on the field efficiently. Working on the field is easy, that
means an improvement in productivity is easy. Land reforms are the best method to increase
production.
2. Interplant
Interplanting is a practice in which different crops are growing together at the same time. It is the
best way to maximize the productivity of your growing space. Some crops are the best together,
some not.
3. Plant more densely

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It is the simplest way to improve the productivity of farms, in this plant crops close together. Many
farmers keep their vegetables excessively away, which leads to the abandonment of large areas
growing well.
4. Plant many crops
The next method of improving productivity is to plant many crops
5. Raised beds
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Traditional farming systems place crops in separate
rows by tractor paths, with permanent beds planting multiple rows of crops within beds of the same
width. It creates dense plantations, fewer pathways, and more active growing areas. Raised beds are
symbolic of improving the productivity of crops.
6. Smart water management
Water is an essential need for planting crops, and by the management of water, you can enhance the
production. Water management is the best way to improve production. Using the sprinkler
irrigation system, you can increase the output by up to 50%. By the manufacturing canals, tube
wells get a better irrigation system for the safety of crops.
7. Heat Tolerant Varieties
Heat tolerant varieties allow the plant to maintain the yields in high temperatures. We must
improve the heat-tolerant varieties, and it increases the crop yield by up to 23%.
8. Use nitrogen
Nitrogen is a necessary element for better plant growth, and without nitrogen, most of the crops
would not exist. Annually, plus 100 million tonnes of nitrogen are applied to crops in the form of
fertilizer to help them grow stronger and better. The use of nitrogen can enhance the production of
up to 22%.
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9. Improved seeds
Seeds play an essential role in the farms, and improved seeds are best to enhance farm productivity.
Improved seeds are suitable for increasing production.
10. Plant protection
According to farming scientists, about 5% of crops destroyed by insects, pests, and diseases. Most
of the farmers are oblivious of the use of medicines and insecticides developed in recent years.
Improving the production of the crops, yields must use these medicines. To be aware, the farmers
about these governments should take steps or employ their technical staff in spraying pesticides and
insecticides
CHAPTER FOUR
PLANTING
 Planting is the placement of the planting material in the soil for the
purpose of regeneration in order to produce more of the plant species.
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Types of planting materials
1. Seeds
 Seeds are produced by flowering after pollination and fertilization. They contain
the part of the plant that germinates and subsequently grows in to new plants.
Advantages of using seeds as planting materials.
 Seeds are easily treated against soil borne pests and diseases.
 They are not bulky therefore storage is easy.
 They are easy to handle during planting making operation easy.
 When planting seeds, it is easy to use machines like seed planters and drillers.
 It is easy to apply manures and fertilizers together with seeds during planting.
 Fertilizers and manures application can be easily mechanized.
 It is possible to develop new crop varieties due to cross pollination.
Disadvantages of using seeds as planting materials.
 Some seeds have long dormancy and they may need special treatment in order to
germinate.
 Plants raised from seeds have variations from the mother plant due to cross
pollination,
 This may introduce undesirable characteristics.
 Soil borne pests may damage seeds if left for sometime in the soil before rain falls.
 Some seeds may lose viability if stored for a long time. This leads to gaps in the
farm.
2 . Vegetative materials.
 These are plant parts which have the ability to produce roots, they grow and
develop in to new plants.
 Plant parts such as leaves, roots or stems can be used for planting as long as they
are capable of rooting.
Advantages of using vegetative materials for planting.
 Crops originating from vegetative materials matures fasterthan those from seeds.
 The crops shows uniformity in such qualities as disease resistance, seed size,
colour, keeping or storing quality and chemical composition.
 It is possible to produce many varieties of compatible crops on the same root
stock.
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 Use of the vegetative materials is easier and faster, especially where seeds show
prolonged dormancy.
 The resulting plant has desired shape and size for ease of harvesting and spraying.
 It facilitates the propagation of crops which are seedless or those that produce
seeds which are not viable or have a long dormancy period.
 Such crops include sugar-cane, bananas, Napier grass and others.
Disadvantages.
 Vegetative propagation does not result in new crop varieties.

 Keeping the materials free of diseases is difficult.
 Materials cannot be stored for long.
 The materials are bulky and there fore difficult to store and transport.
Plant parts used for vegetative propagation.
i) Bulbils.
 These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the
plant growth cycle.
 They resemble the mother plant except that they are smaller in size.
 They are produced by the branches of the sisal pole.
 When manure they mature they develop rudimentary roots and fall off to the
ground just below the pole.
 They are the collected and raised in the nurseries before they are transplanted t\o
the main field.
 One sisal pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. They are usually 10cm long.
They make good planting materials and are better than sucke
ii) Splits
 These are plantlets divided from the existing mother plant with complete with
complete leaves and rooting system.
 They are used to propagate most pasture grasses and pyrethrum.
 Pyrethrum splits are raised first in nursery and then transplanted to the field.
iii) Crowns and slips
 These are materials used to propagate pineapples

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 Crowns are born on top of the fruits and are broken off and prepared for planting.
 They are more preferred to suckers because they give uniform growth and take two
years to reach maturity.
 Slips are borne to the base of the pineapple fruits.
 They are cut and prepared for plantings.
 Their growth rate is faster than for crowns giving average uniformity.
 They take 22 months from planting to maturity.
 Crowns and slips are planted in the nurseries first before transplanting to the main
seed bed.
iv) Suckers
 These are small plants that grow from the base of the main stem.
 They have adventitious roots which grow quickly when planted to form a new
plant.
 They are used to propagate bananas, sisal, and pineapples.
 When planted, suckers give uneven growth leading to maturity at different times.
 They should be planted when they are young.
v) Tubers
 These are underground food storage organs which are short and thick.
 They are used as vegetative propagation materials because they sprout and produce
roots for growth.
 There are mainly two types of tubers, the stem and root tubers.
 Root tubers develop from the thickening of the adventitious roots.
 Root tubers are not commonly used for propagation since they produce weak
stems.
 A good example of a root tuber is the sweet potato.
 On the other hand stem tubers have some auxiliary buds which are sometimes
referred to as ‘eyes’.
 These eyes sprout to produce stems which grow into plants. Stem tubers are
therefore swollen stems with scales leaves.
 A good example of a stem tuber is Irish potato.
vi) Vines.
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 These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily upon planting to give rise
to new plants.
 They are cut from the mother plants and planted directly into the field.
 Soft wood cuttings (vines) are taken from rapidly growing shoots.
 The soft upper parts of the shoots are preferred.
 When preparing the cuttings, some leaves and nodes are included.
 Roots are produced from the nodes.
vii) Cuttings and setts
 Cuttings are portion of plants parts which are cut and then planted.
 They may be from stems, roots or leaves.
 A stem cutting must have a bud which develops into shoot.
 The root cutting must have an eye. Cutting must have an eye.
 Cuttings must produce leaves as soon as possible so that they can start making
their own food.
 Sometimes cuttings are induced to produce roots by use of rooting hormones.
 Once the cuttings have developed roots, they give rise to new plants.
 In some crops, the cuttings are big enough to be planted directly to the main
seedbed whereas there are some plants whose cuttings are first raised in special
nurseries before they are transplanted to the seedbed.
 The cuttings of Napier grass and sugar-cane are planted directly on the seedbed but
those of tea; have to be raised in special nursery before they are transferred to the
seed bed.
 Examples of crops which are propagated by use of stem cuttings include: tea,
cassava, and sugar-cane and Napier grass.
 The stem cuttings used to propagate sugar-cane are known as ‘setts’. Setts are stem
cuttings which have 3-5 nodes are usually 30-45 cm long.
Factors affecting rooting of cuttings.
 Temperature: for the cuttings to produce roots warm temperatures are required
around the root zone while cool temperatures are important for the aerial part of the
cuttings. For most species optimum day and light temperatures for rooting are 22 -
27°c and 15-21° c respectively.
a) Relative humidity: Proper rooting of cuttings requires high humidity which lower
the transpiration rate. it also increases and maintains leaf turgidity all the time. As
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such, cuttings should be rooted in green houses or under shady conditions, where
relative humidity can be regulated. Sometimes the propagation area can be sprayed
with water to keep it moist.
b) Light intensity: soft wood cuttings need high intensity light to produce roots. This
is because light promotes the production of roots since it affects the rate of
photosynthesis. Hard wood cuttings do well in dark conditions since they have high
amount of stored carbohydrates and therefore rooting is excellent in darkness.
c) Oxygen supply: plentiful supply of oxygen is required for root formation. The
rooting medium used must therefore be capable of allowing proper aeration.
d) Chemical treatment: these rooting hormones which promote the production of

roots in cuttings. The common ones include [AA (indoleacetic acid).
e) Leaf area: Soft woods cuttings require a lot of leaves for photosynthesis while
hardwood cuttings will produce roots better without leaves.
Selection of planting materials
and amount of rainfall in the area.
When selecting materials for planting the following factors must be considered:
 Suitability to the ecological conditions — the selected planting materials should

be well adapted to the soil conditions, temperatures There are many varieties of
maize, for example, which are suitable to different ecological conditions. Hybrid 622f
or example is mainly for the high altitudes areas of Kenya 513 for the medium
altitudes and the Katumani composites for the low rainfall areas while the coast
composites are suitable for the coastal conditions each variety will grow well and
produce high yields if grown under the correct conditions
 Purity of the materials - planting materials should be pure and not mixed with
other off types the percentage purity of planting materials will affect the seed while
higher seeds rates are used for impure seeds.
 Germination percentage - This is a measure of the germination potential of seeds
it is expressed as a percentage for example a germination percentage of 80 means that
for every 10 seeds planted 80 of them are expected to germinate. Germination
percentage helps to determine the seed rates of crops lower seed rates are used for
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crops with higher germination percentage while higher seed rates are used for those
with lower germination percentage.
 Certified seeds - These are seeds which have been tested and proven to have 100
germination potential and free from diseases and pests they give high yields after the
first planting but the subsequent yields decline if replaced therefore in this case it is
always advisable to buy new seeds which are certified every time planting is done In
Kenya certified seeds are produced by the Kenya seed company(KSC) and distributed
by Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) and other agents.
Preparation of planting materials.
After the planting materials are selected they are prepared in different ways before
they are planted. Some of the methods used to prepare planting materials include the
following:
(a)Breaking the seed dormancy.
Some seeds undergo a dormancy period between maturity and the time they sprout.
The dormancy period is the stage whereby a seed cannot germinate, the stage of
inhibited growth of seed. it should be broken before the seed is planted.
Methods of breaking seed dormancy.
The following methods are used to break seed dormancy:
(i) Mechanical method: This is a method which aims at scratching the seed coat to
make it permeable to water. Scarification is done by rubbing small sized seeds against
hard surface such as sand paper, while filling or nicking the seed coat with a knife is
done to large sized seeds such as croton seeds.
(ii) Heat treatment: this involves the use of hot water or burning the seeds lightly. It
softens the seed coat making it permeable to water and thus is able to germinate. The
seeds are soaked in hot water about 80’c for 3-4 minutes after which the water is
allowed to drain off. Example of seeds treated in this way include: leucean 7a2 + 32 =
22 calliadra and acacia.
Light burning also serves the same purpose as hot watertreatment. In this case trash is
spread over the seeds which are already covered with a thin layer of soil. The trash is
Animal Production
burned, after which the seeds are retrieved and planted. Examples include acacia and
wattle tree seeds. Overheating should be avoided as this will cook the seeds.
(iii)Chemical treatment: seeds are dipped in specific chemicals such as concentrated

sulphuric acid, for two minutes and then removed. The chemical wears off the seed
coat making it permeable to water. Care should be taken not to leave the seeds in the
chemicals for too long as this will kill the embryo. Cotton seeds are normally treated
with chemicals to remove the lint or fibres.
iv) Soaking in water: seeds are soaked in water for a period of between 24 — 48
hours until they swell. They are then removed and planted immediately. The seeds
treated thus germinate very fast. Pre-germinated seeds are used when raising rice in
the nurseries.
b) Seed dressing
This is the coating of seeds with fungicides or an insecticide or a combination of the

two chemicals. This is particularly common with cereals, sugar-cane and legumes. The
chemicals protect the seedlings from soil-borne diseases and pests. Certified seeds
which are sold by seed merchants in Kenya have been dressed with these chemicals.
Farmers can also buy the chemicals and dress their own seeds.
c) Seed inoculation
In areas where soils are deficient in nitrogen, legumes such as beans, clovers and peas
should be coated with an inoculant. An innoculant is a preparation which contains the
right strain of Rhizobium depending on the type of legume and encourages nodulation,
hence nitrogen fixation. Below is a table showing different legume crops and their
right strain of Rhizobium.
Crop inoculation group
 Lucerne
 Clover
 Pea
 Bean
 Lupin
 soyabean
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Rhizobium Species
 R.melioti
 R.trifoli
 R.leguminosarum
 R.phaseoli
 R.lupini
 R.japonicum
When handling inoculated seeds, care should be taken to prevent them from coming in
contact with chemicals. This means that inoculated seeds should not be dressed with
chemicals as these will kill the bacterium. They should also be planted when the soil
is moist to avoid dehydration which kills the bacterium.
d) Chitting
This practice is also referred to as sprouting. The selected seed potatoes ‘setts’ which
are used as planting materials are sprouted before planting to break their dormancy.
The setts of about 3-6 cm in diameter are arranged in layers of 2 or 3 tubers deep in a
partially darkened room. The setts should be arranged with the rose» end facing
upwards and the heel-end downwards. Diffused light encourages the production of
short, green and healthy sprouts.
If Chitting is done in complete darkness, long, pale thin sprouts develop which break
easily during planting. During Chitting potato aphids and tuber months should be
controlled by dusting or spraying the sett with dimethoate.
Sometimes a chemical known as Rendite is used to break dormancy, thus inducing

sprouting. Chitting is done mainly to make sure that growth commences immediately
the seed is planted so as to make maximum use of rains for high yields.
Time of planting
The timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of crop to be planted and
the environmental conditions of the area.
Factors to consider in timing planting.
 The rainfall pattern/moisture condition of the soil.

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 Type of crop to be planted.
 Soil type.
 Market demand.
 Prevalence of pests and diseases.
 Weed control.
 Timely planting is necessary and should be done at the onset of rains. in some
areas where rainfall is scare dry planting is recommended.
Advantages of timely planting.
 Crops make maximum use of rainfall and suitable soil temperature, leading to
vigorous growth.
 Crops usually escape serious pests and diseases attack.
 Crops benefit from nitrogen flush which is available at the beginning of the rain.
 For horticultural crops, proper timing ensures that the produce is marketed when
prices are high.
 Crops establish earlier than the weeds, hence smothering them.
Methods of planting.
There are two main methods of planting :-
 Broadcasting.
 Row planting.
Broadcasting.
This method involves scattering the seeds allover the field in a random manner. It is
commonly adapted for light tiny seeds such as those of pasture grasses.
It is easier, quicker and cheaper than row planting. However, it uses more seeds than
row planting and the seeds are spread unevenly leading to crowding of plants in some
places.
This results in poor performance due to competition. Broadcasting gives a good

ground cover, but weeding cannot be mechanized. For good results, the seedbed
should be weed-free, firm and have a fine tilth.
Row planting.
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The seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in rows.
The distance between one row to the other and from one hole to the otheris known.
In Kenya, both large and small — scale farmers practice row planting. It is practiced
when planting many types of crops, especially perennial, annual and root crops.
Advantages of row planting.
 Machines can be used easily between the rows.

 It is easy to establish the correct plant population.
 Lower seed rate is used than if broadcasting is adopted.
 It is easy to carry out cultural practices such as weeding, spraying and harvesting.
Disadvantages of row planting.
 It does not provide an ample foliage cover. Thus the soil is liable to being eroded
by wind and water.
 It is more expensive than broadcasting because of consuming a lot of labour and
time.
 It requires some skill in measuringthe distances between and within the rows.
Seeds can also be planted by dibbling where the planting holes are dug by use of
pangas or jembe, or by a dibbling stick (dibbler). Most of the dibbling is done
randomly although rows can also be used when using a planting line.
Random dibbling is not popular in commercial farming due to low levels of

production. It is only common among conservative farmers in planting of legumes
such as beans, pigeon peas and cow peas.
Over-sowing.
This is the introduction of a pasture legume such as desmodium in an existing grass

pasture. Some form of growth suppression of existing grass such as burning, slashing
or hard grazing plus slight soil disturbance is recommended before over sowing. A
heavy dose of super phosphate, preferably single supers at a rate of 200- 400 kg/ha is
applied.
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The grass must be kept short until the legume is fully established. Regardless of the
method of establishment, the pastures and fodder stands should be ready for light
grazing 4-5 months after planting if rainfall and soil fertility are not limiting.
Under-sowing.
This refers to the establishment of pasture under a cover crop, usually maize. Maize is
planted as recommended and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains. Pasture seeds
are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertilizer.
No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the
young pasture seedlings to sunlight. The benefits of under sowing include facilitating
more intensive land utilization and encouraging an early establishment of pastures.
Fodder crops and vegetetively propagated pasture species may also be under sown as
long as rainfall is adequate for their establishment. Timing is not very crucial in this
case and planting can be done as late as 6-8 weeks after the onset of rains.
Plant population
This refers to the ideal number of plants that can be comfortably accommodated in
any given area, without overcrowding or too few to waste space.
Agricultural research has arrived at the optimum number of various crop plants to be
recommended to farmers. Plant population is determined by dividing the planting area
by spacing of the crop. This may be simplified thus:
Plant population = Area of land divided by Pacing of crop
Example
Given that maize is planted at a spacing of 75 x 25 cm, calculate the plant population
in a plot of land measuring 4 x 3 m.
Working
Area of land = Plant population divided by Pacing of crop
Area of land = 400 cm x 300 cm
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Spacing of maize = 75 cm x 25 cm
Therefore, plant population = 400 cm x 300 cm
75 cm x 25 cm
= 64 plants.
Spacing
It is the distance of plants between and within the rows. Correct spacing for each crop
has been established as shown in table below.
Crop
Maize (Kitale)
hybrids
spacing
75-90 cm x 23—30 cm
Crop
Coffee
(Arabica) tall varieties
spacing
2.75 cm v 2.75 m
Crop
Tea
spacing
1.5 m by 0.75 m
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Crop
Beans (erect type)
spacing
45 -60 m by 25 cm
Crop
Bananas
spacing
3.6 — 6.0 m by 3.6 — 4.5 m
Crop
Coconut
spacing
9mx9m
Crop
Tomatoes (Money maker)
spacing
100 x 50 cm
Crop
kales
spacing
60 x 60 cm
Animal Production
Spacing determines plant population and the main aim of correct spacing is to obtain
maximum number of plants per unit area which will make maximum use of
environmental factors.
Wider spacing leads to a reduced plant population which means lower yields, whereas
closer spacing could lead to overcrowding of plants and competition for nutrients and
other resources would occur. Correctly spaced crops produce yield of high quality that
are acceptable in the market.
Spacing is determined by the following factors:
 The type of machinery to be used.
The space between the rows should allow free passage of the machinery which can be
used in the field. For example, the spacing between rows of coffee is supposed to
allow movement of tractor drawn implements.
 Soil fertility
A fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore closer spacing is possible.
 The size of plant
Tall crop varieties require wider spacing while short varieties require closer spacing,
for example, Kitale hybrid maize is widely spaced than Katumani maize.
 Moisture availability.
Areas with higher rainfall are capable of supporting a large number of plants hence
closer spacing than areas of low rainfall.
 Use of crop.
Crop grown for the supply of forage or silage material is planted at a closer spacing
than for grain production.
 Pest and diseases control.
When crops are properly spaced, pests might find it difficult to move from one place
to the other, for example, aphids in groundnuts.
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 Growth habit.
Spreading and tillering crop varieties require wider spacing than erect type.
Seed rate.
Seed rate is the amount of seeds to be planted in a given unit area governed by
ultimate crop stand which is desired.
The objective of correct spacing of crop is to obtain the maximum yields from a unit
area without sacrificing quality. Most crops are seeded at lighter rates under drier
conditions than under wet or irrigated conditions.
Seeds with low germination percentage are planted at higher rates than those which
have about 100% germination percentage. There is an optimal seed rate for various
crops.
For example, the seed rate for maize is 22 kg per hectare, wheat is 110 kg per hectare
and cotton is between 17 to 45 kg per hectare.
Factors to consider in choosing seed rates.
 Seed purity.
When planting seed which is pure or with a high germination percentage, less seed is
required. On the contrary, more seeds are required when using impure or mixed seeds.
 Germination percentage.
Less seed is used when its germination percentage is higher. Seed of lower
germination percentage is required in large amounts.
 Spacing.
At closer spacing, more seeds are used than in a wider spacing.
 Number of seeds per hole.
When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when
only one seed is planted per hole.
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 The purpose of the crop.
A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain
production. This would require use of more seeds. Maize to be used for silage making,
for example, requires more seeds than that meant for production of grain.
Depth of planting.
This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed. The correct
depth of planting is determined by:
 Soil type: seeds Will emerge from grater depths in sandy soil that are lighter than
in clay soils.
 Soil moisture content: it is recommended that one plants deep in dry soils in order
to place the seeds in a zone with moist soil.
 Size of the seed: Larger seeds are planted deeper in the soil because they have
enough food reserves to make them shoot and emerge through the soil to the surface.
 Type of germination: seeds with epigeal type of germination (carry cotyledons
above the soil surface) such as beans, should be planted shallowerthan those with
hypogeal type of germination (leave cotyledons under the soil) such as maize.
Suggested Activities.
1.Learners to carry out planting using broadcasting method and planting rows.
2.Learners to identify different vegetative propagation materials displayed by the

teacher.
3.Learners to determine the correct plant population for a given area by mathematical
calculations.
4.Learners to collect samples of different tree seeds and prepare them for planting by
various methods of breaking seed dormancy.
5.Learners to determine the germination percentage of different samples of cereals

and legume seeds.
CHAPTER FIVE
Animal Production
NURSERIES
 Planting materials are either planted directly in a seedbed or indirectly through a
nursery bed.
 A seedbed is a piece of land which could be small or large and prepared to receive
planting materials.
 A nursery bed on the other hand is a small plot of land specially prepared for
raising seedlings or planting materials before transplanting.
 It is usually 1m wide and any convenient length depending on the quantity of
seedlings to be raised.
 A seedling bed is a special type of nursery bed used for raising seedlings pricked
out from the nursery bed due to overcrowding before they are ready for transplanting.
 Pricking out refers to the removal of seedlings from a nursery bed to a seedling
bed.
 Nursery practices refer to all the activities carried out throughout a nursery life to
raise seedlings.
Importance of Nursery Bed in Crop Production
 To facilitate the production of many seedlings in a small area.

 It is easy to carry out management practices in a nursery than in the seedbed.
 It facilitates the planting of small seeds which develop into strong seedlings that
are easily transplanted.
 It ensures transplanting of only healthy and vigorous growing seedlings.
 It reduces the period taken by the crop in the field.
 Excess seedlings from the nursery may be sold to earn income.
Selection of a Nursery Site
Factors to consider;
 Nearness to the water source.

 Type of soil.-should be well drained, deep and fertile, preferably loam soil.
 Topography.-it should be situated on a gentle slope to prevent flooding and erosion
through surface run-off.
 Previous cropping.-to avoid build up of pests and diseases associated with
particular plant families, consider the preceding crops.
 Security.-select a site that is protected from theft and destruction by animals.
Animal Production
 Protection against strong winds and heat of the sun.-select a sheltered place. i.e. to
avoid excessive evapotranspiration and uprooting seedlings.
Types of Nurseries
Categories of nurseries:
 Vegetable Nursery:
> They are used for raising the seedlings of vegetable crops.
> Tomatoes, cabbages, kale, onions, brinials and peppers.
 Vegetable Propagation Nurseries:
> They are used for inducing root production in cuttings before they are transplanted,
> The cuttings can be planted directly in the soil and hence called bare root nurseries.
> Or planted into containers such as pots, polythene bags and others, hence called
containerized nurseries.
 Tree Nurseries:
> These are used for raising tree seedlings.
> The seedlings can be raised in bare root nurseries or in containerized nurseries.
Nursery Management Practices:
 These are the practices carried out in the nursery while the planting materials are
growing.
They include:
 Mulching; —light mulch should be applied on the nursery bed.lt be should be

removed on the 4 day
 Weed control.
 Shading.
 Pricking out.
Animal Production
 Pests and disease control.
 Hardening off
 Watering.
Preparation of vegetative materials for planting:
 Cuttings -These are plant parts such as stems, leaves and roots induced to produce
roots and used as planting materials.
 Grafting -
> It is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems.
> The part bearing the roots is referred to as root stock while the part which is grafted
onto the root stock is known as scion.
> The scion has buds which develop into the future plant.
> The ability of the root stock and the scion to form a successful union is termed as
compatibility.
Methods of Grafting
 Whip or tongue grafting:
> In this case the diameter of the rootstock and the scion are the same.
> It is carried out when the diameter of the scion and the rootstock is ‘pencil’ thick.
 Side grafting:
In this case the diameter of the rootstock is bigger than that of the scion.
Other types of grafting include ;
 Approach rafting,
 Notch grafiing
 Bark grafting.
Budding:
Animal Production
 It is the practice of uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling of another plant.
 The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood.
 The bud is inserted in a slit made on the bark of the stock.
 It is held tightly on the stock by tying with a budding tape until it produces a
shoot.
Methods of Budding:
 T-budding Top
 budding Patch
 budding.
Importance of Budding and Grafting:
 Plants with desirable root characteristics but with undesirable products may be
used to produce desirable products for example lemon-orange graft.
 They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to
desirable
 They make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same
plant.
 They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way.
 They help to shorten the maturity period.
Layering
 It is the process by which a part of a plant is induced to produce roots while still
attached to the mother plant.
 Once the roots have been produced, the stem is then cut off and planted.
Types of layering;
 Marcotting or aerial layering.

 Tip layering.
 Trench layering.
 Compound or serpentine.
Tissue Culture for Crop Propagation
 Tissue culture is a biotechnology used in cloning vegetatively propagated plants.

Animal Production
 It is based on the ability of plant tissue (or cells) to regenerate other parts of the
plant.
 The tissues are derived from shoot tips where cells are undergoing rapid cell
division and are not differentiated.
 The cells are then provided with the right conditions which enable them to
multiply and develop roots.
The Right Conditions for tissue culture:
 Culture medium.
 Correct temperature.
 Correct light intensity and
 Correct relative humidity.
Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop Propagation
 It is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of

viral diseases.
 It is used in mass production of plantlets or propagules.
 It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cutting which
requires a bigger space.
Transplanting Seedlings
 Transplanting of vegetable and tree seedlings are generally the same.

 Generally, vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are one month
old or have 4 -6 leaves or are about 10-15cm in height.
 Before transplanting, the nursery bed is adequately watered 3 - 4 hours before
lifting the seedlings.
 This ensures the seedlings are lifted easily with a ball of earth around the roots to
minimize root damage.
 Tree seedlings take a little longer to reach transplanting age compared to vegetable
crop seedlings.
 The roots are trimmed before lifting the seedlings.
 Transplanting should be done at the onset of the long rains to give the young trees
a good start.
 After transplanting the young trees should be protected from damage by animals
for a period of about one year.
Animal Production
CHAPTER SIX
CROP PROTECTION
 common crop pests
 Pests are organisms that feed on and destroy or damage crops in the field or in
storage.
 Examples of pests are insects, birds, and rats.
There are two types of pests, namely:
Field pests and Storage pests.
Field pests
They attack the crops that are still growing or waiting to be harvested in the field or
shamba.
Examples of field pests are:
1. Cutworm. This worm attacks the seedlings as they emerge out of the soil.
The worms burrow just below the soil surface where they cut and eat the soft young
shoots.
With the tip already nipped out, the plant may die.
2. Aphid. This is a black insect with no wings.
Its mouthparts are able to pierce the stem, leaf stalk and leaves of a plant in order to
suck the plant juices.
This makes the plants weak and therefore unlikely to produce a good harvest.
3. Maize stalk borer
This is a larva (caterpillar) of a moth.
Animal Production
The young larva attacks the upper leaves of the maize then penetrates to the centre of
the maize stalk where it burrows and feeds on the juices.
The tunnels they make in the stem make the plant weak and may fall over easily.
The plant may even fail to produce anything
4. Weaverbird
This is a bird that attacks cereals like maize.
It eats the grain and therefore reduces the yield.
Storage pests
These are the pests that attack the harvested crops when in storage.
Examples of storage pests are:
• Weevils. They are insects that make holes in stored cereals like maize, rice and
millet.
They live and eat it from within the cereal.
• Termites or white ants. They often eat the harvest for example grains which are
often covered with the soil that form their home (nest).
• Rodents. These are small animals that chew stored grains.
Rodents include moles, rats and squirrels.
Pests affect crops in the following ways:
1. They lower or reduce harvest.
A lower yield or a loss may be brought about by mature or stored crop or harvest
being eaten by pests.
2. Reduced quality of produce for instance cereals with holes in them made by the
weevils.
Animal Production
Such grains have a lower weight and mass since some of their parts have been
eaten.
3. Pests that suck plant juices transmit diseases from unhealthy plants to healthy
plants.
The infected plant may then die or produce a lower yield.
4. Diseases may also be transmitted to consumers from the plants that are infested by
pests.
For instance, the rotting bodies of weevils and other insects and the excreta of such
pests as rats and cockroaches spoil stored food by introducing germs which may cause
diseases in people who eat it.
The excreta of birds dropped on grain being dried in open air may lead to food
poisoning to people who eat the grain.
Packed maize flour sometimes contain a lot of weevils, making it unfit for human
consumption.
Methods of controlling pests
To eliminate or reduce wastage of crops and improve harvest, pests must be

controlled.
The methods of controlling pests include:
1. Trapping. This method can be applied to rodents and birds in food storage sheds.
2. Handpicking Insects like weevils can be removed by hand.
Alternatively, the affected plants or parts of the plant can be uprooted (removed by
hand).
Animal Production
The affected parts can then be destroyed by burning.
This process also destroys the pests.
The process of uprooting and destroying crops because they are infested by pests is
roguing.
3. Scaring Beating of drums in a plantation may scare away birds and rodents.
Use of catapults by youngsters also scare away birds and may kill them at times.
A scarecrow, which looks like a human being may also be used to scare away birds.
4. Weeding: Some pests develop on weeds and then move to the crop.
Weeding reduces pests since when some pests are exposed to the sun, they die or
may be eaten by their natural enemies like birds.
5. Spraying: This is using chemicals called pesticides to kill pests.
 This is an effective method though it can be dangerous to humans and other

domestic animals because the chemicals used are poisonous.
 Some pesticides kill other animals unintentionally together with the pest while
others pollute the environment and in the process find their way into drinking
water, making it poisonous to human beings and other animals.
 Harvest or produce in storage can also be treated and covered with a pesticide
powder to keep away pests.
6. Pruning: This is the removal of branches that are infested with pest from the
crops in an attempt to reduce the number of pests.
Weed Control
 Weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted, that is a plant out of place.
 Such plants include blackjack, couch grass, thorn apple and Mcdonald's eye.
 Such plants should be eradicated or controlled using recommended methods.
Crop diseases
Animal Production
- A crop disease is a condition where the appearance, functioning and internal
structure of crops show a difference from the normal condition.
- Diseases are caused by small micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi.
- A crop that has disease is unhealthy.
Effects of crop diseases
 The effects of diseases on crops may be:
 Less or reduced yield of harvest
 The quality of the produce is lower or poorer
 reduce the farmer’s income

 The crop may die
Some of the signs of unhealthy crops therefore include:
1. Stunted growth
When a plant is attacked by disease, it may not grow normally.
The plant does not reach its full size and may therefore be smaller than expected.
This is because the disease may destroy some of the cells of the plant that are
necessary for the plant’s healthy growth.
2. Discolouration
When a plant is attacked by disease, the leaves and the stems may change colour to
yellow, orange or pink instead of the normal green colour.
3. Curled leaves
Animal Production
This is the rolling up or folding of the leaves of plants.
Curled leaves can be as a result of lack of water, but if the plant receives enough
water, then curling could be a sign of disease.
The leaves roll or fold due to uneven development of the leaves.
4. Wilting
A plant is said to have wilted when its leaves droop.
This may occur when the plant lacks water.
But if it occurs even if enough water is available, it is a sign of ill health in the plant.
5. Spots or streaks
These are spots or lines found on the leaves or stems.
The spots or streaks are usually of a different colour from that of the leaves or the
stem.
CHAPTER SEVEN
HARVESTING.
Maturity indices.
Animal Production
Maturity
 It is the stage of fully development of tissue of fruit and vegetables only after which it will
ripen normally.
 During the process of maturation the fruit receives a regular supply of food material from
the plant. When mature, the abscission or corky layer which forms at the stern end stops this
inflow.
Types of maturity
 Horticultural maturity It is a developmental stage of the fruit on the tree, which
will result in a satisfactory product after harvest.
 Physiological maturity It refers to the stage in the development of the fruits and
vegetables when maximum growth and maturation has occurred. It is usually
associated with full ripening in the fruits. The Physiological mature stage is
followed by senescence
 . Commercial maturity It is the state of plant organ required by a market. It
commonly bears little relation to Physiological maturity and may occur at any stage
during development stage.
 Harvest Maturity It may be defined in terms of Physiological maturity and
horticultural maturity, it is a stage, which will allow fruits / vegetables at its peak
condition when it reaches to the consumer and develop acceptable flavour or
appearance and having adequate shelf life.
Maturity indicators of crops
Skin colour:
This factor is commonly applied to fruits, since skin colour changes as fruit ripens or matures. Some fruits
exhibit no perceptible colour change during maturation, depending on the type of fruit or vegetable.
Assessment of harvest maturity by skin colour depends on the judgment of the harvester, but colour charts
are available for cultivars, such as apples, tomatoes, peaches, chilli peppers, etc.
Optical methods:
Light transmission properties can be used to measure the degree of maturity of fruits. These methods are
based on the chlorophyll content of the fruit, which is reduced during maturation. The fruit is exposed to a
bright light, which is then switched off so that the fruit is in total darkness. Next, a sensor measures the
amount of light emitted from the fruit, which is proportional to its chlorophyll content and thus its maturity.
Shape:
The shape of fruit can change during maturation and can be used as a characteristic to determine harvest
maturity. For instance, a banana becomes more rounded in cross-sections and less angular as it develops on
the plant. Mangoes also change shape during maturation. As the mango matures on the tree the relationship
between the shoulders of the fruit and the point at which the stalk is attached may change. The shoulders of
immature mangoes slope away from the fruit stalk; however, on more mature mangoes the shoulders
become level with the point of attachment, and with even more maturity the shoulders may be raised above
this point.
Animal Production
Size:
Changes in the size of a crop while growing are frequently used to determine the time of harvest. For
example, partially mature cobs of Zea mays saccharata are marketed as sweet corn, while even less mature
and thus smaller cobs are marketed as baby corn. For bananas, the width of individual fingers can be used to
determine harvest maturity. Usually a finger is placed midway along the bunch and its maximum width is
measured with callipers; this is referred to as the calliper grade.
Aroma:
Most fruits synthesize volatile chemicals as they ripen. Such chemicals give fruit its characteristic odour and
can be used to determine whether it is ripe or not. These doors may only be detectable by humans when a
fruit is completely ripe, and therefore has limited use in commercial situations.
Fruit opening:
Some fruits may develop toxic compounds during ripening, such as ackee tree fruit, which contains toxic
levels of hypoglycine. The fruit splits when it is fully mature, revealing black seeds on yellow arils. At this
stage, it has been shown to contain minimal amounts of hypoglycine or none at all. This creates a problem in
marketing; because the fruit is so mature, it will have a very short post-harvest life. Analysis of hypoglycine
‘A’ (hyp.) in ackee tree fruit revealed that the seed contained appreciable hyp. at all stages of maturity, at
approximately 1000 ppm, while levels in the membrane mirrored those in the arils. This analysis supports
earlier observations that unopened or partially opened ackee fruit should not be consumed, whereas fruit that
opens naturally to over 15 mm of lobe separation poses little health hazard, provided the seed and membrane
portions are removed.
Leaf changes:
Leaf quality often determines when fruits and vegetables should be harvested. In root crops, the condition of
the leaves can likewise indicate the condition of the crop below ground. For example, if potatoes are to be
stored, then the optimum harvest time is soon after the leaves and stems have died. If harvested earlier, the
skins will be less resistant to harvesting and handling damage and more prone to storage diseases.
Abscission:
As part of the natural development of a fruit an abscission layer is formed in the pedicel. For example, in
cantaloupe melons, harvesting before the abscission layer is fully developed results in inferior flavoured
fruit, compared to those left on the vine for the full period.
Firmness:
 A fruit may change in texture during maturation, especially during ripening when it may become
rapidly softer.
 Excessive loss of moisture may also affect the texture of crops. These textural changes are detected
by touch, and the harvester may simply be able to gently squeeze the fruit and judge whether the
crop can be harvested.
 Today sophisticated devices have been developed to measure texture in fruits and vegetables, for
example, texture analyzers and pressure testers; they are currently available for fruits and vegetables
Animal Production
in various forms. A force is applied to the surface of the fruit, allowing the probe of the
penetrometer or texturometer to penetrate the fruit flesh, which then gives a reading on firmness.
 Hand held pressure testers could give variable results because the basis on which they are used to
measure firmness is affected by the angle at which the force is applied. Two commonly used
pressure testers to measure the firmness of fruits and vegetables are the Magness-Taylor and UC
Fruit Firmness testers (Figure 2.1). A more elaborate test, but not necessarily more effective, uses
instruments like the Instron Universal Testing Machine. It is necessary to specify the instrument and
all settings used when reporting test pressure values or attempting to set standards.
Juice content:
The juice content of many fruits increases as the fruit matures on the tree. To measure the juice content of a
fruit, a representative sample of fruit is taken and then the juice extracted in a standard and specified
manner. The juice volume is related to the original mass of juice, which is proportional to its maturity.
Sugars:
In climacteric fruits, carbohydrates accumulate during maturation in the form of starch. As the fruit ripens,
starch is broken down into sugar. In non-climacteric fruits, sugar tends to accumulate during maturation. A
quick method to measure the amount of sugar present in fruits is with a brix hydrometer or a refractometer.
A drop of fruit juice is placed in the sample holder of the refractometer and a reading taken; this is
equivalent to the total amount of soluble solids or sugar content. This factor is used in many parts of the
world to specify maturity. The soluble solids content of fruit is also determined by shining light on the fruit
or vegetable and measuring the amount transmitted. This is a laboratory technique however and might not be
suitable for village level production.
Starch content:
Measurement of starch content is a reliable technique used to determine maturity in pear cultivars. The
method involves cutting the fruit in two and dipping the cut pieces into a solution containing 4% potassium
iodide and 1% iodine. The cut surfaces stain to a blue-black colour in places where starch is present. Starch
converts into sugar as harvest time approaches. Harvest begins when the samples show that 65-70% of the
cut surfaces have turned blue-black.
Acidity:
In many fruits, the acidity changes during maturation and ripening, and in the case of citrus and other fruits,
acidity reduces progressively as the fruit matures on the tree.
Specific gravity:
Specific gravity is the relative gravity, or weight of solids or liquids, compared to pure distilled water at
62°F (16.7°C), which is considered unity. Specific gravity is obtained by comparing the weights of equal
bulks of other bodies with the weight of water. In practice, the fruit or vegetable is weighed in air, then in
pure water. The weight in air divided by the weight in water gives the specific gravity. This will ensure a
reliable measure of fruit maturity. As a fruit matures its specific gravity increases. This parameter is rarely
used in practice to determine time of harvest, but could be used in cases where development of a suitable
sampling technique is possible. It is used however to grade crops according to different maturities at post-
Animal Production
harvest. This is done by placing the fruit in a tank of water, wherein those that float are less mature than
those that sink.
Factors affecting maturity
1. Temperature: Higher temperature gives early maturity. e.g. Gulabi (Pink) grapes mature in 100 days in
Western India but only 82 days are enough in the warmer Northern India.
Lemon and guava takes less time to mature in summer than in winter. Sun-scorched portions of fruits are
characterized by chlorophyll loss, yellowing, disappearance of starch and other alcohol insoluble material,
increase in TSS content, decrease in acidity and softening.
2. Soil: Soil on which the fruit tree is grown affects the time of maturity.e.g. Grapes are harvested earlier on
light sandy soils than on heavy clays.
3. Size of planting material: This factor in propagated fruits affects fruit maturity.e.g. In pineapple, the
number of days taken from flowering to fruit maturity was more by planting large suckers and slips than by
smaller ones.
4. Closer spacing: Close spacing of hill bananas hastened maturity.
5. Pruning intensity: It enhanced the maturity of Flordasun and sharbati Peaches.
6. Girdling: Process of constricting the periphery of a stem which blocks the downward translocation of
CHO, hormones, etc. Beyond the constriction which rather accumulates above it. In Grape vines it hastens
maturity, reduces the green berries in unevenly maturity cultivar and lowers the number of short berries. It is
ineffective when done close to harvest. CPA has an additive effect with girdling
HARVESTING
 The goals of harvesting are to gather a commodity from the field at the proper level of
maturity with a minimum of damage and loss, as rapidly as possible and at a minimum cost.
This is achieved through hand-harvesting in most fruit, vegetable and flower crops.
1. Hand Harvesting
 Hand harvesting has a number of advantages over machine harvest.

 People can accurately determine product quality, allowing accurate selection of mature
product.
 This is particularly important for crops that have a wide range of maturity and need to be
harvested several times during the season.
 Properly trained workers can pick and handle the product with a minimum of damage.
 Many fresh-market products have a short shelf life if they are bruised or damaged during
harvest and handling.
 The rate of harvest can easily be increased by hiring more workers.
Animal Production
 Hand- harvesting also requires a minimum of capital investment. The main problem with
hand harvesting is labor management.
 Labor supply is a problem for growers who cannot offer a long employment season. Labor
strikes during the harvest period can be costly.
 In spite of these problems, quality is so important to marketing fresh- market commodities
successfully that hand harvesting remains the dominant method of harvest of most fruits and
vegetables and for all cut flowers.
 Effective use of hand labor requires careful management.
 New employees must be trained to harvest the product at the required quality and at an
acceptable rate of productivity.
 Employees must know what level of performance and must be encouraged and trained to
reach that level.
2. Mechanical Harvesting
 Mechanical harvest is currently used for fresh-market crops that are roots, tubers, or
rhizomes and for nut crops.
 Vegetables that are grown below ground (radishes, potatoes, garlic, carrots, beets and
others) are always harvested only once and the soil can be used to cushion the product from
machine caused mechanical injury.
 Tree nuts and peanuts are protected by a shell and easily withstand mechanical handling.
 A number of products destined for processing such as tomatoes, wine grapes, beans, peas,
prunes, peaches and some leafy green vegetables are machine harvested because harvest
damage does not significantly affect the quality of processed product.
 This is often because the product is processed quickly after harvest.
 These crops have also been amenable to new production techniques and breeding that allow
the crop to be better suited to mechanical harvest.
 The main advantage of mechanical harvest equipment is that machines can often harvest at
high rates. Tree nut harvesters, for eg .attaching a shaking mechanism to the tree and
remove most of the nuts in few seconds.
 The nuts are either caught on a fabric- covered frame or picked up from the ground by other
machines. This allows an orchard to be harvested very quickly compared to handshaking
with poles.
 Machine harvest also reduces management problems associated with workers. The
commodity must be grown to accept mechanical harvest.
Demerits of Mechanical Harvesting
 Machines are rarely capable of selective harvest.

 Mechanical harvesting will not be feasible until the crop or production techniques can be
modified to allow one time harvest.
 Harvesting machines often causes excessive product perennial crops eg. Bark damage from
a tree shaker.
 The harvesting machines are quite expensive.
Animal Production
. POST HARVEST HANDLING
 Being living organs, fruits and vegetables continue to respire even after harvesting when
they have a limited source of food reserves.
 In addition to degradation of respiratory substrates, a number of changes in taste, colour,
flavour, texture and appearance take place in the harvested commodities which make them
unacceptable for consumption by the consumers if these are not handled properly.
 Post-harvest technology starts immediately after the harvest of fruits and vegetables.
 The whole process of processing the commodities is categorized as Handling of fresh
produce.
 Post-harvest Technology of fresh fruits and vegetables combines the biological and
environmental factors in the process of value addition of a commodity.
1. Precooling
 Precooling (prompt cooling after harvest) is important for most of the fruits and vegetables
because they may deteriorate as much in 1 hr at 32°C.
 In addition to removal of field heat from commodities, precooling also reduces bruise
damage from vibration during transit.
 Cooling requirement for a crop vary with the air temperature during harvesting, stage of
maturity and nature of crop.
 There are many methods of precooling viz, cold air (room cooling, forced air cooling),cold
water (hydro cooling), direct contact with ice (contact icing), evaporation of water from the
produce (evaporative cooling, vacuum cooling) and combination of vacuum and hydro
cooling(hydrovac cooling).
 Some chemicals (nutrients/growth regulators/ fungicides) can also be mixed with the water
used in hydro cooling to prolong the shelf life by improving nutrient status of crop and
preventing the spread of post-harvest diseases.
2. Washing, Cleaning and Trimming
 Before fresh fruits and vegetables are marketed various amounts of cleaning are necessary
which typically involves the removal of soil dust, adhering debris, insects and spray
residues.
 Chlorine in fresh water is often used as disinfectant to wash the commodity.
 Some fungicides like Diphenylamine (0.1 - 0.25%) or ethoxyquin (0.2 - 0.5%) may be used
as postharvest dip to control the disorders. E g. Apple superficial scald. For cleaning of
some fruit type vegetables (melons, brinjals, tomatoes, cucumber) they should be wiped
with damp cloth.
 Many vegetable need trimming, cutting and removal of unsightly leaves or other vegetative
parts.
3. Sorting, Grading and Sizing
Animal Production
 Sorting is done by hand to remove the fruits which are unsuitable to market or storage due
to damage by insects, diseases or mechanical injuries.
 The remainder crop product is separated into two or more grades on the basis of the surface
colour, shape or visible defects. For e.g. in an apple packing house in India 3 grades viz.
Extra Fancy, Fancy and standard may be packed for marketing. The fourth “cull” grade is
meant for processing.
 After sorting and grading, sizing is done either by hand or machine.
 Machine sizers work on two basic principles: weight and diameter
 . Sizing on the basis of fruit shape and size are most effective for spherical (Oranges,
tomato, certain apple cultivars) and elongated (Delicious apples and European pears or of
non-uniform shape) commodities, respectively.
4. Curing
 Curing is an effective operation to reduce the water loss during storage from hardy
vegetables viz, onion, garlic, sweet potato and other tropical root vegetables.
 The curing methods employed for root crops are entirely different than that from the
bulbous crops (onions and garlic).
 The curing of root and tuber crops develops periderms over cut, broken or skinned surfaces
wound restoration.
 It helps in the healing of harvest injuries, reduces loss of water and prevents the infection
by decay pathogens.
 Onions and garlic are cured to dry the necks and outer scales.
 For the curing of onion and garlic, the bulbs are left in the field after harvesting under shade
for a few days until the green tops, outer skins and roots are fully dried.
5. Waxing
 Quality retention is a major consideration in modem fresh fruit marketing system.

 Waxes are esters of higher fatty acid with monohydric alcohols and hydrocarbons and some
free fatty acids.
 But coating applied to the surface of fruit is commonly called waxes whether or not any
component is actually a wax.
 Waxing generally reduces the respiration and transpiration rates, but other chemicals such
as fungicides, growth regulators, preservative can also be incorporated specially for
reducing microbial spoilage, sprout inhibition etc. However, it should be remembered that
waxing does not improve the quality of any inferior horticulture product but it can be a
beneficial adjunct to good handling.
The advantages of wax application are:
- Improved appearances of fruit.
- Reduced moisture losses and retards wilting and shriveling during storage of fruits.
Animal Production
- Less spoilage specially due to chilling injury and browning.
- Creates diffusion barrier as a result of which it reduces the availability of 02 to the tissues thereby
reducing respiration rate.
- Protects fruits from micro-biological infection.
- Considered a cost effective substitute in the reduction of spoilage when refrigerated storage is
unaffordable.
- Wax coating are used as carriers for sprout inhibitors, growth regulators and preservatives.
The principal disadvantage of wax coating is the development of off- flavour if not applied
properly. Adverse flavour changes have been attributed to inhibition of O2 and CO2 exchange thus,
resulting in anaerobic respiration and elevated ethanol and acetaldehyde contents. Paraffm wax,
Carnauba wax, Bee wax, Shellac, Wood resins and Polyethylene waxes used commercially.
6. Packaging
 Proper or scientific packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables reduces the wastage of
commodities by protecting them from mechanical damage, pilferage, dirt, moisture loss and
other undesirable physiological changes and pathological deterioration during the course of
storage, transportation and subsequent marketing.
 For providing, uniform quality to packed produce, the commodity should be carefully
supervised and sorted prior to packaging.
 Packaging cannot improve the quality but it certainly helps in maintaining it as it protects
produce against the hazards of journey.
 Striking developments have been in the field of packaging of horticultural produce and the
gunny bags, grasses and stem leaves used so far for packaging are now being replaced by a
variety of containers such as wooden boxes, baskets woven from bamboo or twigs, sack/jute
bags and corrugated fiber board (CFB) boxes.
7. Storage
A number of storage techniques (ground storage, ambient storage, refrigerated storage, air cooled
storage, zero energy storage, modified atmospheric storage, hypobaric storage and controlled
atmosphere storage) are being used for fruits and vegetables depending upon the nature of the
commodity and the storage period intended.
CHAPTER EIGHT
Animal Production
PRODUCTION OF ANNUAL CROPS
 Annuals are plants that complete their life cycle in one year. They germinate, grow, bear
fruits and die off within a year.
 Generally, all herbs and plants belonging to the grass family exhibit this type of life cycle.
 Mustard, watermelon, corn, lettuce wheat, are a few examples of annual plants.
AGRONOMIC GROUPS
 The agronomic grouping of crop plants is a system of nomenclature that identifies a plant’s
agricultural use.
 This system of classification indicates how a crop will be used
1. Cereals or grain crops
A cereal is any grass grown for its edible grain from the family: Poaceae. The term may refer to
either the plant as a whole or the grain itself. Examples: rice, wheat, maize (corn), oats, barley,
millet, sorghum and acha. Grain is a collective term for the fruit of cereals. The leaf blade is
lanceolate (boat shaped).
2. Legumes
Refers to plants in the family fabaceae (former leguminoseae). It is used to refer to the pod of
leguminous plant, consisting of one carpel and usually dehiscent on both sutures. Examples are the
principal legumes raised carpel for their seeds: Field bean, peanuts (groundnuts) cowpea and
soybeans.
3. Forage crops
Forage refers to a vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, utilized as feeds for animals.
Forage crops include all grasses cut for hay, legumes cut for forage or silage, sorghum and corn
fodder. Examples among grasses are maize, sorghum, millet, oats, barley, millet and pasture plants
like guinea grass, elephant grass. Examples of legumes forage are: pueraria, centrocema,
stylosanthis, calopogonum, pigeon pea, cowpea and soybean are important annual hay.
4. Root crops
One grown for its enlarged root. Examples are: cassava, sweet potato, carrot. These are true root
crops (or root tubers) but the potato is not e.g. Irish potato is stem tuber and yam.
5. Tubers
The tuber is much thickened underground stem developed on a slender leafless shoot
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or stem. The only tuber of important cultivation in Nigeria is the yam (Irish potato is also a stem
tuber important in the temperate regions).
6. Oil crops
Among these crops grown for their oil are: soybeans, peanuts, flax, sesame safflower,sunflower and
cotton.
There are other crops such as fruits, vegetables and tuber crops which are commonly
Classified as field crops.
AGRONOMIC REQUIREMENTS FOR COMMON ANNUAL CROPS
1. maize
The general requirement for maize cultivation is as follows:

1. Temperature:
Maize is grown in temperatures between 18°C and 27°C during the day and around 14°C during the
night. But the most important factor is the 140 frost-free days. The crop is very susceptible to frost;
therefore, its cultivation in temperate latitudes is limited.
2. Rainfall:
Maize is grown mostly in regions having annual rainfall between 60 cm to 110 cm. But it is also
grown in areas having rainfall of about 40 cm.
3. Soils:
Maize grows in a wide range of soils, ranging from temperate podzols to the leached red soils of
the tropics. But, the best suitable soil for maize is deep, rich soils of the sub-tropics, where there is
abundant nitrogen.
4. Topography:
The plain regions are most suitable for maize cultivation, because this helps in use of machines.
Although, maize is also cultivated on undulating lands as well as on lower slopes of the hills. Maize
is also grown as a major crop of shifting cultivation.

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5. Economic Conditions:
Unlike other crops maize can be cultivated with small capital. Uses of machines have reduced the
labour requirements. Most of the maize grown is utilised within the country, although its limited
international trade is also there.
2. RICE
Suitable factors required for the cultivation of rice are : 1. Temperature, 2. Rainfall, 3. Soils, 4.
Surface, 5. Fertilizers and 6. Labour !
1. Temperature:
Rice is a tropical crop and grown where the average temperature during the growing season is
between 20°C and 27°C.
Abundant sunshine is essential during its four months of growth. The minimum temperature should
not go below 15°C as germination cannot take place below that temperature.
2. Rainfall:
Paddy requires more water than any other crop. As a result, paddy cultivation is done only in those
areas where minimum rainfall is 115 cm. Although the regions are having average annual rainfall
between 175—300 cm are the most suitable.
Paddy also needs flooded conditions with the depth of water varying over 25 mm at the time of
transplanting to as much as 150 mm for 10 weeks of the growing period.
3. Soils:
Paddy is grown in wide range of soil, from the podzolic alluvium of China to the impermeable
heavy clay of central Thailand. Fertile riverine alluvial soil is best for rice cultivation
Animal Production
Clayey loam soil in monsoon land is considered to be the best for rice cultivation as water retention
capacity of this soil is very high. Rice is also grown in saline areas of deltic region. Rice cultivation
needs high fertilizer application.
4. Surface:
Unlike other crops, paddy needs a level surface to enable the fields to be flooded at least during the
growing period. It’s ideal habitat is therefore in the great alluvial deltas and river basins of the
world: the Ganges, Siking, Yangtzekiang, Irrawaddy, Menam Chao Phraya and Mekong, where
there is practically no gradient.
5. Fertilizers:
Paddy requires three essential plant nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Most paddy
lands have a moderate quantity of such nutrients, but if they are deficient, organic manure or
artificial fertilizers have to be used.
6. Labour:
Paddy cultivation is extremely labour-intensive, therefore, requires more labour in comparison to
other cereal crops. Labour is necessary for: preparing the field, weeding, sowing, transplanting,
manuring, harvesting, threshing, winnowing and milling. For rice cultivation large number of cheap
labour is required.
3. WHEAT
Suitable graphical conditions required for wheat cultivation are : 1. Temperature, 2. Rainfall, 3.
Soils, 4. Topography and 5. Economic Factors!
1. Temperature:
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The temperature required for wheat during growing season is around 15.5°C. The weather should
be warm and moist during the early stage of growth and sunny and dry in the later stages.
The average temperature of the hottest month should not exceed 20°C. A frost-free period of 100
days is usually required but some fast-ripening varieties may mature only in 90 days.
2. Rainfall:
The amount of rainfall required for wheat cultivation varies between 30 cm and 100 cm. The major
wheat lands of the temperate regions have an annual rainfall of 38 cm to 80 cm. The spring wheat
region of Canadian Prairies only receives around 46 cm of rainfall, but it comes in the early
summers when the wheat is growing.
Wheat is also grown in areas having lesser amount of rainfall, i.e., 25 cm. This has been done by
adopting dry farming method. Also where irrigation facilities are available, wheat is cultivated in
dry lands also.
3. Soils:
The soil suitable for wheat is either light clay or heavy loam. The world’s best wheat comes from
the chernozem soils in the ‘Black Earth’ region of the Ukrainian Steppes, the dark brown soil of
North America and also the grey brown podzolic soils of the deciduous forest region.
4. Topography:
Wheat is grown in plain as well as in rolling topography, which provides adequate drainage and at
the same time facilities of the use of machinery. The world’s largest commercial wheat lands are
the undulating temperate grasslands of Steppes, Prairies, Pampas and the Australian Downs.
5. Economic Factors:
The economic factors that favour wheat cultivation are:
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(i) Technology
In wheat cultivation maximum use of technology is possible. The commercial wheat farming is
technology-intensive cultivation which requires tractors, harvesters, threshers, elevators, etc.
(ii) Transport:
Wheat farming is also linked up with export. Therefore, a good transport network is essential for its
successful cultivation.
(iii) Capital:
It is a capital-intensive farming; therefore, sufficient capital is required.
(iv) Market:
Both internal and external markets are essential for the profitable wheat cultivation.
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN THE PRODUCTION OF COMMON ANNUAL CROPS

1. maize
Planting Distances
1. When planted as a single crop, the number of plants should be between 45,000-50,000 per
hectare.
The planting distance for maize as single crop is:
- 80 cm. between the ridges

- 25 cm. between the plants in the ridges
2. In the permanent fanning system, maize is preferably intercropped (mixed) with crops like beans,
soyabeans, tehprosia and cocoyam
When intercropped with beans, etc. on alternate ridges, the population (number of plants? is
between 20,000 and 25,000 maize plants per hectare.
The planting distances for maize intercropped are:
-160 cm. between the ridges.

-25-30 cm. between the plants on the ridges
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When intercropped with beans on the same ridge, the population is between 30,000 and
40,000 maize plants per hectare.
Planting Depth
While planting maize in a freshly worked soil it should be at depth of 6-8cm while in well aerated
soil should be in 4-5cm dept.
Planting Time
In general, maize is ranted as a first season crop at the beginning of the rains. In some areas
(e.g. Bali), a second season maize crop is possible. Often late planted and second season, maize is
heavily attacked by stem borer.
Manure/Fertilizer Needs
The general recommendations are:
-a basic application of 2 bags (1,00 kg.) NPK - 20/10/10 or 10/30/10 per hectare before planting
-a top dressing of 3 bags (150 kg) NPK 20/10/10 or Urea per hectare before the last
molding/weeding operation, when the maize is about 80 cm. to 1 m. high
-at least 1.5t of organic manure (cowdung) per hectare before ridging. More manure will still be
beneficial for your crop.
Harvest
Harvest your maize when the crams are dry. If you don't have time to harvest it when it is ripe,
bend down the stalks to protect the cobs against water and birds
Storage
Dry your maize sufficiently before you store. Follow some rules before and during storage:
1. Clean your storage facilities (banda, bamboo box, etc.)
-remove old grams

-remove any other dirt, etc.
-There are local leaves you can burn to drive away insects
2. Put only dry, weevil-free grains into the store

3. Use all available methods to protect against insect and rat attack
e.g. cowdung ash 10 kg. per 100 kg (bag) of maize

vegetable oil 1litre per 100 kg (bag) of maize
actellic powder 50 grs.per 100 kg (bag) of maize
local leaves with repellent smell
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thorny plants against rat attack
cats in the storage room, etc.
2. WHEAT
Planting
Wheat is grown as a sole crop. The planting method is drilling.
The seed rate per hectare is about 100 kg

The distance between the rows is 40 cm.
The planting depth is about 2-3 cm.
Planting method drilling. Seeds are not placed one by one along the planting line, instead they are
dribbled along the line to meet the recommended seed rate per hectare.
Wheat is a second season crop. The planting date varies with the variety. In general, in the NWP
wheat should be planted middle to end of August.
Fertilizer/Manure Needs Wheat has similar needs to maize
Weeding
Wheat needs careful weeding. As soon as weed growth is discovered, use the dugfoot or ridger to
weed. Repeat the weeding immediately when the need arises. Practice selective hand weeding in
the row.
Harvesting & Processing

Harvest your wheat when fully mature. You can recognize this, when the
-stem has lost all the leaves

-whole plant is yellow
-grains are difficult to split by finger nail
Cut the wheat, tie it in small bundles and put it in a dry and clean place. Thresh when the grains are
dry. Put the wheat on very firm ground. The threshing place must be clean and dry. Thresh on a
cemented floor or cover the ground with mats or plastic sheets.
Use the above traditional methods for threshing your wheat or use a pedal operated thresher.
After threshing, remove stones, earth and husks by sieving and winnowing.
You can use traditional methods or a pedal operated Winnower.
3. RICE
Animal Production
Rice is a very good food. It gives energy and protein, is easy to prepare and can be sold or a good
price. Basically, there are two types of rice: The Swamp Rice and the Upland Rice.
Upland Rice is cropped like wheat.
Swamp Rice
Swamp Rice is grown in flooded fields. It can give very high yields. To get good swamp rice
yields, the farmer must:
-be in control of the water

have enough water when the rice is growing
add more water at the right time
take away water at the right time.
-make good nurseries
to have fine seedlings for transplanting
-transplant at the right date
-prepare the soil well and level it
-tend the rice field carefully
do timely weeding
apply fertilizer in time
protect the rice from pests
-harvest with care and dry the grains well.
The Nursery
The size of the nursery should be one tenth (1/10) of the size of the rice field to be planted.
Fig. 6.17: The nursery should be near the field to avoid long transport.
The soil of the nursery must be tilled very carefully. It must be:
- soft
- moist
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- weed-free
- fertile
Add 200 kg. (1/2 cart) cowdung per 100 square meters. Add wood ash.
Pre-germinate the seed before sowing into the nursery
-leave the grains in water for 24 hours

-put the grains into a basket and leave them for 1 or 2 days
-never pre-germinate for more than 3 days
Sow the rice grains in the nursery 1 month before the date of transplanting. Use 5 kg. of paddy seed
for 100 square meters.
Cover the nursery bed with straw to protect the baby seedlings against birds and sun.
Clearing of the Rice Field

In the NWP, rice is a second season crop. Often, the rice field is fallowed in the first season.
Before the planting of rice, you have to clear the upgrown grass. This will take you up to 150 hours
per hectare.
If you practice double cropping in your rice field (e.g. crop a legume like beans or soya beans
before the rice cultivation) you can have the following advantages:
-reduced work for clearing

-additional food
-additional organic manure (fixed Nitrogen).
Fig. 6.18: If the rains allow you should grow two crops per year
Soil Preparation
Swamp Rice needs careful soil preparation:
- plough to uproot weeds and mix organic manure into the soil
-level the soil by using your harrow or the roller cutter
-flood the field with a little water and use a levelling log.
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In a well prepared rice field, you have the same depth of water everywhere and the rice plants can
develop uniformly. The growth of weed is controlled.
Fig. 6.19: A well prepared rice field is level with even water depth throughout
Transplanting
-Take out the seedlings from the nursery bed, when they have 4 or 5 leaves (about 4 weeks after
planting).
-Water the nursery before taking the seedlings to avoid damage.
-Seedling selection.
Fig. 6.20: Transplant the seedlings at the right time, select good seedlings and prune the leaves of
the seedling
-transplanting is done into the mud

-plant the seedlings in rows 20 cm. apart
-leave 20 cm. between the plants in the row
-plant 2 or more seedlings per stand.
Crop Care
Apply fertilizer two weeks after transplanting. Drain the water before you apply. For the
recommended rate, ask tee demonstrator in your area.
In order to produce high yields, the rice must be flooded continuously at different depths. Ask the
demonstrator of your area when to flood and drain.
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Weeds can be controlled by the watering scheme. Some strong weeds have to be uprooted with the
hand or hoe. When the grains start to ripen, you have to protect the rice against bird destruction.
4. Root & tuber crops
What are Root & Tuber Crops?
-Root Crops are crops with enlarged roots that can be used as food, e.g. Cassava.
-Tuber Crops are crops with enlarged underground stems used as food, e.g. Cocoyam, Yam,
Potatoes.
1 Cocoyam
Cocoyam is a staple food giving energy but not sufficient protein. It is used to prepare boiled tuber.
The leaves can be used as vegetables.
Fig. 6.21: Cocoyam is of two varieties - the Xanthosoma or Macabo and the Colocasia or
Taro.
Land Preparation
Fig. 6.22: Cocoyam is cropped on humus rich ridges In the permanent farming system, you dig
organic matter into the edges using the ridge plough (see Chapter 5.5.2.4-How to Bury
Organic Matter).
Selection & Preparation
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-Cocoyams are usually propagated from small tubers or pieces of tubers. Sometimes suckers or new
shoots are used
-Select planting materials from healthy, well producing plants
-The tubers or pieces of the tubers should be 10-15 cm. long
Fig. 6.23: Select 10 - 15 cm long tubers from healthy plants
Planting
Cocoyam is planted at the beginning of the rains, in rather shallow holes (about
10 cm.).
When grown as sole crop, the distance
-between the ridges is 80 cm.

-between the plants on the ridge is 60 cm.
When grown in mixture with maize and beans as recommended, the distance
-between the ridges is 80 cm. (cocoyam every second ridge).

-between the plants on the ridge is 60 cm.
Fig. 6.24: Planting pattern for cocoyam (C), maize (M) and beans (B)
Crop Care
1. Weeding/Molding with the ridger plough immediately when weed growth starts.
2. Earthing up of ridges, 1 to 2 months after the first weeding, with the ridger plough to enable
tubers to grow well.
3. Splitting of harvested maize-ridges to add to the cocoyam ridge.

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4. Use preventive measures for pest and diseases control
-select healthy vigorous planting material

-plant in time
-follow the recommended planting distances
-practice mixed cropping
-remove and burn infected (diseased) plants .
-clean weeding
Fig. 6.25: After harvesting maize, we split the maize ridges and add crop residues and soil to the
cocoyam ridges,
Harvesting
Harvest when mature (leaves turn yellow). Practice selected harvesting. Avoid wounds on the
tubers.
Storage
Select only healthy tubers for storage. Remove damaged and rotten tubers. Put the tubers on dry
ground or on boards, boxes, shelves in a well-aired, dry and cool place.
.2 Cassava
Cassava is a staple food giving energy but not sufficient protein. The tubers are prepared in various
ways, ea. boiled, mashed and fried . The leaves of the plant can be used as vegetable.
Cassava is of two varieties - the sweet or red cassava and the bitter or white cassava (best for flour).
Cassava is easy to grow because the
-planting material (stem cuttings.) is easily available and easy to handle

-plant can grow on very poor soil
-plant is very tolerant to drought
-roots (cassava) are left in the soil until harvest. You don't need a store.
-plant once established does not need much weeding again.
But Cassava has also several disadvantages
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-the harvested roots cannot be stored for long
-you have to destroy poison in the root before you eat it
-preparation of Cassava involves a lot of work
-Cassava exhausts the soil. After cassava, you have to fallow the soil or you have to add a lot of
manure to the soil
-the price for cassava is generally low
Soil Preparation
Prepare large ridges with plenty of organic matter inside. Use the ridger plough with several passes
to get larger ridges.
Selection & Preparation of Planting Material
-select stems from healthy and high producing plants

-cut off the extreme bottom and the top of the stem and use the middle part of the stem for cuttings
-tie the selected stems in bundles and keep them in a cool dry place before planting
-prepare cuttings shortly before planting
-the cuttings should be 2 to 4 cm. thick about 20 to 30 cm. long with 4 to 6 buds (avoid cuttings
from the top part of the plant).
Fig. 6.26: Select cuttings 2 -4 cm thick and 20 - 30 cm long, from healthy plants.
Planting
Plant on ridges at the beginning of the rainy season. Cassava as a sole crop is planted at a distance
of
0.8 - 1.5 m between the ridges

1.0 m between the plants on the ridge
Cassava as a mixed crop, with oxen cultivation, is planted at a distance of:
1.6 m between the ridges
1.0 m between the plants on the ridge
After harvest of intercropped maize and beans, support the cassava by moulding up ridges
Planting Method
Push the cuttings well into the earth, leave 2 to 3 buds above the ground.
Put into the soil the end of the piece of stem, that was nearer to the ground.
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Fig. 6.27: You can plant straight or slanting
Crop Care see-Cocoyam

Harvesting
Once mature, lift up the tubers carefully in order not to wound them. Harvest only when you want
to eat or sell the root because it is difficult to store.
NOTE:
Cassava is a heavy feeder. It leaves poor soil. Plant cassava together with legumes. Plant legumes
after cassava!
.3 Irish Potato
Irish Potato is mainly grown in the high altitude areas. The Irish Potato is a good energy food but is
poor in protein.
Potatoes like well- drained, sandy loam soils that are rich in organic matter.
Fig. 6.28: The Irish Potato plant and the tubers
Land Preparation
Irish potatoes are cropped on humus-rich ridges. In the permanent farming system, you prepare
these ridges with the ridger plough
Selection and Preparation of Planting Material Seed potatoes are obtained from healthy, well
producing, fully mature plants.
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Fig. 6.29: Select tubers with a weight of about 45-55 grams and several "eyes", which are not
wounded or infected by diseases.
Keep the seed potatoes in a well-aired, cool and dry place for about 2 weeks. Seeds obtained from
fresh plants need to rest before they sprout.
When they start to sprout from the eyes, then you have a good seed for planting.
Use whole tubers for seed, because cut tubers may rot in the soil. If you use cut tubers, rub the cut
surface with woodash.
After storage, do final selection. Remove rotten or infected tubers before planting.
Fig. 6.30: A Storage House for seed potatoes
Fig. 6.31: A Storage Box for seed potatoes

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Planting
Planting of Irish potatoes is commonly done twice a year.. For the early crop it is preferable to
plant before the onset of the rains to escape attack by late blight. The crop will mature before the
really heavy rains.
The second season crop is planted mid to end of August.
The planting depth on ridges is about 8-10 cm. When planted as a sole crop, the distance between
-the ridges is about 80 cm.
-the plants on the ridge is 25-30 cm. corresponding to a plant population of about 41-50,000 plants
per hectare.
On traditional ridges, potatoes are intercropped (mixed) with maize, etc. However, the potato does
best, when exposed to the sunlight.
Fig. 6.32: If you mix potato with other crops such as maize, choose alternate ridges for the
individual crops or plants that do not overshade the potatoes.
Crop Care
Potatoes do best on soils rich in organic matter. This can be achieved by the use of cowdung,
compost, green manure, etc. (-Improvement
If you don't have enough manure, you may apply fertilizer like 20/10/10 or 15/15/15. The
recommended rate for high yields is 10 gr. per plant, corresponding to 400-500 kg. (8-10 bags) per
ha when planted as a sole crop.
Practice Band Application . Apply when plants are about 25 cm. high.
For a good yield, you have to remould the ridges. An efficient Farmer combines weeding and
remoulding and even fertilizer application. He uses the ridger plough.
Practice crop rotation and choose good seed material as well as optimum planting time to avoid
disease attack.
Harvesting
Harvest when the crop is fully mature. The leaves and vines turn yellow and die.
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Avoid wounds during harvesting. The oxen fanner can use the plough or the ridger to dig the
potatoes. He splits the ridges. Leave the potatoes on the surface for some time to dry. Select
wounded potatoes for immediate consumption. Store only good tubers.
Storage
Potatoes can be stored for up to 5 or 8 months, if the following conditions are observed:
1. They must be fully mature before harvesting.

2. The skin must be allowed to dry out.
3. The store must be clean, dark, cool, dry, airy and if possible, disinfected.
4. They are stored on shelves or in trays (15 cm. high), arranged one on top of the other in a storage
house.
6.3.4 Other root and Tuber Crops
Of importance are Yams and Sweet Potatoes. Ask your extension worker for handout notes on
these crops in case of need.
.4 Leguminous crops
Leguminous Crops are crops that can fix nitrogen from the air.
Fig. 6.33: A groundnut plant with the nitrogen fixing nodules on the roots
These nodules are filled with bacteria, which can fix Nitrogen from the air and give it to the plant.
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The nodules live for some time. When they die, they decompose and add Nitrogen to the soil.
Leguminous plants do not need much fertilizer. They can manage on their own an can still improve
the soil.
There are two groups of legumes.
 The food legumes like

-Beans
-Groundnuts
-Pigeon Peas
-Soyabeans
 Cowpeas etc. and the green manure/fodder legumes like
-Tephrosia
-Crotalaria
-Calliandra
-Sesbania
-Leucena
-Desmondium, etc.
The farmer normally prefers food legumes to conserve the fertility of his soil, because he cannot eat
the green manure legumes.
Fig. 6.34: The green manure legumes have a better effect on the soil than the food legumes.
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Figure
Compare Tephrosia with Beans!
The tephrosia has more organic matter and more nodules. The whole plant remains in the field to
add manure.
The soil will benefit a lot.
The bean plant is smaller has fewer leaves and nodules. Only the roots remain in the soil to make
manure.
The seeds are eaten or sold.
During threshing, a lot of organic matter (leaves, etc.) gets lost.
A reasonable fanner has to think for the future and conserve the soil. If his soil is very fertile, he
may keep his soil in balance by planting food legumes. If his soil is not very fertile, he has to plant
green manure plants to keep his soil in balance and the yields steady.
To have the benefit of the green manure legumes and the advantage of a food crop, combine
(mix) both in one field.
1 Soyabeans
Soyabeans are a rather new crop in many African countries. They are very rich in proteins with
high nutritional value, comparable to that of meat, fish and eggs. Soyabeans can replace meat, fish
and eggs in the diet.
Soyabeans are good food for everybody, especially for:
-growing children
-pregnant women
-sick people
-hard working people
1 kg. of soyabeans contain as much protein as
-30 to 40 kg. cassava

-3 kg of meat
-13 titers of cattle milk .
-60 eggs
Animal Production
How to use soyabeans (preparation, cooking methods) you can learn by attending cooking
demonstrations.
Soil Preparation
The soil should be well drained and loose. Prepare ridges rich in organic matter.
Selection of Seed Material Select big and whole grains from healthy well producing plants.
Do not use old seed material. The viability of grains reduces quickly with time. Choose varieties
which are adapted to your area. Especially m high altitude areas, sometimes only vegetative growth
is observed.
Planting
Soyabeans can be planted in the first and second cropping cycle.
In the first season, you plant at the beginning of the rainy season. In the second season, you avoid
the heavy rains.
When planted as a sole crop, the distance between the
-ridges is about 50 cm. .

-plants on the ridges is 7-l0 cm.
When planted in a mixture with maize or cocoyam, the distance between the
-ridges is about 80 cm. .

-plants on the ridge is 5-8 cm.
Do not intercrop soyabeans with maize on the same ridge. Plant on alternate ridges to provide
sufficient sunlight for the soyabeans.
The planting depth of the soyabean is 2-3 cm.
Crop Care
Soyabeans is a legume. It does not need fertilizer to grow. However, organic manure and/or a basic
application of NPK 20/10/10 increases the yield.
Practice timely weeding with the ridger and repeat if necessary.
Harvesting/Processing
The cropping cycle of soyabean is between 95-115 days. In high altitude areas, it can be longer.
Harvest when mature:
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-the leaves turn yellow and fall off,
-the pods become breakable, and
-beans lose the green color.
Harvest the whole plant and expose to sunlight for at least 2 hours before threshing. Winnow and
dry before storage.
Soyabeans are good for home consumption. They have protein and can replace meat. Use them for
your daily diet. Surplus soyabeans have a good market. They are used for the production of animal
feeds, soyabean oil, soap, etc.
.2 Beans
The cultivation technique for beans is similar to the one of soyabeans. Though the yield of beans is
lower than that of soyabeans, they have other advantages like:
-a good local market

-availability of different varieties adapted to the different areas
-higher security of yield, even when planted late or mixed with maize on the same ridge.
Fig. 6.35: Common beans: Seed,pods and plant.
.3 Groundnuts
The cultivation technique for groundnuts is similar to that of soyabeans, but note the following
differences:
-Groundouts have generally only one cropping cycle. Planting starts at the beginning of the rainy
season.
-The distance between the plants on the ridge is 15 cm.
-Depending on the variety, the distance between the ridges is 50 cm. for the upright type, 80 cm.
for the creeping type, planted as a sole crop. .
-Moulding of ridges is important for pod development.
Animal Production
Fig. 6.36: Groundnut plant with pods and seeds.
.5 Permanent crops
1 Fencing Plants
In the permanent farming system, you find permanent crops and seasonal crops in the same farm.
Animal Production
Fig. 6.37: The permanent crops are planted on the contour bond while the seasonal crops are
planted on the ridges between the contour bonds.
The permanent crops on the contour bond:
-reinforce the contour bond with their root system: The contour bond cannot be attacked by erosion
easily.
-make a permanent farm structure: They remain in the rainy and dry season throughout the years.
-provide additional food: After the harvest of seasonal crops, permanent crops, e.g. plantain,
pineapple, sugarcane can provide food in the dry season.
-provide additional income: e.g. planting of coffee.
There are many permanent crops, you can plant on the contour bond,
e.g. cash crops like coffee

food crops like plantain, pineapple, sugar cane, paw paw
fodder crops like guatemala grass
green manure plants like tephrosia, pigeon pea, sesbania
Choose permanent crops that can do well in your area and can give good benefits to you.
Generally, most of the permanent crops take some time to establish. As long as the permanent
crops are small, make good use of your contour bond by planting of
-green manure which can provide shade and manure for your permanent crops and reinforce the
contour bond until permanent crops are well established
-seasonal crops, which can produce food.
1 Fencing Plants
Due to the existing transhumance of Graziers and their cattle, especially in the dry season, your
permanent farm may become subject to destruction by straying cattle .
To avoid destruction through cattle as far as possible, try to

Animal Production
-practice incorporation of organic matter (grass, maizestalks, etc.) before the dry season.
Bare soil is not very attractive for cattle.
-plant your permanent crops as soon as possible in the rainy season, so that they have grown up at
the beginning of the dry season.
-communicate with the neighbouring graziers and explain to them your permanent farming.
-protect your farm by fencing.
Fencing of your farm is the most tedious but also the most effective way to protect your farm.
You can fence your farm with barbed wire, but barbed wire is costly and needs maintenance and
replacement. The poles for the barbed wire are subject to white ant and fire destruction.
Fig. 6.38: The cheaper and longer lasting solution to fence your farm is live sticks and fencing
plants.
Many fencing plants are locally available and easy to pro agate. The knowledge how to use them is
locally available. Some newly introduced shrubs and trees can be made available by your extension
services. Some of these new plants need special seed treatment to nurse or plant them successfully.
CHAPTER NINE
PRODUCTION OF PERENNIAL CROPS
Perennial crops are crops which completes their life cycle or harvesting time period in more two
years after planting. Perennial crops are mainly tree crops.
The major lists of perennial crops in agricultural science are as follows

Cashes tree
Coconut tree
Mango tree
Animal Production
Oil palm tree
Cocoa tree
Cola nut tree
Rubber tree
Moringa plant
“dogonyaro tree” mostly found in Nigeria
Cherry tree
Duca-nut tree known as “ogbono” in Nigeria
CLASSIFICATION OF PERENNIAL CROPS
1. Sugar crops
The principal plant grown for their sugar are sugar cane and sugar beets. The bulk of the sugar
produced in the tropical world is from sugarcane while in the temperate, it is from sugar beet. In
addition to these crops, the saccharine sorghums (sorgos) are used for making syrup.
2. Stimulants
This group includes tobacco, tea and coffee. Tobacco is by far the most important of these crops in
Nigeria.
3. Rubber crops
A good example is Have a brasilensis
4. Beverages
A good example is cocoa.
5. Fiber crops
Grown for their fibre use in making textiles ropes, twines and jute bags. The principal
fibre plants include cotton, flax kenaf, and hemp. Cotton is the most important of fibre plants. Jute
and sisal are also sources of fibre.
Importance of perennial crops
The benefits or importance of perennial crops are as follows

Perennial crops serves as long term sources of income to the farmer
Crops like cocoa, orange and mango are a major source of food for families
Animal Production
Perennial crops are quantum source of raw materials for the industries or agro-allied industries
Agronomical requirements of common perennial crops.

1. CACAO (Theobroma cacao)
The Origin of Cacao
 Cacao developed in the upper amazon region of Latin America.
 It was first discovered and grown in Mexico.
 The word cacao refers to the tree while cocoa refers to a drink made from its seed.
 Cacao has been cultivated in America for 2000 to 4000 years.
 The crop was discovered by Christopher Columbus during his fourth voyage to the new
world.
 The specific centre of origin of cacao has been accepted as the area from the forests of the
Amazon to Orinoco and Tabasco in South Mexico.
 Spain introduced cacao to Africa around 1840.
 Cacao was introduced into Nigeria in 1974.
 Other sources of introduction of the crop to West Africa include: trading companies,
Christian missionaries, soldiers, chiefs, farmers’ associations, cooperatives, various
departments of agriculture and more recently the West African Cocoa Research Institute
(WACRI), the Cocoa
TAXONOMY
 Cacao belongs to the genus Theobroma in the family steruliocene. Over 20 species of
Theobroma are recognized.
 All cacao cultivated belong to a single species Theobroma cacao (L).
 There are three large and distinct groups within the species T. cacao. These are Criollo,
Trinitario and the Forastero Amazon.
1. Criollo: The trees are slender, green pods or pod coloured by anthocyanin pigments, warty, thin,
soft pericarp, lignified mesocarp, beans plump and embedded in pulpy mucilage, white cotyledons.
On fermentation and drying the cotyledon colour turns light brown.
2. Trinitario: Is a hybrid of mainly: Forastero Amazon and Criollo. Pods are green or pigmented.
The beans vary in colour from very light to very dark purple.
3. Forastero: Is characterized by green pods, absence of anthocyanin pigmentation, thick pericarp,
strongly lignified mesocarp, plump but slightly flattened beans, and deep purple cotyledons when
fresh. Large scale cultivation is dominated by the Forasteros (80%) especially the Amelonados
which are the form almost exclusively cultivated in West
Africa.
MORPHOLOGY
Animal Production
 The tree is low, reaching an average height of 5 to 10m.
 The main trunk is short, branching (jorquetting) in whorls of five branches: branches are
dimorphic.
1. Verticals or chupons growing from the trunk have leaves arranged in 5/8 phyllotaxy.
2. Lateral branches (fans) with ½ phyllotaxy.
 Cacao is naturally outbreeding. Various insects have been associated with pollination in
cacao.
 The main pollinators are thrips, midges, ants and aphids.
 After successful pollination, fertilization takes place within 36 hours; the sepals, petals and
staminodes drop away, the stamens and the pistil wither.
 The young pod known as cherelle, commences development by longitudinal elongation,
followed by increase in girth.
 The period between fertilization and pod maturation varies from 150-180 days depending
on the variety.
 The pods turn light yellow when ripe in all varieties. Pods are ready for harvest.
CLIMATIC FACTORS
 Cacao is a low-altitude crop.
 It can grow from sea level up to an altitude of 700m.
 It has a wide range of rainfall from 1500-3000mm per annum or more.
 In selecting a site for planting cacao, it is desirable to ensure that the site enjoys rainfall
averaging 150mm per month, 1500mm-2000mm optimal/year for at least 9 months of the
year distributed evenly. It is susceptible to damage by strong winds.
 Different winds such as the harmattan, also can dehydrate of floral organs rendering them
incapable of opening, thus resulting in failure of pollination.
 Cacao is a tap-rooted plant and requires deep well-drained soils, free from non concretions,
high in nutrient content and a topsoil rich in organic matter. Cacao soils should have
adequate clay content.
NURSERY PREPARATION
 Seeds do not pass through a dormancy period.
 They lose viability on extraction from pod within 5-7 days unless specially treated.
 Seeds are mixed with moist fine sand, moist sawdust or moist ground charcoal for storage,
and should be stored in a cool place.
 Wooden boxes are preferable to closed jars because the permit aeration for the respiration
of seeds.
 Storage of this type lasts for 2-3 weeks as some already germinated seeds will be noticed
within this period.
Animal Production
 In nursery beds single seeds are planted per hole which is usually 15 to 20 mm deep and 15-
16 cm apart. Seeds should be watered lightly every day.
 Germination of seeds will be noticed within 7-10 days. After germination, amount of water
should be increased, depending on the quantity of raw water in the mornings or evenings.
 Seeds can also be sown in poly bags. These should measure 20 x 12 cm and have drainage
holes.
 The poly bags are filled with fertile sifted topsoil. Bags are watered heavily the night
before the seeds are sown. Seed are sown one per bag.
 Light watering is done after sowing daily until germination. Adequate water should be
provided after germination.
 Seeds should be provided with shade after germination.
 Examination for pests and diseases should be done regularly and once noticed should be
uprooted and burnt for viral bacterial diseases. For fungal and insect attacks, it should be
controlled with chemicals.
 No need for fertilizer application of cacao seedlings in the nursery.
 About a week before transplanting the seedlings in to the field, seedlings which are raised in
nursery beds should be partially dug in situ to stimulate new roots before transplanting in
the field.
 It also ensures that fragile young roots are not damages. Seedlings should be planted with a
ball of earth or with clay slurry. Seedlings should be sprayed against diseases and pests
prior to transplanting in the field.
ROLES FOR SEEDLINGS IN NURSERIES
1. Site nursery on clear-felled land near a permanent water supply and provide seedlings with
artificial shade of palm fronds.
2. Use forest topsoil for seeds to be sown ports, actual sowing should not be done at the hottest time
of the day. Sow in Dec-Feb. to allow the seedlings a period of four months of growth in the
nursery.
3. Water thoroughly when seeds are sown, thereafter lightly every second day for the remainder of
the dry season except during harmattan periods when watering everyday may be necessary.
4. Fronds should be removed in stages (2-3), all shade being removed after a week before
transplanting.
5. Seedlings should be no more than 4-5 months old when transplanting,care must be taken not to
damage seedlings from the nursery to the field.
Cacao can easily be vegetatively propagated by leaf bud cuttings, multiple bud cuttings,
marcotting, budding, grafting and layering.
TRANSPLANTING
Animal Production
 Field should be well-prepared before transplanting and transplanting should be done when
the rains are steady and regular.
 Accepted spacing in cacao is 3m x 3m.
 Plant seedlings immediately on arrival at the planting site.
 For polybag seedlings, a period of 7 days should be allowed for rest.
 Small, badly-shaped seedlings must be discarded.
 Seedlings with new flesh of growth should not be transplanted.
 In transplanting, seedlings are held in position and seedling roots are arranged in position,
fill in the soil and consolidated.
WEEDING
 Weeding is a problem involving the removal of annual plants and shrubs mainly in the first
3-4 years after establishing cacao in the field when canopy is not yet closed.
 Weeds compete for water and nutrients and cause poor growth of the cacao trees.
 Frequency of weeding will depend on the overhead shade and rainfall.
 In plantations, row weeding thrice a year, supplemented by at least 4-6 slashings of the
avenues per year is considered adequate.
 Weeding may reduce the incidence of black pod disease as it allows for a better circulation
of air thus reducing the humidity within the farm.
 It also helps to control insect’s especially leaf-eating caterpillars.
 Herbicides could also be used because of the increasing cost of labour.
 Herbicides to be used include: Aminotriazole (2) Simazine (3) Aminotriazone + Simazine
(4) Paraquat (apply before weeds blossom).
MULCHING
 Mulch before the onset of the first dry season to assist in conserving moisture in the soil.
 Each plant should be given a 15cm deep layer of mulch towards the end of the rains.
 A small area around the base of each seedling should be left clear to reduce termite attack
on the stem. Grasses serve as good mulching material.
PRUNING
 Pruning is done to remove unwanted growth and thus maintain regularly shaped trees.
 Unskillful pruning may lead to injuries to tree with consequent reduction in yield.
 Frequency of pruning depends on growth of the trees.
 Pruning should be done as close as possible to the stem on which they have grown.
 A lightweight cutlass is suitable for pruning operations.
 Pruned surfaces bigger than 20 mm in diameter should be painted with ordinary paint or a
tar sealing compound.
SHADE
 Temporary shade (nurse shade) is beneficial during the early years before the cocoa canopy
closes.
 Nurse shade should be easy to establish, it should compete at little as possible for moisture
and soil nutrients. E.g. of nurse shade is plantain.
Animal Production
 Banana should be avoided as it competes for moisture during the dry season with cocoa.
Thinning and removal of nurse shade should be at the end of the dry season.
FERTILIZER APPLICATION
 Important fertilizers needed are N, P, K. and B (boron) 100 kgN, 20 kgP and 70 kgK per ha
per year.
 The fertilizer is given in installments: at the beginning of the main foliage growth period,
main flowering time and the time of the main growing of the fruit.
HARVESTING
 It takes 150-180 days depending on variety from pollination to pod ripening.
 Only mature and ripe pods are harvested and processed promptly.
 Harvesting should be done twice a month.
 Has two main season of pod production:
September – March and the light season April to August. Tools for harvesting include:
1. Sharp cutlass for plucking pods within reach
2. Harvesting knife with short handle for ripe pods above ground level
3. Harvesting knife attached to long poles for pods on topmost part of cacao
4. Basket or any convenient container for packing pods.
PROCESSING
 Pods are broken by knocking them against blunt objects.
 The beans and the pulp are removed from the pods.
 The extracted beans are collected in a container for fermentation. Fermentation is done so as
to get the proper taste, colour and flavor, kill the embryo and stop germination, remove pulp
and to loosen the skin from the cotyledon thereby allowing easy de-shelling.
There are four ways to ferment:
1. Heap fermentation (2) basket fermentation (3) sweat box fermentation
(4) tray fermentation
 The pods are dried after fermentation, production of good quality seeds will also depend on
proper drying method. Moisture content should be 7 percent or within the range 6-8%.
Drying could be sun drying or artificial drying.
 Well dried beans will crack when squeezed between the fingers.
 Store dry beans in clean baskets or new sacks and keep off the ground and walls
 . Do not store near maize, tobacco or other foodstuffs or smoke.
GRADING
Animal Production
 To grade cacao, representative samples are taken at random from bulk.
 Only 300 beans are selected and these should not weigh less than 300g.
 There are two grades:
 Grade I cocoa: Less than 3% slaty beans (result of non-fermentation of
beans),
Less than 3% mouldy beans (under-driedand poor
storage),
Less than 3% other defectives.
 Grade II cocoa: Less than 5% slaty beans,
Less than 4% mouldy beans,
Less than 5% other defectives.
Defectives lower the price being paid or render beans unsaleable if found too many.
CHAPTER TEN
ANIMAL HEALTH AND PRODUCTION.
 Animal husbandry is the science or branch of agriculture that is concerned production,
taking care and breeding of farm animals
TERMINOLOGIES IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Cattle: This refers to the entire Bovine species
Cow: Female cattle of mature age which have had one or more parturitions
Heifer: Female cattle of immature age which has not produced any offspring
Bull: A mature male cattle
Calf: Young cattle of either sex under one year old and usually not weaned
Calve: Act of giving birth (parturition) in cattle
Bull Calf: Young male cattle under two years of age
Steer: Male cattle which has been castrated at early age
Stag: Male cattle which was castrated after reaching sexual maturity
Animal Production
Free Martin: refers to Female cattle born as a twin along with a male cattle which is usually
sexually sterile
In-calf: Pregnant cow
SWINE: refers to entire porcine species that has reached mature age
SOW: A mature female pig that has given birth at least onc
Farrowing: The act of giving birth in swine
Gilt: Female swine/pig of immature age or which has not produced any offspring
Boar: A mature male swine
Piglet: Young pig of either sex
Litter: Entire offsprings produced at a single birth (parturition)
Barrow: Male swine that has been castrated at an early age
Hog: the entire swine species reaching mature age
In-sow: Pregnant sow
SHEEP: refers to entire ovine species
Ewe: refers to female sheep after reaching sexual maturity and has produced e or more offsprings
Ram: Mature male sheep
Lamb: refers to sexually immature sheep of either sex
Lambing: act of giving birth in sheep
Ram Lamb: sexually immature male sheep
Ewe lamb: Sexually immature female sheep
Wether: Male sheep castrated at an early age
Fleece: The wool of a single sheep
GOAT: refers to the entire caprine supp
Buck or Billy: Mature male goat
Doe or Nanny: refers to female goat that has given birth once or twice
Kid: Young or sexually immature goat of either sex
Kidding: Act of giving birth in goat]
Livestock diseases
Animal Production
 Livestock diseases are classified according to causative agents as follows:
 Protozoan diseases -caused by protozoans.

 Bacterial diseases - caused by bacteria:
 Viral diseases - cause by virus.
 Nutritional diseases - brought about by nutritional disorders.
A. Protozoan Diseases
 East coast Fever (ECF).

 Anaplasmosis (gall sickness)
 Coccidiosis
 Trypanosomiasis (Nagana)
2. East coast Fever
Animals attacked: Cattle
Cause: Protozoan. (Theileria parva)
It is a tick-borne disease transmitted by red-legged tick and brown ear tick
Symptoms
 Rise in body temperature.
 Swelling of lymph glands below the ear.
 Difficulties in breathing.
 Dullness.
Control and Prevention
 Control of vectors through dipping and fencing.
 Treatment by use of clexon in the early stages.
3. Anaplasmosis (gall sickness)
Animals attacked:
 Cattle between 2 months and 2 years.
 Poultry.
 Lambs and kids.
 Rabbits.
Cause:
 Protozoan (Ana plasma marginale)
 Transmitted by the blue tick
Animal Production
 Contaminated surgical instruments and hypodermic needles.
Symptoms
 Fever/rise in body temperature.
 Constipation or hard dung.
 Paleness in the gums, eyes and lips.
 Drop in milk production.
Control
 Tick control.
 Intramuscular injection of antibiotics and iron giving injections.
4. Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis of Poultry
Cause: Protozoan (Eimeria spp.)
Symptoms
 Sudden death of chicks.
 Whitish, yellow and blood stained diarrhoea.
 Ruffled feathers.
 Chicks become paralysed before dying.
 Chicks become anaemic and dull.
Control
 Disinfection of chick house.
 Prevention of contamination of food and water with droppings.
 Use of prophylatic drugs for example, Coccidiostats.
5. Trypanosomiasis (Nagana)
Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats.
Cause: Protozoan of the trypanosome species,
Vector-tsetse flies.
Symptoms
 Fever
 Dullness.
 Anorexia/loss of appetite.
 Loss of body condition/emaciation.
 Swollen lymph nodes.
 Lachrimation which leads to blindness.
Animal Production
 Diarrhoea
 Rough coat and sometimes without hair and may be cracked.
 Swelling in parts of the belly.
 Drop in milk production in lactating cows.
 Loss of hair at tail end.
 Anaemia.
 Abortion may occur in pregnant females.
Control
 Treating animals with trypanocidal drugs.
 Effective vector (Tsetse flies)control
 Confinement of wild animals in game parks.
B. Bacterial Diseases
 Fowl typhoid
 Foot rot.
 Contagious abortion.
 Scours.
 Blackquarter.
 Mastitis.
 Anthrax.
 Pneumonia.
1. Fowl Typhoid
Animals attacked: All domestic birds which include chicken, turkey and ducks
Causes: Bacteria (Salmonella gallinarum}
Symptoms
 Depression/appearing very sick.
 Respiratory distress.
 Dullness.
 Drooping wings.
 Sleepy eyes.
 Anaemia resulting in pale and shrunken
 combs and Wattles.
 C-reenish yellow diarrhoea.
Control
 Killing all affected birds and proper disposal of the carcasses.
 Maintaining hygiene in the poultry house.
Animal Production
 Ensuring that the house is dry and well ventilated.
 Obtaining chicks from reliable sources.
 Treatment using sulphur drugs which are mixed in drinking water or mash.
For example: application of Furazolidone (Furazol) at the rate of 0.04% in mash for 10 continuous
days treats the disease effectively.
2. Foot Rot
 It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot.
 Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats.
 However, it is most serious in sheep.
 Cause: Bacteria ( F usiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosus).
Symptoms
 Animal's foot becomes swollen.
 Lameness is observed.
 Pus and rotten smell come out of the hoof.
 Sheep are found kneeling while grazing when the front feet are affected.
 Animals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affected.
 Emaciation due to lack of feeding.
Control
 Hygiene in the living places.
 Regular foot examination and hoof trimming.
 Use of a foot bath of copper sulphate solution at 5-10% solution or formalin at 2-5%
solution.
 Treating wounds on the feet with antiseptics.
 Affected animals should be given antibiotic injections.
 Isolation of sick animals from healthy ones.
 Avoid dampness and muddy conditions.
3. Contagious Abortion (Brucellosisl Bang's Disease)
 Animals attacked: cattle, sheep, goats and pigs.
 It also affects man.
 Cause: Bacteria
 Brucella abortus in cattle,
 Brucella suis in pigs
 Brucella malitensis in goats and sheep.
Symptoms
 Spontaneous abortion or premature birth.
 Retained placenta if abortion occurs during the later stages of pregnancy.
Animal Production
 Infertility in cows while bulls have low libido and inflamed testis also known as orchitis.
 A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after the abortion.
Control
 Use of artificial insemination.
 Slaughtering affected animals followed by proper disposal of their carcasses.
 The attendant to the animals should avoid contact with the aborted foetus.
 A blood test should be carried out for all breeding animals to detect the infected ones.
 Hygiene in the animals’ houses.
4. Scours (white Scours)
Animals attacked: calves, piglets, lambs and kids.
Cause: A bacterium which attacks young animals in the first week of life.
Symptoms
 White or yellowish diarrhoea.
 Pungent smelling faeces.
 Fever
 Listlessness.
 Sunken eyes.
 Undigested milk and mucus with blood spots observed in the faeces.
 Faecal matter sticks to the hind quarters.
 Sudden death if no treatment is given.
Control
 Maintaining hygiene in the young animal housing units.
 Avoiding dampness on the floor of the house.
 Fingers of the attendant training calves to drink milk from a bucket must be disinfected.
 Calving should be carried out in a clean area.
 Have separate attendants for the infected calves to prevent disease spread.
 Replacing milk with warm water mixture.
 Treating affected animals with antibiotics.
5. Black Quarter
It is also known as black leg.
Animals attacked: All ruminants aged between 8 - 18 months.
Cause: Bacteria (Clostridium chauvei and Chauvei septicum)
Symptoms
Animal Production
 Lameness.
 Fever
 Fast and heavy breathing.
 Cracking on the swollen parts if touched.
 Swelling of the affected parts usually the hindquarters, shoulders and chest or back
 Dullness.
 Anorexia.
 Grunting and grinding of teeth.
 Animal stops chewing cud.
Control
 Treating with recommended antibiotics.
 Vaccinating using black quarter vaccine known as blanthax.
 Burying the carcass deep or burning it completely.
6. Mastitis
 ls an inflammation of the udder.
 Animals attacked: Goats, cows, pigs and human beings.
 Cause: Bacteria (Streptococcus spp. or Staphylococcus spp.)
Pre-disposing Factors:
 Incomplete milking.
 Injuries on the udder and teats.
 Weak sphincter muscles of the teats allowing free flow of milk.
Symptoms
 Milk is watery, blood stained or clotted.
 Swollen udder
Control
 Proper milking techniques.
 Treatment by use of antibiotics.
 Culling of animals which are often attacked.
7. Anthrax
 Attacks all domestic animals.
 Cause: Bacteria (Bacillus anthracis)
Symptoms
 Sudden death.
 High fever.
 Grinding of the teeth.
Animal Production
8. Pneumonia
Cause:
It is an inflammation of the lungs.
Animals attacked: Calves, kids, lambs, piglets and poultry.
Bacteria (Mycoplasma mycoides)
dust
worms in the lungs.
Symptoms
 Dullness.
 Staring coat.
 Emaciation.
 Breathing rapidly.
 Abnormal lung sounds when breathing.
 Coughing if the chest is pressed.
 Fluctuating body temperature.
 Nasal discharge.
Control
 Keeping young animals in warm pens.
 Proper sanitation.
 Isolation of the affected animals.
 Treating using antibiotics.
C. Viral Diseases
Rinderpest.
Foot and mouth disease (FMD).
New Castle
Fowl pox
Gumboro
African swine fever
1. Rinderpest
Animal attacked: Cattle and wild game.
Animal Production
Cause: virus.
Symptoms
 Harsh staring coat.
 Rise in temperature.
 Eye discharge (Lachrimation)
 Diarrhoea and dysentery.
 Ulcers in the mouth.
2. Foot and Mouth Disease
Animals attacked: Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs.
Cause: Virus .
Symptoms
 Sharp rise in temperature.
 Blisters in the mouth, hooves, udder and teats.
 Loss of appetite.
Control
 Vaccination.
 Quarantine
 nursing wounds with disinfectant.
3. New Castle
Animals attacked: Poultry.
Cause: Virus.
Symptoms
 Difficulties in breathing.
 Beaks remain wide open and necks are strained.
 Birds become dull.
 The birds stand with eyes closed all the time.
 Nasal discharges which force the birds to shake their heads to clear it.
 Birds walk with a staggering motion.
 Paralysis of wings and legs may occur.
 Birds have their beaks and wings down.
 Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea.
 Birds lay soft shelled eggs.
Control
Animal Production
 Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses before
bringing in new stock.
 Vaccination should be done during the first 6 weeks and then 2-3 months later.
 Quarantine.
4. FowlPox
Animals affected: Poultry.
Cause: A virus known as avian fox.
Symptoms
 Two types of fowl pox with different symptoms.
 Cutaneous type
 Diptheritic type
 The cutaneous type affects the skin and has the following signs:Injuries on the combs and
Wattles, legs, vent and under the wings.
 Loss appetite.
 The diptheritic type affects internal membranes and has the following symptoms:
Injuries in the inside of the throat and mouth membranes resulting in difficult breathing and
swallowing.
 Eyes and nose produces a watery liquid.
 Dullness.
 Emaciation.
Control
 Killing all affected birds followed by proper disposal of their carcasses.
 Vaccinating remaining healthy birds.
5. Gumboro
It is also referred to as poultry AIDS.
Animals attacked: Poultry.
Cause: A virus known as Birma virus.
Symptoms
 The glands above the vent (bursa) become swollen.
 Drop in egg production.
 Birds develop respiratory distress.
 Low water intake by birds.
Animal Production
 Loss of immunity making the birds more susceptible to opportunistic diseases.
Control
 Vaccination.
 Administering vitamins and especially B12.
6. African Swine Fever
Animals attacked: All domesticated pigs.
Cause: A virus known as lrido virus.
Symptoms
 Fever
 Depression/dullness.
 Emaciation.
 Coughing.
 Nasal discharge.
 Diarrhoea in serious conditions.
Control
 Vaccination.
 Quarantine.
 Killing all affected animals and proper disposal of their carcasses.
 Double fencing to keep wild animals away.
D. Nutritional Diseases/Disorders
1. Milk Fever
 It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have
recently given birth.
 Animals attacked: Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth.
Causes:
 Due to low calcium levels in the blood.
Which leads to an increase in the magnesium and sugar level in the blood.
 Mostly occurs in high producing cows in the first few months of lactation.
This is because these animals loose more calcium through milk secretion than they are getting from
the diet.
Symptoms
Animal Production
 Dullness.
 Muscular twitching causing the animal to tremble.
 Staggering as the animals move.
 Animal falls down ands becomes unconscious.
 The animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffens.
 Body functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stops.
 Stomach contents are drawn into the mouth which later cause lung fever when breathing in.
Treatment
Intravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium boro-gluconate ,60gms dissolved
in 500cc of water.
Keeping the animal in a comfortable position on its sternum.
Giving fresh water.
Note: The animals suffering from milk fever should not be given medicine orally for the following
reasons:
It will not be able to swallow medicine.

The medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever.
Control
Partial milking for the first 10 days.
High yielding cows should be given rations containing phosphorus and calcium.
Giving high doses of Vitamin D.
2. Bloat
Animals attacked: Cattle and sheep.
Cause: Accumulation of gases as a result of fermentation in the rumen.
Symptoms
The left side is blown up.
Sudden death.
Control
Animal Production
Relieve by use of trocar and cannula.
Chasing the animal around if noticed early.
Drenching by use of stop bloat.
Feeding ruminants with dry roughages during the wet season before grazing on lush pastures.
RUMINANT PRODUCTION AND HUSBANDRY

 Ruminants are characterized by their "four" stomachs and "cud-chewing" behavior. The
cud is a food bolus that has been regurgitated.
 There are about 150 different ruminant species including cows, goats, deer, buffalo, bison,
giraffe, moose, and elk.
 Ruminant species can further be classified as grazers, browsers, or intermediates. Grazers,
such as sheep, cattle, and buffalo consume mostly lower quality grasses while browsers
such as moose and mule deer stay in the woods and eat highly nutritious twigs and shrubs.
 Intermediates, such as goats and white-tailed deer have nutritional requirements midway
between grazers and browsers.
 The primary difference between ruminants and simple-stomached animals, like people,
dogs or pigs, is the presence of a four-compartment stomach that includes the rumen,
reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
 Often, it is said that ruminants have "four" stomachs.
 Llamas and alpacas are "pseudo-ruminants" because they have a three-compartment
stomach instead of four like ruminants.
 Horses are also not ruminants; however they have a "cecum" that performs a similar
function as the cow or sheep's rumen
The Ruminant Digestive System

 Mature sheep are ruminant animals. Their digestive tracts, which are similar to those of
cattle and deer, consist of the mouth, esophagus, four stomach compartments, small
intestine, and large intestine.
The digestive tract of goats.
1. Oesophagus
2. Rumen
3. Reticulum
4. Omasum
5. Abomasum
6. Small Intestine
7. Cecum
8. Large Intestine
Animal Production
 The mouth: Like other ruminant animals, goats have no upper incisor or canine teeth. They
depend on the dental pad in front of the hard palate, lower incisor teeth, lips, and tongue to
take food into their mouths.
 The rumen also called the paunch occupies a large percentage of the abdominal cavity of
the ruminant animal. It is a large storage space for food that is quickly consumed, then later
regurgitated, re-chewed, and re-swallowed in a process called cud-chewing.
 Rumination or cud chewing occurs predominantly when the animal is resting and not
eating. Microbial digestion in the rumen is the basic reason why ruminant animals
effectively utilize fibrous feeds and are maintained primarily on roughages. Rumen
microorganisms also convert components of the feed to useful products such as the essential
amino acids, the B complex vitamins, and vitamin K. Finally, the microorganisms
themselves are digested farther in the digestive tract. Healthy
 Mature sheep will chew their cud for several hours each day. The capacity of the rumen of
sheep and goats ranges from 12-24 litres depending on the type of feed.
 The rumen is also a large fermentation vat. It contains billions of micro-organisms,
including bacteria and protozoa, which allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as
grass, hay, and silage that other animals cannot efficiently utilize. Fermentation in the
rumen produces enormous quantities of gas that ruminants must get rid of by belching.
Anything that interferes with belching is life threatening to the ruminant and may result in a
condition called "bloat." Mild cases of bloat can be treated with an antacid.
 The reticulum also referred to as the honeycomb is closely associated with the rumen.
Contents mix continually between both sections. It looks like a "honey comb. This
compartment is located just below the entrance of the esophagus into the stomach. The
reticulum is part of the rumen separated only by an overflow connection, the rumino-
reticular fold. The capacity of the reticulum ranges from 1-2 litres.
 The omasum also called many-piles consists of many folds or layers of tissue that grind up
feed ingesta and remove some of the water from the feed. The capacity of the omasum of
goats is approximately 1litre.
 The abomasum is the "true stomach" of the ruminant. It is similar in function to the stomach
of a nonruminant: secretion of enzymes and acids to breakdown nutrients before they enter
the small intestine.
The capacity of the abomasum of goats and sheep is approximately 4 litres.
As partially digested feed enters the small intestine, enzymes produced and secreted by the
pancreas and small intestinal mucosa further breakdown feed nutrients into simple
compounds that are absorbed into the bloodstream. Undigested feed and unabsorbed
nutrients leaving the small intestine pass into the large intestine.
 The functions of the large intestine include absorption of water and further digestion of feed
materials by the microorganisms present in this area. The 100-foot-long intestinal canal of
sheep has a capacity to hold 12 litres.
 When a goat lamb is born, the rumen is small and the abomasum is the largest of the four
stomach compartments. The rumen of a goat kid represents about 30 percent of the total
Animal Production
stomach area, while the abomasum represents about 70 percent. Hence, digestion in the
lamb is like that of a monogastric animal.
 In the suckling lamb, closure of the esophageal groove ensures that milk is channeled
directly to the abomasum, instead of entering the rumen, reticulum, and omasum. When the
suckling goat kid starts to eat vegetation (first or second week of life), the rumen, reticulum,
and omasum gradually develop in size and function. The lamb's rumen and reticulum are
usually functional by the time it is 50 to 60 days old.
GOAT BREEDS
Goats well adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions because of the
following characteristics:
1. · They feed on a wide range of vegetation.

2. · They require very little amount of water.
3. · They are tolerant to high temperatures.
4. · They are fairly resistant to diseases.
5. · They can walk long distances without losing weight.
Selection and breeding of goats
• Selection is based on the selected products
• Goats for mea production should be heavier and should mature faster than dairy goats
• Dairy goats should be angular with a lean long neck and head
• They should have well sprung ribs with large udder
• Milk veins should be protruded
• All breeding goats should have the following qualities
Healthy fertile  Prolific  Good conformation
• The selected female goats (nannies) should be served after attaining an age of 1 – 1½
years
• This should take place 5 months before the onset as rains to ensure that kidding occurs
when there is plenty of food
 The majority of goats in Kenya are indigenous and naturally adapted to various climatic
conditions and are referred to as the Small East African Goat (SEAG).
 These animals play an important role in provision of food, livelihoods as well as for socio-
cultural practices in most communities in marginal areas of the country.
 The local goats contribute immensely during drought recovery amongst the pastoralists.
There are an estimated 26,170,371 indigenous goats, while exotics, mostly introduced for
milk production in high rainfall and agro-pastoral areas, are estimated to be 575,545 head.
(MOALFI, 2018 NSAP On management of ANGR)
1. Indigenous Goat Breeds
1. Galla (white in colour). Adult female can weigh 25kg.
2. Somali (Boran): Found in Northern Kenya (white in colour).
3. Turkana/Samburu: (Long hair and bearded.
Animal Production
4. Mubende: (Black) (40-45kg). These are small and hardy and are kept for meat and
milked by the pastoralists.
2. Exotic Breeds
Boer goat
 Origin: South Africa
 Colour: White
 Has long ears and long hair on their bodies.
Anglo-Nubian
 Origin: North East Africa
 Colour: Roan and White
 These have long legs, lopped ears and are polled.
 They produce 1-2 litres of milk per , day.
Jumnapari
 Origin: India
 Colour: White, black and fawn.
 They are horned, have large lopped ears
 Produce 1-1.5 litres of milk per day.
Toggenburg
 Origin: Switzerland
 Colour: White patches on the body, white stripes on the face and neck.
 Erect forward pointing ears and polled.
 Can produce 2-3 of milk per day.
Saanen
 Origin: Switzerland.
 Colour: White
 They have erect, forward pointing ears and polled.
 Can produce 2-3 Litres of milk per day.
Angora
 Origin: Angora in Asia.
 Colour: White
 It is kept for wool production.
A. Meat goat breeds

1. Galla goat
• They are reared for meat but recent research indicates that they have good milk product ion
potential  Galla female breed well and leave long (10 years)
• Galla goats have a very strong dental system, they are docile, easy to handle and so better in
low altitude areas
• Ears are upright and point forward
2. Somali goat
• It is found in Northern Kenya and is a member of Galla goat
• It is white in colour
• It weighs between 40-50kg life weights
Animal Production
3. Samburu goats
 It is still a member of the Galla goat  It weighs 40-44kg in life weight
4. Boar
• It was developed in south Africa
• It is an exotic breed and used for cross breeding with local breeds for meat production
• It is reared for meat production Characteristics
 Fast maturing  Has long ears and hair  Produces twins or triplets
 Has a rapid growth rate and weight gain
5. Anglo-Nubian goat
• Is a goat of North East Africa origin
• It has mix colour though white colour goat are common Characteristics
 Has long legs  Ears droop  Bold (no horns)
 Adults female weighs 50-75kg  It can produce 1 – 2 litres of milk per day
 It’s good for meat production  It is used for cross breeding local breeds
6. Jamnapari goat
• It is a cross breed between Indian Jamnapari and Egyptian Nubian
• Its origin is India
• Colour ranges from white, roan to black Characteristics
 Ears are large and flopped  Females weigh 45-60kg life weight
 Horned (has horns)  Can produce 1 – 1.5 litres of milk per day
 It is kept for meat production
B. Dairy goat breeds
1. Toggen burg
Origin - Switzerland
Colour - The body is brown with white patches
Ears are white with white stripes on the neck
Very common in Meru and Embu district
Characteristics
 Has erect ears pointing backwards  They are polled or horned
 Horns in males are long curved back  Female weighs 40-50kg
 Has long hair  Face is slightly dished
 It has tassels on either sides of the neck
 They suffer from heat stress resulting in lack of appetite
 Nanny produces 2-3litres of milk per day with B/F content of 3.5%
2. Saanen
Origin - Switzerland
Colour - white or creamy white
Animal Production
Characteristics
 Ears are erect and point forward  Usually polled
 Weigh 50-80kg life weight
 Can produce 2 – 3 litres of milk per day for 3 months with a BF content of 35%
 They are widely used in Kenya for cross breeding to increase milk production
C. Mohair goat breeds
1. Angora goat
Origin – Angora in Asia
• It is kept for production of mohair  Average mohair production is 3.64kg /goat
• It is common in USA and South Africa  It is white in colour
3. French Alps
4. British Alpine
Feeding management
• Steaming of pregnant goats should begin one month before kidding. It consists of ½kg
concentrates per day in addition to the goats for four days after kidding to avoid milk fever
for the case of dairy goats.
• Feeds reach in calcium e.g. Lucerne and clove should be included in the feedstuff to ensure
adequate supply of minerals in milk formation.
• Mineral licks should also be provided
• Additional are necessary for goats that give births to more than one kid
• In case of mutton goats the kids are left to suckle freely but for milk goats milk kids are
separated soon after birth and train how to take milk from a nibble bottle and eventually from
a bucket
• Goats are weaned after 4 months
• Goats mainly feed on dry grass fallen leaves, twigs, pods and seeds
• Intensive goat rearing systems are adopted where a daily ration for each goat consist of 4kg
of green forage (sweet potato vines, green grass etc.) 1kg of hay, 0.5kg of concentrates
(energy and protein) and adequate clean water.
Factors that determine feed intake in goats
(i) Palatability of the feed
 Taste, smell, texture of the feed
(ii) Protein content of the feed
 High protein content feed are preferred to high roughage content
(iii) Environmental conditions
 High environmental temperature limit high feed intake especially in exotic breeds
(iv) Physiological status of the animal
 Gestation period require low feed intake but high pled feeds in order to maintain
pregnancy
(v) Texture of the feed
 Feed intake is low in coarse feeds compared to fine textured feeds
(vi) Metabolic body weight or signs
Animal Production
 Large animals have less feed intake per unit weight of the body compared to small
animals
(vii) Water availability
• Feed intake is high for wet feeds as compared to dry feeds (viii) Health status of the animal
• It influence the feed intake
(ix) Learning and conditioning
 Animals are reluctant to take new feeds therefore they should be introduced gradually
Factors that limit goat production in Kenya
(i) Breeding stock
• Most breeding stations are not optimally operated leading to shortage of dairy goats (ii)
Poor infrastructure
• Poor road network in deserts limit goat production
(iii) Religion
• Religion impacts negatively in goat production
• Religious prejudices against goat
(iv) Disease
 Outbreaks of diseases kill goats or increase cost of production
(v) Seasonality
 Different seasons affect food and water availability for goats
(vi) Poor land tenure systems
(vii) Lack of credit facilities
(viii) Lack of management skills
(ix) Poor marketing outlet
Raising young stock
• The nanny goat usually kids without any assistance but a close watch will be kept without
disturbing her
• After kidding, the following practices should be carried out
• Enclose both the kid and the mother in a clean dry place for the first few weeks
• Iodine solution should be applied on the novel of kid to prevent injective
• The mother is allowed to suckle the kid for the first week after birth
• Bucket feeding is done in dairy goats where the kid is fed three times in a day starting with
0.5litres per day and then increasing to 1.25litres per day by the third week after which
feeding on milk is reduced to twice a day until weaning age at 4 months
• Castration of males is done between 2 – 4 months of age for those not needed for breeding
• Dehorning for the breeds that have horns is done at between 2 – 3 months of age using hot
iron or caustic pot stick
Advantages of dehorning
(i) It reduces accidents on dangerous fighting and tendency to fight
(ii) Prevent destruction of farm structures
(iii) Disbudded goats share a smaller area where feeding or drinking water or during
transportation
Housing
Animal Production
• Goats have small and single kraals for providing shelter at night
• Where commercial flocks are reared houses are provided to protect goats against rains, sun,
wild animals and feed thieves
• They consist of large communal fence, individual pens and a crash for vaccination and
treatment
Conditions for a good goat house
• Should be well ventilated
• Have a floor made of concrete and has pressed earth that allow free drainage
• A house for dairy goat should be divided to provide for a milking flat form this is called
stanchion  The house should provide enough space
• An individual goats requires 2.25m2of floor space
• The house should be drought free
Characteristics of a good goat house
(i) Well ventilated (ii) Rain proof (iii) Free from direct wind
(iv) Safe pest and wild animals (v) Well lit
(vi) Free from sharp objects that may injure goats (vii) Proper drainage
(viii) Should have an area of 2.25m2 per goat
(ix) Should have slates on the floor to allow droppings to fall to the ground
Routine management in goats
• The kind of management will depend on
• Whether goats are kept in extreme(free range) or intensive
• Generally meat goats are kept under extensive
• Such goats are hardy and mainly depend on brow for their food thus no routine feeding
system
• They may be drenched 1 – 2 times every year at the onset of rain to reduce infestation by
internal parasite
• Spraying or dipping is necessary to control ticks and frequency of spraying is determined by
the ticks infestation
• It is necessary to vaccinate goats against arthritis and foot and mouth disease
• Goats under intensive management system requires close attention and aspects like zero
grazing, housing, disease control and feeding should be considered
• This system is useful for dairy goats which requires close attention
• The goat house should be well ventilated and feed troughs, firm floor and adequate space
Control of diseases and parasites should be given attention
SHEEP PRODUCTION
 Sheep has been reared in all continents of the world mainly for the following purposes
1) Production of wool
 Wool has high value, cross breeding has been done to upgrade local sheep with exotic
breeds for improved quality of wool
2) All sheep produce mutton
 Some breeds in Asia and Africa produced milk at a very low level
Animal Production
3) Production of manure
 In South India and Indonesia sheep is raised mainly for manure
Classification of sheep
 Sheep is in the sub family of caprinae  And genus is Ovis aries  Sheep can also
be classified basing on
i) Origin
Indigenous or exotic sheep
• Indigenous sheep have no clear distinct in their classification since they are of varied
colours, presence or absence of horns and varying tails characteristics
• Exotic sheep were introduced in East Africa by European settlers they include Merino,
Corriedale, Romny marsh, Hampshire down, Dorper.
ii) Productivity
• It based on the main product from sheep
• Wool sheep e.g. merino
• Mutton sheep e.g. Dorper, Hampshire down  Dual purpose e.g. corriedale, Romney
Marsh
iii) Characteristics of the tail
• There is no clear anatomically distinction between fatty ramped sheep and fat tailed sheep
• Some sheep possess too large fat entities on the ram as an addition to the twisters long tail
Animal Production
• Through cross breeding the mixing occurs frequently and classification basing on tail
characteristics becomes very difficult e.g.
• Fat tailed sheep – Maasai sheep, Kikuyu, Turkana sheep  Fat rumped sheep – Somali,
Black head Turkana Sheep
Breeds of sheep
1. Black headed Persian (Somali Sheep)
• It has thick coat with white hairs but the head and the neck are pure black
• Fat accumulates on the rump
• It is usually crossed with dorset to get dorper
• Have well developed dewlap
• The ears short and sharply pointed 
• The rudimentary tail is short (5cm long) 
2. Maasai sheep
• It is a fat tailed sheep 
• It is long legged 
• Males may be horned or bold 
• It has long pendulus years
3. Merino sheep
• It was imported from Australia and it is common in Molo
• It is light in weight  Long legged with long thin bones
• Has high quality wool  Has high quality wool
• Carcass is of low quality  It can be very hardy in cool dry climates
4. Romney Marsh Sheep
• Origin – England  It is a fairly heavy sheep breed
• It has thick flease or coarse wool  It is a dual purpose breed
• Does well in wet areas thus resistant to foot rot
• Rear on slopes of mount Elgon and Molo
5. Corriedale
• It is a cross breed of Lincoln long wool X Australian merine
Corriedale
• It has been developed until it is a pure breed cow
• It is docile, good forager  It is hardy
6. Hampshire down
• It is a short legged breed
• It has a compact body produce very fine quality wool
7. Dorset horn sheep
• It utilizes poor pastures well  It has white face with pink nose
• It is a hardy breed  It is a high breeder
• It produce good quality wool and mutton
• It is crossed with black head passion to produce dopper
8. Dopper
• It is well suited for ranch conditions to give quality mutton
Animal Production
Feeding management in sheep
• Sheep are maintained on unimproved grazing pastures
• In Africa they are grazed extensively with cattle, goats and camels
• Sheep are selective grazers and prefer short grasses and legumes as well as a wide variety
of low growing herb
• Sheep tend to drive pest in drier climate where feed supply fluctuates both in quality and
quantity from wet to dry season
• Supplementary feeding is encouraged during the dry season
• Hay protein supplements during dry periods should be supplied to sheep
• Good feeding is important in breeding season since it helps to improve prolificacy
• Good feeding is also required during the latter half of pregnancy i.e. steaming up
• Well-fed wool sheep produce a heavy but coarse fleece avails mineral sheep at an
average daily of 7 grams
• Sheep must be given access to clean water at all times
• An average daily water intake of sheep is 4-5 litres
• Sheep kept indoors must be fed on rich fodder
Breeding management
• Selection and calving are important tools in sheep management
• The value of a ram or ewe lies in its performance
When selecting sheep for breeding consider
(a) Early maturing (b) Capacity for rapid growth
(c) Fleece quality (d) Conformity with breed characteristics
(e) Ability to breed adequately (f) Twinning rate
(g) Mutton quality
• In temperate regions ewe sheep attains sexual maturity at four to seven months of age
• In tropics it may be slightly longer and ewes are served at ten months af age
• The ewe should be put on high nutritional plane to improve its body condition. This is
called flushing  Flushing is done 2-3 weeks before mating
• It triggers off, shading of more eggs by the female increasing profitability of multiple
birth
• Ewes are stimulated to oestrus by the presence of the ram
• Tapping which is introduced of males and female will include crutching dirty wool
around the vulva and anus of the ewe, the penis sheath of the ram should be clipped off to
prevent infection at mating
• Overgrown hooves should be teamed to reduce incidence of lameness
• In order to guarantee the survival of unborn lambs, pregnant ewes should be well
managed and the management practices should include
(i) Timing of Lambing
• Synchronize the mating to ensure lambing takes place when there is plenty of good grass
and the weather is neither too cold nor too wet
• Best time for lambing is towards the end of rainy season
Animal Production
• Oestrus occurs every 16 – 17 days and the circle will continue for 2 – 3 months until all
ewes are served
• Gestation period is 5 months (150 days)
(ii) Mating
• During this period rams are fitted with markers that have paint on them on the belly
region
• Whenever they mate an ewe the marketing’s remain on the back of the ewe
• The colours are changed according to different dates, which enable the farmer to keep
records on dates
• When ewes were served a process called raddling
• Ram removed after about 6-8 weeks after being put in the pen
• Ewes are left to follow normal grazing routine
• Ewes should be vaccinated against lamb dysentery and enterotoxaemia; they should be
drenched to control internal parasites
(iii) Steaming up
 It is done 1 – 2 months before birth and the ewes are put on better quality feeds
i.e. good pastures supplementary feeding
 Steaming up help the foetus to grow rapidly and ensure good buildup of body
reserve for milk production
Lambing management
• At the end of 5 months of gestation lambing is due
• Ewes should be removed into clean lambing paddocks with adequate shelter and grass
• Lambing should be allowed as natural as possible by incase of any difficult the ewe
should be assisted by gently pulling the lamb
• Allow the ewe to leak the lamb as it allows the lamb to suckle colostrum
• Supervision is essential at lambing time to avoid high losses
• Orphans and weak lambs should be adopted by another ewe immediately or fed on cow’s
milk
(i) Managements of lambs and young adults
• Lambs should be allowed to suckle their mother for a period of 3 – 4 months
• Their growth depends entirely on the mother’s milk
• The ewes should be fed on quality feeds
• When lambs have been weaned they should be given fast access to pasture, followed by
cattle and lastly adult sheep’s this is because of danger of ingesting parasites dropped by
the adults
• Also sheep has a divided upper lip which allow them to graze down 1 – 2cm and can
easily clear most of the grass left by the cows
(ii) Identification
 Lambs are identified by ear tagging for easy management and record keeping
(iii) Castration
Animal Production
• Male lambs not intended for breeding purpose should be castrated between the first
month.
• Use of rubber rings is referred to open castration
(iv) Tail docking
 It involves cutting 1/3 of the tail during the 1st and 2nd week of life to reduce fat
accumulation
(v) Drenching
• Lambs must be drenched regularly to contain/control internal parasites e.g. tape worms
(vi) Hoof trimming
• It should be done regularly to reduce foot rot. Young sheep should also be allowed to
pass through a footbath with disinfectants or copper sulphate at 10-20% daily
(vii) Culling
At about 5 months old lambs may be sold off as fat lamb
(viii) Shearing
• It should be done at least once every year during the dry season
• The floor should be clean, free from any dirt
• The sheep is shorn in a sitting position as it is kept in a balance by the shearers knees and
left hand
• The right hand should be with the shears and should move smoothly and steady within a
tool and circular motion
• Care should be taken not to cut skin, udder, testicles, vulva and penis
(ix) Dipping
• Ticks attached themselves in rare areas of the body e.g. feet, legs and belly
• They are controlled by dipping immediately after shearing (x) Vaccination
• Vaccinate against enterotoxaemia and lamb dysentery
Sheep products and marketing
a) Wool sheep
• The main products of wool sheep is wool or fleece
• The quantity of wool per sheep will vary with breed ranging from 2 – 6kgs per sheep
• Quality of fleece is determined by the part of the body the wool is obtained from
Aspects of wool quality
(i) Cleanliness – not greasy (ii) Length – should be long 8 – 10cm
(iii) Strength – should not break easily (iv) Fineness – small diameter (v) Colour –
should be pure white
(vi) Elasticity – should have crimps which are necessary for spinning purposes NB:
• Wool is marketed by Kenya farmers Association (KFA)
a) Mutton sheep
• The main products of mutton sheep is mutton. The best grade of mutton is known as
prime
• The second grade is divided from class A to D after which there are lower grades
• The higher the grade the higher the price  Grading is done in the slaughter-house
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b) Skin
• It is a product of both wool and mutton sheep after slaughtering
• The quality of the sheep skin is improved by controlling ticks and ensuring sheep is not
injured through piercing by thorns, cuts or skin infection Crutching
• It is the cutting the wool around the reproductive organs to facilitate mating and prevent
infection Ringing
• It is the practice of trimming the wool around the sheath of penis in rams to facilitate
mating Tupping
• This refers to mating in goats Raddling
• This refers to fitting rams with breeding chutes with markers or paints NB:
• During mating, the ration of ram to the ewe is 1:35-60
Quiz
1. Enumerate six social economic attributes of sheep and goats in arid and semi-
arid areas?
 They are adapted agro-ecological zones (arid and semi arid)
 They are small in size hence less feed requirements
 Require low initial investment
 Have high reproductive rate and short generation interval
 Act as an insurance to livestock keepers
 Have ready market
 They are accessible to all members of the community (men, women and children)
2. Highlight 5 measures that should be taken to develop a market system for sheep
and goat in arid and semi-arid areas?
 Farmers should be trained to commercialize their sheep and goat enterprises
 Market information system for sheep and goat and their products should be
streamlines ton keep the producers and traders informed on the market situation
 Proper linkage between the hazard areas and the market centres as well as
slaughter places
 Promotion of sheep and goat products e.g. goat milk
 Value addition for all livestock products
 Effective disease control measures
 Effective marketing strategies targeting niche market
No Routine practice Available tools
1 Docking Elastrator and rubber ring
2 Identification Tattoo applicator, paint/ink
3 Selection and culling Records
4 Disbudding Disbudding rod
5 Weight determination Weighing band
6 Castration Rubber ring, emasculator
7 Deworming Drenching gun, syringe
8 Vaccination Syringe and needles
Animal Production
9 dehorning Hack saw
Factors affecting reproductive efficiency in sheep
(i) Male and female ration
• The number of males released to run with the female affects the reproductive efficiency.
• Enough males should be provided to ensure the rams are not over worked
• One buck should serve 35-60 females in one breeding season
(ii) Flushing of females
 The females should be given high quality feeds 2-3 before mating to
increase chances of conception
(iii) Age of lambing
 Mating should be delayed until when the females have a mature body mass at the age
of 14-15 months  The rams should be of the age of 9 months
(iv) Diseases
(v) Low libido in rams
 Methods of improving reproductive efficiency i) Proper nutrition ii) Choice of breed –
choose the breed that have high prolificacy iii) Heat synchronization
iv) Use of teaser rams – they stimulate many ewes to come on heat at a uniform rate
v) Healthy herd/flock
Pregnancy toxaemia in sheep
Causes
• It is a condition caused by feeding animals on low glucose dietary
• When there is low glucose level in blood/brain in gestating ewes that are carrying twins
or triplets it leads to breakdown of body fats resulting in keton bodies or free fatty acids
• This condition interferes with proper functioning of enzymes and hormones causing
ketosis
Signs of pregnancy toxaemia
i) The ewe isolate itself from the stock
ii) Ewes appears blind iii) Staggering posture
iv) Loss of appetite v) Constipation
vi) The animal trembles around the neck region vii) The animal goes coma and
eventually dies
Control
i) Proper steaming up of ewes ii) Provide ewes with a balance diet
Aflatoxicosis
Causes
i) It is a condition caused by feeding animals on feeds or cereals containing aflatoxins
called
Aspergillus flavus ii) Those are moulds that grow on grains that are stored on high
moisture content
iii) These toxins interfere with protein synthesis by the liver
Clinical signs
Animal Production
i) Loss of appetite ii) Diarhoea (dark coloured feacal material) iii) Emaciation iv)
Anaemia
v) Jaundice/yellowing of the mucus membranes vi) On post mortem findings there is
enlarge kidney between hemorrhage
Treatment and control
i) Give feeds containing proteins ii) Avoid giving feeds that contains aflatoxin
Advantages of sheep shearing
i) It protects sheep from overheating during dry weather season
ii) It is the grooming of sheep iii) For easy mating iv) To reduce weight of sheep
v) Keep the sheep clean
CATTLE HUSBANDRY AND PRODUCTION
 Indigenous cattle population in Kenya is dominated by short-horned zebu types

with thoracic hump. These cattle are distributed throughout the country and have
developed adaptive features and characteristics through selection under varied
environmental conditions. They are mainly categorized in two main groups. These
are: The Boran and the Small East African Zebu (SEAZ). The Boran group is
further categorized in three, thus, the Improved Kenya Boran, the Borana/NFD
and the Orma Boran while SEAZ (which are believed to have originated from
Asia), are further categorized in various groups mainly based on communities that
keep them as well as the geographical location and or production environments in
which they are found. They are mostly found in pastoral communities within low
input production systems
 . Exotic breeds were introduc
Exotic breeds were introduced mostly from Europe but have been developed to become
adapted to local production environments. Among the exotics, there are those specifically
developed for milk production, meat production and dual purpose. In addition to meat an
FISH FARMING
Fish farming is the process of raising fish in closed tanks or ponds for commercial purposes.
There is an increasing demand for fish and fish protein. Fish species such as salmon, catfish, cod,
and tilapia are raised in fish farms.
Fish farming or pisciculture is of two types:
 Extensive aquaculture, based on the local photosynthetic production
 Intensive aquaculture, based on the external food supply given to fishes.
Animal Production
Animal Production
CHAPTER ELEVEN
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
 Agricultural Extension is a service or system which assists farm people, through
educational procedures, in improving farming methods and techniques, increasing
production efficiency and income, bettering their levels of living, and lifting the social
and educational standards of rural life.
 PRINCIPAL OF EXTENSION EDUCATION
Principle of peoples need and interest
Extension work must be based on the needs & interests of the people. These needs & interests
differ from individual to individual, from village to village, from block to block, from state to
state; therefore, there cannot be one programme for all people.
Principle of grass root level organisation
A group of rural people in local community should sponsor extension work. The programme
should fit in with the local conditions. The aim of organising the local group is to demonstrate
the value of the new practices or programmes so that more & more people would participate.
Principle of cultural difference
Extension work is based on the cultural background of the people with whom the work is done.
Improvement can only begin from the level of the people where they are. This means that the
Extension professionals has to know the level of the knowledge, & the skills of the people,
methods & tools used by them, their customs, traditions, beliefs, values, etc. before starting the
extension programme.
Principle of cultural change
Extension education starts with what the learner knows, has and thinks. With this in mind and
with an attitude of respect towards clients, the extension professionals must seek to discover and
understand the limitations, taboo and the cultural values related to each phase of programme so
that an acceptable approach could be selected in the locality
Principle of cooperation and peoples participation
Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint democratic enterprise in which rural people co-
operate with their village, block & state officials to pursue a common cause. Ultimately without
Animal Production
the cooperation of people the work cannot be successful and desired result cannot be achieved.
The first task of extension education is the cooperation of people and their participation in work.
Extension helps people to help themselves. Good extension work is directed towards assisting
rural families to work out their own problems rather than giving them ready-made solutions.
Actual participation & experience of people in these programmes creates self-confidence in them
and also they learn more by doing. People should realise that the task of extension education is
their own task. Participation in extension work generates confidence among people for the work.
It is not essential that all the members of the society should participate but Extension
professionals should try for maximum participation of people.
Principle of applied science and democratic approach
Extension education is based upon democratic principles. It is based on discussions and
suggestions. Discussions are held with the people on actual field conditions, so that they
participate in work. Extension professionals provide practical look to the scientific inventions so
that farmers can easily adopt them on their farm.
Principle of learning by doing
According to this principle, farmers are encouraged to learn by doing the work themselves and
by participating in it. When a person does a work, he gains practical knowledge and experiences
the difficulties. Extension professionals are able to understand the problems and provide proper
guidance to the farmers and thus, they are able to receive proper information/feedback.
Principle of trained specialists
It is very difficult that extension personnel should be knowledgeable about all problems.
Therefore, it is necessary that specialists should impart training to the farmers from time to
time.
Principle of adaptability in use of extension teaching methods
People differ from each other, one group differs from another group and conditions also differ
from place to place. An extension programme should be flexible, so that necessary changes can
be made whenever needed, to meet the varying conditions. Extension professionals should have
knowledge of extension methods so that they can select proper method according to the
condition. Teaching methods should be flexible so that they can be properly applied on people
according to their age groups, educational background, economic standard and gender. In
extension education, two or more methods should be applied according to the principle of
adaptability.
Principle of leadership
Extension work is based on the full utilisation of local leadership. The selection & training of
local leaders to enable them to help in carrying out extension work is essential to the success of
the programme. People have more faith in local leaders & they should be used to put across a
new idea so that it is accepted with the least resistance.
Principle of whole family
Animal Production
Extension work will have a better chance of success if the extension professionals have a whole-
family approach instead of piecemeal approach or separate & uninterested approach. Extension
work is, therefore, for the whole family, i.e. for male, female and children.
Principle of evaluation
Extension is based upon the methods of science, and it needs constant evaluation. The
effectiveness of the work is measured in terms of the changes brought about in the knowledge,
skill, attitude, and adoption behaviour of the people, not merely in terms of achievement of
physical targets.
Principle of satisfaction
The end-product of the effort of extension teaching is the satisfaction that comes to the farmer
and his family members as the result of solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill
or some other changes in behaviour. Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. A
satisfied stakeholder is the best advertisement.
Animal Production

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CHAPTER ONE

 Importance of agricultural production

2. it’s important to international trade

5. It’s crucial to a country’s development

In general, the best

Phosphorus H2PO4-, Normally Shows up as Reduced Rapidly bound

Magnesium Mg++ Leachable. Interferes with Reduction in Mg commonly is

BO3- Blackening or death Failure to set seed,

"Little leaf" (reduction

Can occur at low pH.

Reduction in growth, Interveinal chlorosis of

Leaves wilt, then

 Suitable size of clods

Reasons for land preparation

Operations in land preparation

Conditions that necessitate land clearing

 When opening up virgin land

Methods of land clearing

 it destroys organic matter

Importance of primary cultivation

Ways of carrying out primary cultivation

Aspects to be considered when carrying out primary cultivation

iii) Choice of implements

Reasons for early cultivation

1. ii) Depth of cultivation

factors that determine the depth of ploughing are:

iii) Choice of implements

Choice of implements used in primary cultivation is determined by:

Importance of secondary cultivation

Factors that determine the number of times of secondary cultivation

N/B: Other tillage operations include:

Importance of sub soiling

 Helps to break up hard pans

Reasons for carrying out minimum tillage

 To reduce the cost of cultivation or ploughing by reducing the number of operations

Ways of carrying out minimum tillage

Methods to Improve Farming Productivity.

1. Implementation of land reforms

3. Plant more densely

4. Plant many crops

The next method of improving productivity is to plant many crops

6. Smart water management

7. Heat Tolerant Varieties

10. Plant protection

Disadvantages of using seeds as planting materials.

 Vegetative propagation does not result in new crop varieties.

Plant parts used for vegetative propagation.

iii) Crowns and slips

 These are materials used to propagate pineapples

vii) Cuttings and setts

Factors affecting rooting of cuttings.

d) Chemical treatment: these rooting hormones which promote the production of

Selection of planting materials

and amount of rainfall in the area.

 Suitability to the ecological conditions — the selected planting materials should

Preparation of planting materials.

(a)Breaking the seed dormancy.

Methods of breaking seed dormancy.