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PHYS1001
Physics 1 REGULAR
Module 2 Thermal Physics
HEAT ENGINE

ap06/p1/thermal/ptG_engines.ppt
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HEAT ENGINES AND REFRIGERATORS

Heat engines: Entropy (§20.1 p673 §20.2 p675 §20.5 p682)

Heat engines: Carnot cycle (§20.6 p684 §20.7 p690)

Internal Combustion Engines: Otto & Diesel Cycles (§20.3 p678)

Refrigerators (§20.4 p680)

References: University Physics 12th ed Young & Freedman

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Heat engine: device that transforms heat partly into work

(mechanical energy) by a working substance undergoing a
cyclic process.
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HEAT ENGINE Cyclic process: W = |QH| - |QC|

Hot reservoir (heat source) TH

W>0
|QH| = |W|+|QC|

QH
Engine – working substance petrol engine: fuel + air

W useful mechanical work output

QC Dissipative losses – friction, turbulence

petrol engine - hot

Cold reservoir (heat sink) TC exhaust gases + cooling
system
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All heat engines absorb heat QH from a source at a relatively
high temperature (hot reservoir TH), perform some work W and
reject some heat QC at a lower temperature (cold reservoir TC).

First Law for a cyclic process: U = 0 = Qnet – W

 Qnet = |QH| - |QC| = W

Thermal efficiency, e represents the fraction of QH that is

converted to useful work.

W Q
e  1 C
QH QH
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Problem (Y & F Example 20.1)

A large truck is travelling at 88 km.h-1. The engine takes in 10 000 J of

heat and delivers 2 000 J of mechanical energy per cycle. The heat is
obtained by burning petrol (heat of combustion Lcomb = 5.0107 J.kg-1).
The engine undergoes 25 cycles per second.
Density of petrol  = 700 kg.m -3

(a) What is the thermal efficiency of the heat engine?

(b) How much heat is discarded each cycle?
(c) How much petrol is burnt per hour (kg.h-1)?
(d) What is the petrol consumption of the truck in L/100 km?
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Solution ISEE

v = 88 km.h -1 QH = 1.0104 J/cycle W = 2103 J/cycle

Lcomb = 5.0107 J.kg-1 f = 25 cycles.s-1

(a)
e=?
e = W / QH = (2103) / (1.0104) = 0.20 = 20% sensible

(b)
QC = ? J |QH| - |QC| = W |QC| = 8.0103 J/cycle
(c) 8
QH = 1104 J/cycle QH /t = (25)(1104) J.s-1 = 2.5105 J.s-1 LC = 5.0107 J.kg-1

QH/t = (m/t) Lcomb m/t = (QH/t )/ Lcomb = (2.5105 ) / (5.0107) = 510-3 kg.s-1

m/t = (510-3)(60)(60) = 18 kg.h-1

(d)
fuel consumption = ? L/100 km
v = 88 km.h-1 v = d/t t = ? h
d = 100 km
t = d / v = 100 / 88 h = 1.1364 h

mass used traveling 100 km m = (m/t)t = (18)(1.1364) = 20.455 kg

 = m V 103 L = 1 m3
volume used in traveling 100 km V = m /  = (20.455 / 700) m3 = 0.0292 m3 = 29.2 L

petrol consumption = 29.2 L/100 km

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Hot Reservoir

QH
W
Engine Surroundings

QC= 0

Can a heat engine be 100% efficient in converting heat into mechanical work ?

Why does this engine violate the Second Law ?

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ENTROPY considerations:

S(engine) = 0 cyclic process

S(surrounding) = 0 no heat transfer to surroundings

S(hot reservoir) < 0 heat removed

S(total) < 0 violates Second Law

All heat engines (heat to work): efficiency, e < 1

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Hot reservoir

QH
W
Engine surroundings

QC

Cold reservoir
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S(hot reservoir) = - |QH|/ TH

S(cold reservoir) = + |QC|/ TC

S(engine) = 0 (cyclic process)

S(surroundings) = 0 (no heat transfer to surroundings)

S(total) = - |QH|/ TH + |QC|/ TC

Useful work can only be done if S(total)  0

 | QH| / TH  | QC | / TC
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An ideal engine e.g. Carnot Cycle

S = 0  | QH / TH | = | QC / TC | Sadi Carnot (1824) Frenchman

e = W / QH W = |QH| - |QC|

e = (|QH| - |QC| / QH)= 1 - |QC| / |QH|

This is the absolute max

e = 1 – TC / TH < 1 efficiency of a heat engine

NOTE: All heat (QH & QC) exchanges occurred isothermally in

calculating the efficiency e = 1 – TC / TH
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CARNOT CYCLE

Heat engine with the maximum possible efficiency consistent with 2 nd

law.

All thermal processes in the cycle must be reversible - all heat transfer
must occur isothermally because conversion of work to heat is
irreversible.

When the temperature of the working substances changes, there must

be zero heat exchange – adiabatic process.

Carnot cycle – consists of two reversible isotherms and two reversible

adiabats
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Carnot Cycle
P

QH adiabatic isothermals

Diagram not to
4
scale, adiabats are

2
W much steeper than
shown
1
QC released to
surroundings
V
NOTE: All heat (QH & QC) exchanges occurred isothermally in calculating
the efficiency e = 1 – TC / TH
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1 and 2: “cold”
QC QH 3 and 4: “hot”
p
3

2
1

12 23 34 41

Isothermal Adiabatic Isothermal Adiabatic
compression compression expansion expansion

All energy exchanges are reversible – there are no non-recoverable energy losses
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Proof: e = 1 - |QC| / |QH| = 1 - TC / TH 1 and 2: “cold”
3 and 4: “hot”

Isothermal change Q = n R T ln(Vf /Vi) p

3

1  2: Isothermal compression 4
heat QC rejected to sink at constant
temperature TC. 2
1
|QC | = n R TC ln(V2 / V1)
V
3  4: Isothermal expansion
heat QH supplied from source at constant temperature
|QH | = n R TH ln(V4 / V3)

e = 1 - |QC| / |QH| = 1 – TC ln(V2 / V1) / TH ln(V4 / V3) (Eq. 1)

Adiabatic change Q = 0 TiVi-1 = TfVf-1

  1
2  3: Adiabatic expansion T2V2  T3V3 1 18

 1
4  1: Adiabatic expansion TV
1 1  T4V4 1

T1  T2 T3  T4 In practice, the Carnot cycle cannot be

used for a heat engine because the
 1  1
 V1  V  slopes of the adiabatic and isothermal
   4 lines are very similar and the net work
 V2   V3  output (area enclosed by pV diagram)
 V1   V4  is too small to overcome friction &
   other losses in a real engine.
 V2   V3 
e = 1 - TC ln(V1 / V2) / TH ln(V4 / V3) (Eq. 1)

TC Efficiency of Carnot engine - max possible efficiency

e  1
TH for a heat engine operating between TC and TH
 T 19
eCarnot Engine
Carnot 1 C TC = 25 oC
TH
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
efficiency

0.5 The strength & hardness of metals

0.4 decreases rapidly above 750 oC
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Temperature TH (oC)

“Re-author” Y&F Example 20.3

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Diathermal wall: A highly thermally conducting wall.

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CAR ENGINE

The four–stroke OTTO cycle

of a conventional petrol
engine
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The four–stroke OTTO cycle of a conventional petrol engine

intake compression ignition power exhaust

stroke stroke stroke stroke

intake stroke: isobaric expansion

compression stroke: adiabatic compression
ignition: isochoric heating of gas
power stroke: adiabatic expansion of gas
exhaust stroke: isochoric cooling of gas / isobaric compression
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Intake1 Power 3

Compression 2 Exhaust 4
Otto Cycle 1
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P e  1
r  1
IGNITION
fuel 3 adiabatic isothermals
combustion

QH
power stroke
2
compression
stroke W cooling of
4
exhaust gases
QC released to
5 1 surroundings
Po
V
intake stroke
V2 V1 = r V2
exhaust stroke
r = compression ratio
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P Otto Cycle

3 adiabatic isothermals

QH
2

QC released to

Po 5 1 surroundings

V
V2 V1

5  1: inlet stroke volume increases as piston moves down creating a

partial vacuum to aid air/fuel entering cylinder via the open inlet valve.
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P Otto Cycle

3 adiabatic isothermals

QH
2

QC released to

Po 5 1 surroundings

V
V2 V1

1  2: compression stroke inlet valve closes piston moves up

compressing the air/fuel mixture adiabatically.
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P Otto Cycle

3 adiabatic isothermals

QH
2

QC released to

Po 5 1 surroundings

V
V2 V1

2  3: ignition – spark plug fires igniting mixture - constant volume

combustion.
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P Otto Cycle

3 adiabatic isothermals

QH
2

QC released to

5 1 surroundings
Po
V
V2 V1

3  4: expansion or power stroke – heated gas expands

adiabatically as the piston is pushed down doing work
(Vmax = r Vmin). Compression ratio, r
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P Otto Cycle

3 adiabatic isothermals

QH
2

QC released to

Po 5 1 surroundings

V
V2 V1

4  1 start of Exhaust stroke – outlet valve opens and mixture expelled

at constant volume then 1  5
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P Otto Cycle

3 adiabatic isothermals

QH
2

QC released to

Po 5 1 surroundings

V
V2 V1

1  5: Exhaust stroke – piston moves up producing a compression at

constant pressure, Po (atmospheric pressure).
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Otto cycle – standard petrol engine (4 stroke) e  1  1
r
Idealized model of the thermodynamic processes in a typical car engine.

For compression ratio, r ~ 8 and  = 1.4 (air)

TH (peak) ~ 1800 °C TC (base) ~ 50 °C

e ~ 56% (ideal engine) e ~ 35% (real engine).

Efficiency increases with larger r  engine operates at higher

temperatures  pre–ignition  knocking sound and engine can be
damaged.

Octane rating – measure of anti-knocking – premium petrol r ~ 12.

In practice, the same air does not enter the engine again, but since an
equivalent amount of air does enter, we may consider the process as
cyclic.
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Comparison of theoretical and actual pV diagrams
p for the four-stroke Otto Cycle engine.

V
Diesel Cycle 33

5 to 1: intake stroke P
isobaric expansion adiabatic isothermals
QH
1 to 2: compression stroke 2 3
abiabatic compression

2 to 3: ignition 4
released to
isobaric heating surroundings
QC
Po 5 1
3 to 4: power stroke V
adiabatic expansion V2 V1
4 to 1: exhaust stroke (start)
isochoric cooling
Rudolf Diesel
1 to 5: exhaust stroke (finish)
isobaric compression
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P Diesel Cycle

fuel QH adiabatic isothermals

ignition
2 3

power stroke
compression
stroke 4

QC released to cooling of
exhaust gases
Po 5 1 surroundings

V
V2 V1
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DIESEL CYCLE
No fuel in the cylinder at beginning of compression stroke. At the end of
the adiabatic compression high temperatures are reached and then fuel
is injected fast enough to keep the pressure constant. The injected fuel
because of the high temperatures ignites spontaneously without the need
for spark plugs.

Diesel engines operate at higher temperatures than petrol engines,

hence more efficient.

For r ~ 18 and  = 1.4 (air) TH (peak) ~ 2000 °C TC (base) ~ 50 °C

e ~ 68% (ideal engine) real efficiency ~ 40 %

Petrol engine ~ 56% (ideal engine) real efficiency ~ 35 %

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Diesel engines

• Heavier (higher compression ratios), lower power to weight ratio.

• Harder to start.

• More efficient than petrol engines (higher compression ratios).

• No pre-ignition of fuel since no fuel in cylinder during most of the compression

• They need no carburettor or ignition system, but the fuel-injection system

requires expensive high-precision machining.

• Use cheaper fuels less refined heavy oils – fuel does need to be
vaporized in carburettor, fuel less volatile hence safer from fire or
explosion.

• Diesel cycle – can control amount of injected fuel per cycle – less fuel used at
low speeds.
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http://people.bath.ac.uk/ccsshb/12cyl/

These engines were designed primarily for very large container ships.
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Problem

For the theoretical Otto cycle, calculate:

(a) max cycle temperature

(b) work per kilogram of fuel

(c) Efficiency

(d) Max efficiency Carnot engine working between same temperatures

Engine characteristics: cp = 1.005 kJ.kg-1.K-1 cV = 0.718 kJ.kg-1.K-1

compression ratio = 8:1

Inlet conditions p = 97.5 kPa and T = 50 oC

Heat supplied = 950 kJ.kg-1

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Solution
Identify / Setup P Otto Cycle
cp = 1.005 kJ.kg-1.K-1
cV = 0.718 kJ.kg-1.K-1 3 adiabatic isothermals

V1/ V2 = 8
p1 = 97.5103 Pa QH
T1 = 50 oC = 323 K 2

QH = 950 kJ.kg-1 4

TH = T3 = ? K QC released to

5 1 surroundings
W = ? kJ.kg-1 Po
V
e = ? eCarnot = ? V2 V1

Adiabatic change Q = 0 T V -1 = constant  = cp / cV = 1.005 / 0.718 = 1.4

Qp = m cp T QV = m cV T W = |QH| - |QC|

e = W / |QH| eCarnot = 1 – TC / TH
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Adiabatic compression Execute
T2 / T1 = (V1/V2) -1

T2 = T1(V1 / V2)-1 = (323)(8)0.4 K = 742 K

Constant volume heating
QH = m cV (T3 – T2)
T3 = (QH/m)/cV +T2 = (950/0.718 + 742) K = 2065 K = 1792 oC
Adiabatic expansion
T4 / T3 = (V3 /V4)-1
T4 = T3(1/8)0.4 = 899 K
Constant volume heat rejection
QC = m cV (T4 – T3)  QC/m = (0.718)(899 - 323) kJ.kg-1 = 414 kJ.kg-1
W = |QH| - |QC| = (950 – 414) kJ.kg-1 = 536 kJ.kg-1
e = W / |QH| = 536 / 950 = 0.56 (real engine < 0.4)

eCarnot = 1 – TC / TH = 1 – 323 / 2067 = 0.84

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Calculate the
Diesel Cycle
above quantities P
adiabatic isothermals
for the diesel QH
cycle with a
2 3
compression
ratio = 20
4
released to
surroundings
QC
Po 5 1
V
V2 V1
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Adiabatic compression V1 / V2 = 20
T2 / T1 = (V1/V2)-1 T2 = T1(V1 / V2)-1 = (323)(20)0.4 K = 1071 K

Isobaric heating
QH = m cp (T3-T2) QH/m = cp (T3 –T2)
T3 = T2 + (1/cp)(QH/m) = 1071 +(1/1.005)(950) K = 2016 K
Isobaric heating / Adiabatic expansion
V2 / T2 = V3 / T3 V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 V4 / V2 = 20 V2 = V4 / 20
V3 / V4 = (1/20)(T3/T2) = (1/20)(2016/1071) = 0.0941

T3V3-1 = T4V4-1 T4 = T3 (V3/V4)-1 = (2016)(0.0941)0.4 = 783 K

Isochoric cooling
QC = m cv (T4 – T1) QC/m = cv (T4 – T1) = (0.718)(783 – 323) K = 330.3 kJ.kg-1
W = QH – QC = (950 – 330) kJ = 620 kJ.kg-1
e = W / QH = 620 / 950 = 0.65 e = 1- QC/QH = 1 – 330/950 = 0.65
The work output and efficiency are considerably higher than for Otto Cycle
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Example Consider two engines, the details of which are given in the following
diagrams. For both engines, calculate the heat flow to the cold reservoir and the
changes in entropy of the hot reservoir, cold reservoir and engine. Which engine
violates the Second Law? What is the efficiency of the working engine?
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Solution
First Law: U = Qnet – W

Engine: cyclic process U = 0

 Qnet = W  |QH| - |QC|  |QC | = |QH| - W

Engine 1: |QC| = 1000 - 200 = 800 J

Engine 2: |QC| = 1000 - 300 = 700 J

S(total) = - |QH|/ TH + |QC|/ TC
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Engine 1: S = (- 2.5 + 2.7) J.K-1 = + 0.2 J.K-1 > 0

 Second Law validated

Engine 2: S = (- 2.5 + 2.3) J.K-1 = - 0.2 J.K-1 < 0

 Second Law not validated

Engine 1 is the working engine

efficiency, e = (work out / energy input)  100

= (200 / 1000)(100) = 20 %
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Semester 1, 2007 Examination question (5 marks)

A hybrid petrol-engine car has a higher efficiency than a petrol-only car

because it recovers some of the energy that would normally be lost as
heat to the surrounding environment during breaking.

(a)
If the efficiency of a typical petrol-only car engine is 20%, what efficiency
could be achieved if the amount of heat loss during breaking is halved?

(b)
Is it possible to recover all the energy lost as heat during braking and
convert it into mechanical energy? Explain your answer.
Solution 48
Identify / Setup W Q  QC Q
efficiency e   H  1 C
QH QH QH
Second Law of Thermodynamics
100% of heat can not be transformed into mechanical energy
e<1
QC QC
Execute e  1  0.2   0.80
(a) QH QH
QC
Reduce heat loss by half  0.40  e  0.6
QH
(b) Would require |QC| = 0, this would be a violation of the Second Law
QC QC
e  1 1  0  QC  0
QH QH
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What is a heat pump ?

Better buy this quick:

500 % efficiency
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evaporator |QH| = |Qc| + |W|

gas absorbs
heat from
interior of frig.

cold

compressor
heats gas by compression

hot expansion value

rapid expansion:
condenser liquid to gas,
gas to liquid (high sudden large drop
pressure) in temp (~35 oC)
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The compressor compresses the gas (e.g. ammonia). The compressed

gas heats up as it is pressurized (orange). The gas represents the
working substance eg ammonia and the compressor driven by an electric
motor does work W.

The condenser coils at the back of the refrigerator let the hot ammonia
gas dissipate its heat QH. The ammonia gas condenses into ammonia
liquid (dark blue) at high pressure gas (gas  liquid).

The high-pressure ammonia liquid flows through the expansion valve

The liquid ammonia immediately boils and vaporizes (light blue), its
temperature dropping to about –35 °C by the expansion. This makes the
inside of the refrigerator cold by absorption of heat QC .

The cold ammonia gas enters the compressor and the cycle repeats.
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Refrigeration Cycle

Heat engine operating in reverse – it takes heat from a cold place and gives it
off at a warmer place, this requires a net input of work.

|QH| = |QC| + |W|

Best refrigerator – one that removes the greatest amount of heat |QC| from
inside the refrigerator for the least expenditure of work |W|  coefficient of
performance, K (higher K value, better the refrigerator)

QC QC
K 
W QH  QC

K = what we want / what we pay for

K = extraction of max heat from cold reservoir / least amount of work
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p QH

QC
V
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Refrigerator

Walls of room
QH

QC
W<0 TC refrigerator

Inside refrigerator
Q|Q
C= Q|QHc-| +W|W|
H| =
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|QH| = |Qc| + |W|

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|QH| = |Qc| + |W|

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PHYS1001 2009 Exam Question 10
In the figure above, cylinder A is separated from cylinder B by an adiabatic
piston which is freely movable. In cylinder A there is 0.010 mole of an ideal
monatomic gas with an initial temperature 300 K and a volume of 1.0x10 -4 m 3.
In cylinder B, there is 0.010 mole of the same ideal monatomic gas with the
same initial temperature and the same volume as the gas in cylinder A.
Suppose that heat is allowed to flow slowly to the gas in cylinder A, and that
the gas in cylinder B undergoes the thermodynamic process of adiabatic
compression. Heat flows into cylinder A until finally the gas in cylinder B is
compressed to a volume of 0.5x10-5 m 3. Assume that CV = 12.47 J.mol-1.K-1
and the ratio of heat capacities is  = 1.67. (a) Calculate the final temperature
and pressure of the ideal monatomic gas in cylinder B after the adiabatic
compression. (b) How much work does the gas in cylinder B do during the
compression? Explain the meaning of the sign of the work. (c) What is the
final temperature of the gas in the cylinder A? (Hint: the pressure exerted by
the gas in cylinder A on the piston is equal to that exerted by the gas in
cylinder B on the piston.) (d) How much heat flows to the gas in the cylinder A
during the process?
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