Yuji Kojima

Natsci13

Aquatic Biology

Aquatic Biology
Aquatic biologists investigate the biology and ecology of organisms living in
freshwater systems such as streams and lakes to estuarine, coastal and
open ocean ecosystems. UCSB is ideally located for the study of fresh and
saltwater environments and its inhabitants. The campus' outdoor "laborato-
ries" include the Pacific Ocean and four of the University of California's pro-
tected natural land and water reserves. EEMB faculty carry out cutting edge
research in the ecology and biogeochemistry of streams, wetlands, lakes,
coral reefs and oceanic systems. These research programs also reach be-
yond the local environment and span the globes aquatic ecosystems extend-
ing from the Alaskan Tundra to the Amazon Basin to field studies conducted
in coral reef systems, to the coastal seas off of Antarctica and to the open
ocean gyres in all the World’s oceans. The aquatic biology subdisciplines in-
clude: Biological Oceanography, Limnology and Marine Biology.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems refer to entities with plants and animals relying on a
watery environment. An aquatic ecosystem is broadly classified into marine and
freshwater ecosystems. An in-depth explanation on the types of aquatic ecosys-
tems is provided in this article.
Aquatic Ecosystem Meaning
An ecosystem is an entity formed by the interaction between living organ-
isms and the physical environment. It is classified into two main
categories: Terrestrial ecosystems and Aquatic ecosystems. Terrestrial eco-
systems contain organisms that depend on physical environment on land
masses of continents. Aquatic ecosystems are systems composed of living
organisms and non-living elements interacting in a watery environment. In
simple terms, an aquatic ecosystem is a community of plants and animals
that primarily depend on water. There are two major types of aquatic ecosys-
tems:
• Marine Ecosystems
• Freshwater Ecosystems

Marine Ecosystems
While terrestrial ecosystems cover only about 28 percent, marine ecosys-
tems cover approximately 71 percent of the earth’s surface. Different habitats
ranging from coral reefs to estuaries make up this largest aquatic ecosystem
in the planet. Prime examples of marine ecosystems include:
• Ocean: Main body of salty water that is further divided into important oceans
and smaller seas. Major oceans include the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean,
Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean and Southern Ocean.
• Intertidal zone: Area which remains underwater at high tide and remains
terrestrial at low tide. Different types of habitats including wetlands, rocky
cliffs and sandy beaches fall under intertidal zones.
• Estuaries: Areas between river and ocean environments that are prone to
tides and inflow of both freshwater and saline water. Due to this inflow, estu-
aries have high levels of nutrients. There are different names of estuaries
such as inlets, lagoons, harbors etc.
• Coral Reefs : Often referred as the “rainforests of the sea", coral reefs are
mounds found in marine waters as a result of accumulation of calcium car-
bonate deposited by marine organisms like corals and shellfish. Coral reefs
form the most varied marine ecosystems in the planet, but cover less then
one percent of the world’s ocean. Nevertheless, around 25 percent of marine
animals including different types of fishes, sponges and mollusks are found
in coral reefs.
Common species found in marine ecosystems include:
• Marine mammals such as seals, whales and manatees
• Different species of fish including mackerel, flounder, dogfish, sea bass, etc.
• Organisms such as the tiny planktonic, brown algae corals, echinoderms,
etc.
Marine ecosystems are important for the well-being of both terrestrial and
aquatic environments. However, they are vulnerable to environmental prob-
lems such as climate change, pollution and overfishing, which can be a seri-
ous harm to marine biodiversity.
 Freshwater Ecosystems
Although freshwater ecosystems are one of the main types of aquatic eco-
systems, only 0.8 percent of the earth’s surface is covered by them. The wa-
ter in freshwater ecosystems is non-saline (which means water has no salt
content). Approximately 41 percent of the earth’s fishes are found in freshwa-
ter ecosystems.
Examples of freshwater ecosystems are:
• Streams and rivers (Lotic): Lotic ecosystems refer to systems with rapid
flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way. Best examples are rivers
and streams, which harbor several species of insects and fishes. Crusta-
ceans like crayfish and crabs; and mollusks such as clams and limpets are
commonly found in streams and rivers. Various mammals such as beavers,
otters and river dolphins also inhabit lotic ecosystems.
• Lakes, ponds and pools (Lentic): Lentic ecosystems are still waters such
as lakes and ponds that have a community of biotic (living organisms) and
abiotic (physical objects) interactions. Ponds and lakes have a diverse vari-
ety of organisms including algae, rooted and floating-leaved plants, inverte-
brates such as crabs, shrimps, crayfish, clams etc, amphibians such as frogs
and salamanders; and reptiles like alligators and water snakes.
• Wetlands: The best examples of wetlands include swamps and marshes,
where the water is completely or partially shallow. Biologically, wetlands are
known to be too diverse as it harbors numerous animals and plant species.
Plants such as black spruce, water lilies, mangrove, tamarack and sedges
are commonly found in wetlands. Various species of reptiles and amphibians
are also found in wetlands.
Freshwater ecosystems, which are one of the major types of aquatic ecosys-
tems, are in danger because of the rapid extinction rates of several inverte-
brates and vertebrates, mainly because of overfishing and other activities
that harm the ecosystem.

Climate change - a threat to aquatic ecosystems

Since the last ice age, around 11,000 years ago, the Earth’s climate has remained relatively stable,
with global temperatures averaging at about 14°C. However, in the last century climate has started
to change rapidly as the Earth's temperature has increased by approximately 0.7°C. Most climate
projections reveal that this trend is likely to continue, resulting in an increase in global tempera-
tures of between about 1 and 6°C by the end of this century (IPCC, 2007).
There are many factors that can cause a warming of our climate; for example, more energy from
the sun, large natural events such as El Nino or an increased greenhouse effect. Scientists have
ruled out the sun and natural variations in our climate as the major causes of the recent warming.
There is overwhelming evidence that most of this warming we’ve seen is due to increased
amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases, such as water vapour, car-
bon dioxide and methane, occur naturally in the atmosphere. But human activities have directly in-
creased the amount of carbon dioxide, methane and some other greenhouse gases. These in-
creases can be through the burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal, and changes in land use
such as chopping down forests for cattle grazing.

On top of this we have seen changes in extremes of weather events, such as heatwaves and
heavy rainfall. The current changes are very unusual and can not be explained simply as part of
any natural cycle, such as El Nino and La Nina, which cause the warming and cooling of the tropi-
cal Pacific Ocean, which affects world temperature. Natural cycles can lead to periods with little or
no warming and other periods with rapid warming. However, what is important is to look at the
longer term trends in temperature, which are rising, and which scientists believe is almost certainly
caused by human activity.

Evidence for climate change in Europe

Effect on temperature
The last decade (2002–2011) was the warmest on record in Europe, with European land tempera-
ture 1.3°C warmer than the pre-industrial average. Various model projections show that Europe
could be 2.5–4°C warmer in the later part of the 21st Century, compared to the 1961–1990 aver-
age. The Arctic is warming faster than other regions. Record low sea ice was observed in the Arc-
tic in 2007, 2011 and 2012, falling to roughly half the minimum extent seen in the 1980s. Melting of
the Greenland ice sheet has doubled since the 1990s, losing an average of 250 billion tonnes of
mass every year between 2005 and 2009. Glaciers in the Alps have lost approximately two thirds
of their volume since 1850 and these trends are projected to continue.

Effect on rainfall
While precipitation is decreasing in southern regions, it is increasing in northern Europe. These
trends are projected to increase river flooding, particularly in northern Europe, as higher tempera-
tures intensify the water cycle. At the same time, river flow droughts appear to have become more
severe and frequent in southern Europe. Minimum river flows are projected to decrease signifi-
cantly in summer in southern Europe but also in many other parts of Europe to varying degrees.

Effect on biota
Many studies have measured widespread changes in plant and animal characteristics. For exam-
ple, plants are flowering earlier in the year, while in freshwater phytoplankton and zooplankton
blooms are also appearing earlier. Other animals and plants are moving northward or uphill as
their habitats warm. Since the migration rate of many species is insufficient to keep pace with the
speed of climate change, they could be pushed towards extinction in the future.

Overall
Studies worldwide have provided a clear, globally coherent conclusion: Twentieth-century anthro-
pogenic global warming has already affected Earth’s biota. The impact of climate change on biodi-
versity patterns has been investigated and predicted in a large number of recent case studies ad-
dressing mammals, birds, amphibians, terrestrial insects, spiders, terrestrial plants, combinations
of different taxonomic groups and aquatic biota including insects and fish These changes will not,
however, be identical around the world as Temperate and Polar Regions will experience more pro-
nounced changes in temperature than tropical regions (IPCC, 2007). Organisms, populations and
ecological communities do not, however, respond to approximated global averages. Rather, re-
gional changes, which are highly spatially heterogeneous, are more relevant in the context of eco-
logical response to climatic change.

Climate change and the effects on freshwater ecosystems

Evidence shows that many of the effects of changing climate are already occurring. These include:
an increase in the surface water temperature of lakes and streams across Europe, especially those
at high altitudes and latitudes; an increase in hypolimnetic temperature of large deep lakes; a re-
ductionin lake ice-cover; and the melting of mountain glaciers and permafrost causing changes to
discharge regimes in mountain streams and release of solutes and pollutants to surface waters. In
the future it is likely that these trends will continue and it is probable that there will be changes in
the flow regime of streams and rivers associated with projected changes in the amount, seasonal-
ity, intensity and distribution of precipitation, causing an increase in the transport of sediments and
nutrients downstream to lakes and the coastal zone; there will be changes in precipitation, evapo-
ration and flooding dynamics that will cause changes in water levels, habitat structure and water
residence times in wetlands; small intermittent streams and small lakes in warm dry areas may dis-
appear, while flow in permanent streams may become intermittent and lakes may become more
saline; and systems already ata threshold between two different conditions may change abruptly,
e.g. may switch from permanent to intermittent streams, from freshwater to permanently saline
lakes, from non-stratifying to stratifying lakes, or from dimictic to monomictic regimes.

Ecological consequences of climate change for freshwater ecosystems in Europe

The ecological response of freshwater ecosystems to climate change needs to allow for interac-
tions between climate change and the many stressors already affecting rivers, lakes and wetlands.
These include water resource management, eutrophication, acidification, toxic substances, hydro-
morphological change, catchment land-use change and invasion of exotic species. The observed
and expected impacts, however, differ strongly between ecosystem types (lakes, rivers, wetlands)
and climate regions. In Euro-limpacs three major climate settings were distinguished: cold; temper-
ate and warm-humid; and warm-arid. In cold regions expected changes include: (i) primary produc-
tivity increase in response to an increase in the length of the growing season (because of shorter
ice-cover) and an increase in nutrient release from catchment soils; (ii) population decline or loss
of cold stenothermic species, such as arctic charr, in response to increasing water temperature;
(iii) changes to food-web structure (Jeppesen et al. 2009), which in lakes leads to higher phyto-
plankton biomass and a decrease in hypolimnetic oxygen concentrations as well as an increase in
nutrient release from sediments; (iv) adverse impacts on submerged aquatic plants caused by
changes in underwater light regime resulting from an increase in water turbidity caused by more
intense precipitation and suspended sediment loads in summer; and (v) increased invertebrate drift
in rivers as a result of scour from increased meltwater discharge. In temperate and warm-humid
regions freshwaters are especially vulnerable to problems of eutrophication. Climate change is ex-
pected to confound attempts to restore lakes, rivers and wetlands especially through its influence
on water temperature, hydrology and nutrient balance. For lakes higher temperatures are likely to
lead to higher primary productivity with more intense algal blooms, stronger and longer periods of
summer stratification with greater oxygen depletion in the hypolimnion and increased release of
phosphorus from sediments. These environmental changes will further result in significant modifi-
cations in the distributions of species across ecoregions, higher susceptibility to alien species inva-
sion; and overall biodiversity reduction that may eventually lead to impaired ecosystem services.
The responses of the biota to these changes are less predictable than the response of chemical or
hydrological variables and are expected to act differently in different ecoregions.
Increased water temperature will also lead to a change in food-web structure with higher winter
survival of fish due to reduced ice-cover, and a general switch from dominance of zooplankton and
aquatic macrophytes to fish and phytoplankton. Changing precipitation patterns towards higher
winter amounts and more intense storms in summer are expected to increase nutrient loading from
increased erosion of agricultural soils and more frequent overflows of sewage treatment systems.
For rivers increased temperature will cause stress for fish and invertebrates with high oxygen re-
quirements leading to changes in community composition and an upstream shift in both the abiotic
and biotic characteristics of river systems along the river continuum. It will also restrict habitats for
many organisms, and some taxa, especially salmonid fishes and cold stenothermic macroinverte-
brates, are expected to be lost from many central and southern European river systems. Changes
in flow regime as a result of changes in the pattern and intensity of precipitation are expected to
have pronounced effects on river habitats and communities. Especially at risk are systems that ex-
perience flow reductions significant enough to lead to reduced concentrations of dissolved oxygen
and an increased vulnerability to eutrophication. For wetlands where climate change leads to drier
conditions desiccation of wetland surfaces may lead to the loss of aquatic biota and the invasion of
non-wetland species, including woodland species. On the other hand, an increase in extreme pre-
cipitation events and increased winter flooding may result in increasingly wet conditions in temper-
ate wetlands, with potentially positive consequences for the functioning of floodplain wetlands, es-
pecially with respect to nutrient dynamics and habitat structure.
In warm-arid ecoregions in Europe changes in moisture balance are expected to have severe con-
sequences for freshwaters. Reduced precipitation coupled with increased temperature will lead to
the loss of habitat and to changes in community composition resulting from a decrease in lake-lev-
els, a reduction in river flow and increased eutrophication. In the dry season rivers and lakes that
are currently permanent may experience intermittent desiccation and those that are currently inter-
mittent in character may become ephemeral or disappear completely. Changes in community com-
position and food-web structure caused by increased salinity are also expected. Endemic taxa will
be threatened both by habitat loss and as a result of reduced connectivity between habitats, espe-
cially if water-flow connections are lost. Higher evaporation rates coupled with reduced precipita-
tion, will lead to the continued lowering of water tables and many of the remaining wetlands in the
region will be threatened, exacerbating losses already experienced from drainage works during the
19th and 20th centuries. These observed and predicted changes in freshwater ecosystems as a
result of climate change challenge, the major European Directives on water quality and on species
and habitats currently in force. Adaptive measures are required that are both ecologically and eco-
nomically effective and capable of practical implementation at the local scale.

What is an aquatic ecosystem?

An aquatic ecosystem is a group of interacting organisms dependent on one another and their water environment
for nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) and shelter. Familiar examples are lakes and rivers, but aquatic eco-
systems also include areas such as floodplains and wetlands, which are flooded with water for all or only parts of
the year. Seemingly inhospitable aquatic ecosystems can sustain life. Thermal springs, for instance, support algae
and some insect species at water temperatures near the boiling point; tiny worms live year-round on the Yukon ice
fields; and some highly polluted waters can support large populations of bacteria.
Even a drop of water is an aquatic ecosystem, since it contains or can support living organisms. In fact, ecologists
often study drops of water – taken from lakes and rivers – in the lab to understand how these larger aquatic eco-
systems work.
What is the range of organisms found in aquatic ecosystems?
Aquatic ecosystems usually contain a wide variety of life forms including bacteria, fungi, and protozoans; bottom-
dwelling organisms such as insect larvae, snails, and worms; free-floating microscopic plants and animals known
as plankton; large plants such as cattails, bulrushes, grasses, and reeds; and also fish, amphibians, reptiles, and
birds. Viruses are also a significant part of the microbial ecology in natural waters and have recently been shown
to play an important role in the nutrient and energy cycles.
The assemblages of these organisms vary from one ecosystem to another because the habitat conditions unique
to each type of ecosystem tend to affect species distributions. For example, many rivers are relatively oxygen-rich
and fast-flowing compared to lakes. The species adapted to these particular river conditions are rare or absent in
the still waters of lakes and ponds.
How does an ecosystem work?
Energy from the sun is the driving force of an ecosystem. This light energy is captured by primary producers
(mainly green plants and algae) and converted by a process called photosynthesis into chemical energy such as
carbohydrates.
The chemical energy is then used by the plants to perform a variety of functions including the production of plant
parts such as leaves, stems, and flowers. The raw materials used for this purpose are nutrients (e.g., nitrogen,
phosphorus, oxygen, and calcium): substances necessary for the growth of all plants and animals.
Animals are incapable of photosynthesis. They therefore eat either plants, other animals, or dead tissue to obtain
their energy and required nutrients. In ecosystems, the transfer of energy and nutrients from plants to animals oc-
curs along pathways called food chains. The first link in a food chain consists of primary producers: green plants
and other organisms capable of photosynthesis.
Plant-eating organisms, known as primary consumers, are the next link in the food chain. They, in turn, are eaten
by secondary consumers: carnivores (flesh eaters) or omnivores (plant and animal eaters). Decomposers such as
bacteria and fungi make up the final link in the food chain. They break down dead tissues and cells, providing nu-
trients for a new generation of producers.
Most organisms in an ecosystem have more than one food source (e.g., fish feed on both insects and plants) and
therefore belong to more than one food chain. The consequent overlapping food chains make up food webs: com-
plex phenomena with links that are constantly changing.
What is the significance of a toxic substance to the food web?
A toxic substance is one that can cause harm to the environment or human life. Most are synthetic and include
PCBs, pesticides, dioxins, and furans.
Some toxic substances can enter a food web and be transferred through it. The uptake of any environmental sub-
stance by an organism is called bioconcentration. Although nutrients taken up through this process are usually
converted into proteins or excreted as waste, many toxic compounds accumulate in the fat or certain organs (e.g.,
liver) of animals.
As contaminated organisms are eaten by others, the toxic substances are transferred up the levels in the food web
and become more concentrated, sometimes to harmful levels. This process is called biomagnification. The species
at the top level of the food web, including humans, are often subjected to higher concentrations of toxic sub-
stances than those at the bottom. Toxic substances reaching harmful levels is one sign that the aquatic ecosystem

is unhealthy.
What do we mean by an "unhealthy aquatic ecosystem"?
Healthy aquatic ecosystems are those where human disturbances have not impaired the natural functioning (e.g.,
nutrient cycling) nor appreciably altered the structure (e.g., species composition) of the system. An unhealthy
aquatic ecosystem is one where the natural state is out of balance.
These disturbances can be physical (e.g., injection of abnormally hot water into a stream), chemical (e.g., introduc-
tion of toxic wastes at concentrations harmful to the organisms), or biological (e.g., introduction and propagation of
non-native animal or plant species). Symptoms of poor ecosystem health include the following:
 The loss of species.
 The accelerated proliferation of organisms. One example is algae blooms caused by an excess of phos-
phorous and nitrogen compounds in the water. This condition is called "eutrophication".
 Increased incidences of tumours or deformities in animals.
 A change in chemical properties. Perhaps one of the most significant has been a reduction of pH in water
caused by acid rain.
  The presence of certain organisms that indicate unsanitary conditions. Coliform bacteria, for example, are
a sign that the system may contain organisms that cause a variety of human diseases such as diarrhea,
typhoid, and cholera.
 The loss of traditional Aboriginal culture associated with the ecosystem.
Many symptoms of poor ecosystem health occur simultaneously. For instance, increased lake acidity may kill cer-
tain species, thereby allowing the temporary proliferation of species more tolerant of acidity.
Why is aquatic ecosystem health important to humans?
Because everything is connected, where an ecosystem is out of balance eventually humans will begin to suffer as
well. Our health and many of our activities are dependent on the health of aquatic ecosystems. Most of the water
that we drink is taken from lakes or rivers. If the lake or river system is unhealthy, the water may be unsafe to drink
or unsuitable for industry, agriculture, or recreation – even after treatment. Uses of aquatic ecosystems are im-
paired when these systems are unhealthy. Following are some examples.
 Inland and coastal commercial fisheries have been shut down due to fish or shellfish contamination or the
loss of an important species from the system.
 The frequency of urban beach closures has escalated as a result of contamination by animal feces and
medical waste.
 Navigation problems for pleasure craft, caused by the rapid expansion of bottom-rooted aquatic plants,
have increased.
 The proliferation of non-native species has created problems. One recent example is the rapidly expand-
ing zebra mussel population, introduced from the ballast waters of a European freighter into the Great
Lakes. Zebra mussels have few natural predators, and because the female can produce 30 000 eggs
yearly, they are expected to spread throughout most of the freshwater systems of North America. This
mussel species is already clogging industrial and municipal water treatment intake pipes, coating boats
and piers, and causing beach closures.