Republic of the Philippines

Surigao del Sur State University

Tagbina Campus
Tagbina, Surigao del Sur 8308
Email address: [email protected]
Website: www.sdssu.edu.ph

Module 4
Managing and Caring for the Self

Understanding the Self

(GE – US)
Part III Managing and Caring for the Self

This part includes topics about learning to be a better student and discusses the parts
and functions of the brain and its influence on learning. One objective of this module is to
ascertain what is required for students to have a deeper understanding of the learning process
and the factors that contribute to learning such as the process of neuroplasticity, metacognition,
and self-regulation. Psychologist John Flavell suggests that students should develop
awareness of one's thinking and the strategies they use to learn. This kind of thinking is called
metacognition. Zimmerman defines self-regulated learning as the process in which students
systematically direct their thoughts, feelings, and actions toward the attainment of their
academic goals.
The second lesson explains the importance of goals and the theories that underlie goal
setting. The theory of psychologist Abraham Maslow emphasizes how needs motivate
behavior. For example, a student may satisfy the need for self-actualization by striving to get
high grades and become a better student, Suggestions, strategies, and activities designed to
help students set their life goals and plan their own strategies to achieve them are also
included.
The third lesson presents an extensive discussion about stress and the need for self-
care and compassion. Every day, as human beings, we are faced with stress which is a normal
part of life. Some people cope remarkably well with stress while some cope in self-destructive
ways. This lesson includes suggestions on how to manage stress successfully and develop a
self-care plan.

Lesson 1 Learning to be a Better Student

According to neuroscientists, learning new knowledge and skills everyday keeps the
structures of the brain changing and increases its ability to learn. This lesson discusses theories
and concepts that explain the nature and dimensions of learning. Metacognition and self-
regulated learning are also discussed along with suggestions and strategies on how to improve
learning and become a better student.

. Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain learning and how it works in humans;
2. identify the parts of the brain involved in learning;
3. describe the importance of neuroplasticity and its implications on learning;
4. discuss the influence of metacognition and self-regulation in learning; and
5. choose and apply strategies to improve learning.

It’s time to read and learn!

Learning
Behaviorists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of
practice or experiences. Cognitive psychologists define learning as a process that leads to
change because of experience. In other words, learning is the acquisition of knowledge, skills,
and attitudes through experience. It is a transformational process that leads to personal growth
and development. Learning helps an individual to adapt to the constantly changing
environment. It starts at birth and continues throughout life. It is a constant process that can
result from direct and indirect experiences. Individuals learn from one another through

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observation and imitation. Learning is important to the survival of human beings because it
enables them to discover new knowledge, technology, and interventions

What Happens in the Brain During Learning

Humans have the capacity to learn new skills and adapt to new environments.
Development and learning are powerful agents of change throughout one's life that induce
structural and functional plasticity in the neural systems of the brain (Galvan, 2010)
The process of neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change throughout one's life.
It involves the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the
reorganization of information processing areas. The ability of the brain to change happens in
two ways; it could be through an increase in the number of synapses between neurons or a
change in the function and structure of the neurons
Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit impulses or
messages. Every neuron is made up of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and an axon. Neurons
vary according to their functions and locations. The impulses that travel along neurons are
electrochemical in nature. A neuron transmits impulses or messages to another neuron through
a junction called synapse. Neurons are not totally connected and are separated by a small gap
(synapse). Neurotransmitters are the electrochemicals that connect and allow the transmission
of impulses from one neuron to another. Several neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine,
glutamate, dopamine, and norepinephrine are associated with memory and learning.

Figure 1 Parts of a Neuron

The process of neuroplasticity, or changes in the structure and functions of the neurons
in the brain, usually happens in the cerebral cortex which is the wrinkled layer of the brain. The
cerebral cortex is packed with neurons and is responsible for the most sophisticated information
processing in the brain. The cortex is divided into four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and
occipital. Each lobe is responsible for processing the different types of sensory information.
The cerebral cortex plays a key role in human learning, thought, memory, and language
(Rathus, 2017). Although the brain continues to grow and develop throughout one's life, the
overall number of neurons and synapses declines with age. Thus, Dr. Michael Merzenich, a
leader in the field of neuroplasticity research, suggests that learning new knowledge and skills
everyday keeps the structures of the brain in constant change which increases its ability to
learn.

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning
Metacognition is the awareness of one's thinking and the strategies one uses to learn.
Metacognition is simply defined as cognition about cognition or thinking about thinking.
Psychologist John Flavell (Lai, 2011) identifies two components of metacognition:
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation. Metacognitive knowledge includes
knowledge of one's own cognitive abilities, knowledge of cognitive tasks, and knowledge of the
strategies to complete the cognitive tasks. Metacognitive regulation refers to how an
individual monitors and controls his or her cognitive processes.

Figure 2 Metacognition

Zimmerman (2002) defines self-regulated learning (SRL) as the process in which

students systematically direct their thoughts, feelings, and actions toward the attainment of
their academic goals. It is a process of taking control of and evaluating one’s own learning and
behavior. It is a self-directed process through which students transform their mental abilities
into academic skills. It is also a cyclical process in which the student plans for a task, monitors
his or her performance, and reflects on the outcome. The cycle is then repeated as the student
uses his or her reflections to adjust and prepare for the next task. Thus, students practice their
self-regulation learning by setting goals, selecting, and using strategies, monitoring their
performance, and reflecting on their learning outcomes (Zimmerman, 2008). Consequently, the
three essential components of self-regulated learning are planning, problem solving, and self-
evaluation. Planning increases efficiency, control, and motivation. Problem solving allows
students to learn to think and look for solutions when faced with adversities. Self-evaluation
increases self-awareness that leads to the better understanding of one's own emotions
strengths, and weaknesses.
Table 1 Components of Self-Regulated Learning

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General Benefits of Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Learning

✓ Increase students’ knowledge and understanding of different subject matters

✓ Help students understand the kinds of information they need to successfully solve a
problem in school
✓ Help students choose the most appropriate and useful learning strategies to improve
their learning capabilities
✓ Help students organize daily tasks in school
✓ Help students identify strengths and weaknesses in their academic performance
✓ Allow students to learn ideas from others such as their teachers and fellow students
✓ Allow students to give and receive feedback in their own thinking and performance
✓ Develop students’ autonomy and control
✓ Improve students' academic performance and help them become successful
✓ Develop students' high sense of self-efficacy and self-esteem

How to Develop Metacognitive and Self-Regulated Learning Behaviors

✓ Set your short-term and long-term academic goals in your studies. Identify the negative
outcomes if you do not achieve your goals as well as the positive outcomes when you
achieve them
✓ Make a self-help plan to achieve your academic goals. Think and select strategies to
achieve your goals such as staying focused, avoiding distractions, and developing skills
to manage your time efficiently
✓ Monitor your academic performance and progress. Use a chart to monitor your work
outcomes. When faced with difficult tasks, seek social support when you need it. Look
for inspiration to keep you motivated in achieving your academic goals. When
confronted with difficulties, always think, and keep working toward your goals and the
future.
✓ Reflect on what you have learned and accomplished. Reflection helps you develop your
strengths and overcome your weaknesses.

Let us check what you learned

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ________________

Year & Section: ______________________________ Score: _______________

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Explain metacognition and self-regulated learning in your own words. You may give a
personal experience as an example to clarify what you mean.

2. What do you think will happen to our capacity to learn if one part of our brain is
damaged?

3. Based on your reading, list the ways you could maximize your metacognition especially
during modular learning.

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Lesson 2 Setting Goals for Success
Success does not happen overnight. It is not enough to have goals or ambitions.
Success is the outcome of hard work and determination that must be shaped over a long
process.
Abraham Maslow and others have pioneered studies on needs, goals, and motivation.
This lesson lays down the theories that have been useful in helping people understand their
goals and motivations as well as the needs and challenges that they face in their life journey
to success.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. determine your short-term and long-term goals;
b. recognize the importance of goal setting; and
c. apply the ways on how to achieve your goals.

It’s time to read and learn!

Goals
Motivation directs a person's behavior toward a particular goal. A goal is the object
toward which the behavior is directed, usually within a specified period of time. Within the
context of industrial/organizational psychology, goal is defined simply as what the individual is
consciously trying to do. For Edwin Locke and Gary Latham (2006), goals direct attention,
effort, and actions. Goals motivate people to develop strategies that will enable them to perform
better. Accomplishing the goal can lead to satisfaction and higher motivation, or frustration and
lower motivation if the goal is not accomplished. Goals can be classified into two categories:
short-term goals and long-term goals. Generally, short-term goals are those that can be
achieved in a day, week, or year while long-term goals are usually achieved over a year or
more.
Factors which may Influence Goals
Values give direction to behavior. Values are those which the person considers
personally important and worthy. They could be the basis for what is desirable, correct, and
good. Individuals act in ways that allow them to express their important values and attain the
goals underlying them (Sagiv, Roccas, Cieciuch, & Schwartz, 2017).
Needs also activate and direct behavior. Motivation is usually aroused by a need for or
lack of something that may propel a person to act. According to drive reduction theory,
humans are motivated to satisfy needs in order to maintain homeostasis or internal equilibrium
(Atkinson Atkinson, Smith, Bem, & Nolen Hooksema, 2000). Unmet needs will cause a state
of bodily tension and consequently, homeostasis is disturbed. There are two classifications of
needs: physiological and psychological needs. Physiological needs are innate needs of the
body such as food, water, air, sleep, and sex. Psychological needs arise from relationship
with other people such as affiliation, achievement, altruism, esteem, and status.
The theory of psychologist Abraham Maslow suggests how needs motivate behavior.
Maslow developed the theory of hierarchy of needs, presented in the shape of a pyramid,
with the biological or physiological needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization at
the top. Once the biological needs are satisfied, safety or security needs become important,
such as the need to be safe from danger, illness, and threat. Once these needs are met,
individuals may be able to achieve love and fulfill the need for belonging. Eventually, individuals
can achieve self-esteem and realize self-actualization. Self-esteem includes being accepted,

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respected, and valued by others. Self-actualization refers to self-fulfillment or achievement of
one's potentialities. A student may satisfy the need for self-actualization by striving to get a
high grade and becoming a better student.

Figure 3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The Motivational Impact of Self Efficacy and Mindset

The motivational impact of goals may be affected by moderators such as self-efficacy
and mindset. Psychologist Albert Bandura defines self-efficacy as the person's belief that
he/she can successfully perform behaviors that will produce desired effects (Engler, 2012).
Self-efficacy entails judgment of personal capacity. It plays a central role in people's thoughts,
motivations, and actions. Bandura suggests that efficacy beliefs influence students’ academic
performance.
According to Psychologist Carol Dweck (2008), there are two categories of mindset –
fix mindset and growth mindset. People with fixed mindset believe that their basic qualities,
like their intelligence or talents, are simply fixed traits. Students of fixed mindset worry about
making mistakes. Those with growth mindset, in turn, believe that their most basic abilities
can be developed through dedication and hard work. Students with a growth mindset
understand that mistakes and effort are critical to learning. They welcome challenges and seek
critical feedback to help them learn. They embrace learning, mistakes, and effort in way that
promotes their achievement. Research has shown that mindset is related to student's self-
confidence and motivation.

Goal Setting
In the context of industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology, goal setting is the process
of improving work performance of individuals (Locke & Latham, 2006). For goal setting to be
most successful, goals should be SMART – specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and
time-bound. SMART embodies the fundamental practices necessary for achieving increased
motivation (Rubin, 2002). Individuals perform at higher levels when asked to meet a goal that
is concrete, achievable, and realistic, and important to them. Goals also work best when there
is a time frame for their completion (Aamodt, 2013). Locke and Latham (Lunenburg, 2011)
suggest that the most effective performance results are attained when goals are specific and
challenging, when there is feedback on the results, when they are used to evaluate
performance, and when they create commitment and acceptance.

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The Rules of Goal-Setting
✓ Set goals that motivate you. When you set your goals, it is important that they are
personally important to you.
✓ Set SMART goals. Your goals must be clear and well defined so that you can measure
the degree of your success. Be sure that your goals are attainable and personally
relevant to you. Your goals must also have a time frame.
✓ Write your life goals. Make a chart and write a list of all the goals you want to achieve.
Prioritize the items on the list, discard those unimportant, and make space for all the
important and urgent activities you want to do such as studying your lessons.
✓ Develop an action plan for your future. Write the steps to attain your life goals.
✓ Start working toward your life goals.

Let us check what you learned

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ________________

Year & Section: ______________________________ Score: _______________

Directions: Provide what is asked in each item.

1. Write your to do list this week (Short-term Goals).

Day AM PM

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

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 2. Right now, what is your Long-term Goal? Answer the following briefly.

a. Specific: What exactly do you what to achieve?

b. Measurable: How would you know if you have achieved your goal?

c. Attainable: What resources can you use to achieve your goal? What needs to be
done to achieve your goal?

d. Relevant: Why is the goal important to your life?

e. Time-bound: When will you achieve your goal?

3. What are the possible challenges that may hinder you from achieving your goal? What
will you do to successfully achieve your goal?

4. Do you think it is possible to achieve self-actualization? Support your answer.

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Lesson 3 Taking Charge of One's Health
Stress has ill-effects on health. People sometimes use unconscious strategies called
defense mechanisms to cope with stress. Nonetheless, psychologists suggest that people must
learn positive ways to manage stress. Some suggestions to manage stress include social
support, self-care, and compassion. This lesson defines stress and presents the factors that
cause stress. Theories that attempt to explain stress include Hans Selye's General Adaptation
Syndrome and Richard Lazarus's Cognitive Theory of Stress.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. explain the concept of stress;

b. discuss the dimensions of stress;
c. explain how stress affects health;
d. identify strategies to control stress; and
e. develop your own self-care plan.

It’s time to read and learn!

Stress Defined
Stress refers to events that are perceived as challenging, damaging, or threatening to
one's physical or psychological well-being. These events are referred to as stressors and the
way people respond to them is called stress response (Nolen Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus,
& Wagenaar, 2009). Stress is experienced by all people but in different degrees, from mild to
severe, depending on how people interpret the situation. Every day people encounter
stressors: eustress and distress. Eustress occurs when people experience positive events but
requires them to adjust. Distress occurs when people experience negative events and make
a great deal of demands on them.

Stressors and Responses

Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe (Ciccarelli & White, 2012) suggest that any life event
that requires people to change, adapt, or adjust would likely result in stress. There are factors
that cause stress. Major life events such as a wedding and having a baby may be positive
events but they demand a great deal of adjustment, and thus cause stress. On the other hand,
negative events such as losing one's job or death of a loved one cause high level of stress.
Catastrophe creates high level of stress. Natural disasters such as typhoon Rolly and typhoon
Ulysses are examples of catastrophe. Other examples of catastrophe are the damages caused
by earthquake in the province of Leyte, the war in Marawi City, and the eruption of Mayon
Volcano in Bicol. Yet, hassles that people experience daily such as difficulty in getting a ride to
school, irritation in traffic, and small disagreements with parents and classmates can also cause
stress and could harm well-being especially if such events continue and pile up.
When people experience urgent demands as when targeting a deadline such as
submission of school project, they are likely to experience pressure. Another factor that causes
stress is frustration, especially when one is thwarted or prevented from satisfying a need or
achieving his or her goal. For instance, a student will feel frustrated if he or she fails a major
examination, loses a mobile phone, or is scolded by a teacher. A student wanting to study but
lacks the financial means or is physically disabled would find it difficult to attain the goal. Conflict
is another factor of stress.

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 Conflict occurs when a person needs to choose between two or many options. There
are four types of conflict: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, and
multiple conflict. Approach-approach conflict occurs when a person needs to choose
between two options that are both attractive. Avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when a
person needs to choose between options that he or she finds both unpleasant. Approach-
avoidance conflict occurs when a person needs to choose between options that have both
positive and negative consequences. Multiple conflict occurs when there are more than two
options. Students usually experience multiple conflict during examination period.
In order to deal with frustrations, conflicts, and stress, people sometimes use
unconscious strategies called defense mechanisms to cope with the pain and deal with
anxiety. Anyone who is frustrated may act aggressively such as destroying things or harming
another person. This strategy is called displacement. Another example of defense mechanism
is compensation in which a person makes up for or covers up his or her weak areas by being
superior in other areas.
Other examples of defense mechanisms are denial, identification, intellectualization,
projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression repression, and suicide. Denial
occurs when a person refuses to accept a painful reality or truth. Identification is imitating the
characteristics of a person he or she admires to deal with his or her insecurities.
Intellectualization is avoiding negative emotions by focusing on the intellectual aspects of
one's life. Projection is attributing one's own weaknesses or shortcomings to someone else.
Rationalization is making up plausible explanations or excuses to cover up negative feelings
such as guilt. Reaction formation is acting opposite to what the person truly feels. In
regression, a person reverts to an earlier psychosexual stage and begins to behave like a
child. Repression is pushing unacceptable impulses or urges into the unconscious. Anyone
who suffers from lots of frustration may resort to hurting oneself or committing suicide.

The Physiological and Cognitive Factors of Stress

The effects of stress are manifested in a model developed by psychologist Hans Selye
who proposed the General Adaptation Syndrome. He suggests that the body goes through
three stages of physiological reactions during stressful events: alarm, resistance, and
exhaustion. Alarm is the initial reaction to a stressful situation. In trying to cope with the initial
effects of stress, the sympathetic nervous system is activated and releases hormones such as
cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine that help the body to fight off stress. However, the
continued increase in these hormones could also adversely affect the body such as increase
in blood pressure, heart rate and blood sugar. In resistance stage, the body adapts to the
stress but continues to release hormones that help the body to adapt and fight off the harmful
effects of stress. The body can eventually suffer fatigue if stress continues. If the stress is not
properly dealt with, the person will experience exhaustion in which the body may suffer
psychosomatic illnesses, including colds, flu, allergies, headache, muscle pain, as well as
those that may have irreversible damages to one's health such as heart disease, ulcer,
diabetes, stroke, cancer, or death.
Cognitive psychologist Richard Lazarus (Ciccarelli & White, 2012) has developed a
cognitive view of stress. In his theory, he suggests that the way people think about and
appraise a stressor is a major factor in how stressful that particular stressor becomes. Lazarus
believes that there is a two-step process in appraising the degree of threat or harm of a stressor
and how one should react to that stressor: primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. In
primary appraisal, the individual appraises the severity of the stressor and classifies it as a
threat, a challenge, or a harm or loss. If the stressor is seen as a challenge (e.g., quiz, exam),
the individual may perceive it as less stressful and more likely to cope well. However, if the
stressor is seen as a threat, negative emotions may ensue. More common emotional reactions
to stress include anxiety, anger, aggression, apathy, depression, and psychological
impairment.

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Stress and The Filipino: The Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors of Stress
Another perspective in stress is the sociocultural perspective. In the Philippines,
poverty remains a critical problem. Experiencing poverty or receiving low compensation means
higher stress level (Crowder, 2013; Wadsworth, 2011, Kahn & Pearlin, 2006). Thus, both
parents need to work to make ends meet. As parents take on multiple roles, achieving balance
between work and family becomes a source of stress (Ortega & Hechanova, 2010). Even if a
person has a job and is making an adequate salary, there are stresses associated with the
workplace that add to the daily stressors such as work overload, long hours, and poor physical
work environment (Ciccarelli & White, 2012). In addition, research indicates that overcrowding
and living in poor housing condition can be a source of stress (Ballesteros, 2010).

Figure 4 Poverty and Poor Housing Condition

Traffic and lack of transportation can also be enormously stressful.

Figure 5 Traffic and Lack of Transportation

In the cultural perspective, a person from one culture who must live in another culture
may experience a great deal of stress (Ciccarelli & White, 2012). For example, one primary
source of stress imposed on immigrant Filipino workers in other countries is the need to adapt
to a new culture. Acculturation is the process of adaptation by which immigrants, native
groups, and ethnic minority groups adjust to the new culture making behavioral and attitudinal
changes. Acculturative stress refers to the feelings of tension and anxiety that accompany
efforts to adapt to the orientation and values of a dominant culture (Nevid & Rathus, 2003).

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Perhaps the greatest stress is when migrant Filipino workers experience discrimination,
stereotyping, and prejudice because of racism and anti-immigrant attitudes.

Sources of Coping and Strengths

One strategy by which people cope with stress is focusing on the problem. In problem-
focused coping, the individual reduces the impact of the problem by looking for best solutions
through his or her own effort. Another strategy that appears to help the individual cope with a
stressful situation is through emotion focused coping. The individual uses this strategy to
reduce the intensity of negative emotions. Among the behavioral techniques that may be used
to help people cope with stressful situations are biofeedback, relaxation technique, meditation,
and physical exercise (Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith, Bem, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000).
Biofeedback is a technique from medical devices and programs that the individual can use to
recognize and control the symptoms of stress, such as tension headache. Relaxation
techniques (deep breathing, listening to music), meditation, and exercise (aerobic, swimming,
jogging) can help individuals cope with everyday stress and control stress-related health
problems, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and diabetes. Another strategy that
appears to help people during a stressful situation is having a social support system or a
network of family members and friends. Research has shown that social support is considered
one of the most important ways of coping with stress (Camara, Bacigalupe, & Padilla, 2017). It
is likely that lack of social support can make the individual more vulnerable to stress.

The Need for Self-Care and Compassion

People who are high in self-compassion treat themselves with kindness, care, and
understanding when they experience stressful events or situations. Self-compassion has
three elements: self-kindness, a sense of common humanity, and mindfulness. Self-
compassion entails self-kindness when confronted with life difficulties rather than being angry.
Self-compassionate people accept that mistakes and failures are part of being human and
common to all. They are more likely to be mindful or aware of their painful thoughts and feelings.
Self-compassion has shown to reduce anxiety, stress, exhaustion, and depression (Neff,
2012).
Stress has effects on health. For this reason, people must learn ways to manage stress
with self-compassion. Stress management is the ability to control stress and develop the skills
to prevent the harmful effects of stress. Particularly, students who are able to manage stress
successfully are more likely to develop physical and emotional well-being. They are also able
to perform better in school. Below are some suggestions to manage stress and practice self-
compassion:
✓ When you are stressed, find a quiet place where you will not be disturbed. Sit with your
back straight. Close your eyes and begin the process of calming yourself by paying
attention to your breathing. Inhale through the nose and exhale through the mouth. As
you inhale, say to yourself “relax”. As you exhale, imagine yourself releasing out all the
tensions. Do this exercise three times. Make this breathing exercise regularly. It will help
you relax.
✓ Pray or meditate. Make it part of your daily life. It provides power and energy for living.
✓ Read spiritual materials such as the Bible, self-help books, or magazines, that will make
you relax and guide you throughout your life.
✓ Be mindful of your thoughts and feelings.
✓ Keep a diary or journal where you can write down and process your thoughts and
feelings.
✓ Talk to people. Share your feelings.
✓ Develop good habits, eat the right kind of food, drink lots of water, sleep at least 8 hours
a day, exercise regularly, and relax. Pamper yourself. Go to the beach, watch a movie,
have a haircut, a spa, and a massage, or eat your favorite food.
✓ Develop a sense of humor. Think positive and find reasons to smile and be happy.

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 Let us check what you learned

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ________________

Year & Section: ______________________________ Score: _______________

Directions: Answer the following briefly.

1. What usually triggers your stress? How do you deal with it?

2. Is stress good or bad? Support your answer.

3. Develop your own self-care plan. Include the things you need to do and need to avoid to help
you manage your stress, enhance your health and well-being, and improve your academic
performance. Fill in the following table.

Physical Cognitive

Emotional Social

Moral Spiritual

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