Kuw 315193

Kuwait University
Physics Department
LABORATORY MANUAL
General Physics Lab I
PHYS 105 & 125
Year 2023-2024
Prepared by:
Written and Edited by:

Abdulla A. Almulla
Course Outline 1
PHYS 105 & 125
LABORATORY COURSE OUTLINE
COURSE NUMBER: PHYS 105 & 125

COURSE TITLE: General Physics Lab I
CREDITS: (0-3-1)
PREREQUISITES: PHYS 101 (Concurrent)
Catalogue Description: Experiments in instrumentation, measurements,
mechanics and optics.
LEARNING & TEACHING METHODS

• During each three-hour experimental session, students are obliged to perform
the experiment, do the data analysis, interpret of results, prepare and submite
the lab report in its final form.
• Ten experiments from the following list (illustrated below), or a combination of

these, will be preformed by each student, in group of 2 to 3.
• The active participation and diligence shown by students in handling instru-

ments and performing the practical work, as well as the degree of leadership
in the group work, will be assessed by the instructor through observation and
communication.
• In the first week of each semester orientation workshop will be held for students.
• An experimental final exam will be held at the end of the term.

Course Outline 2
OBJECTIVES
1. To enhance the understanding level of concepts in mechanics.
2. To become acquainted with the related instrumentations and experimental tech-

niques.
3. To develop skills in communication and ability to work in groups.
4. To enhance ability in experimental design, data and error analysis and report
writing.
5. To gain skills in safety requirements in handling electrical components.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon the completion of the laboratory course students should be able to
1. Acquire knowledge of experimental techniques related to the concepts of me-

chanics;
2. Gain experience in proper data collection methods graphical representation of

data, data analysis and interpretation of results.
3. Develop analytical and critical thinking abilities.
4. Work in teams.
RESOURCES
1. Laboratory manual.
2. An introduction to Error Analysis, The Study of Uncertainties in Physical Mea-

surements (2nd Edition, 1997), John R. Taylor (Publisher: University Science
Books).
3. University Physics (15th Global Edition, 2020), Young & Freedman (Publisher:
PEARSON).
4. Physics (8th Edition, 2014), D. Giancoli (Publisher: Adeson).
.
Course Outline 3
LABORATORY SESSIONS FOR PHYSICS 105.
Experiment Essential Physical Concepts
1 Pre-Lab Session Error Analysis and how to write a lab report
2 Measurements of Density Mass, weight, and volume
3 Kinematics of one dimensional Both Displacement and Velocity

uniformally accelerated motion. as functions of time
4 Determination of Acceleration Free fall experiment and

due to Gravity Simple pendulum experiment
5 Projectile Motion Range Determination

versus Angle
6 Static Equilibrium of Forces Measuring Hook’s constant, and

and Force Table resolving of forces
7 Roller Coaster Conservation of Mechanical Energy
8 Explosion and Elastic Collision Conservation of linear momentum.

and kinetic energy in elastic collisions.
9 Torque Parallel and Non-Parallel Forces
10 Rotational Motion I Kinematics of rotational motion.
11 Rotational Motion II Work-Energy theorem.
12 General Revision
13 Final Exam
Course Outline 4
LABORATORY SESSIONS FOR PHYSICS 125.
Experiment Essential Physical Concepts
1 Pre-Lab Session Error Analysis and how to write a lab report
2 Measurements of Density Mass, weight, and volume
3 Kinematics of one dimensional Both Displacement and Velocity

uniformally accelerated motion. as functions of time
4 Determination of Acceleration Free fall experiment and

due to Gravity Simple pendulum experiment
5 Projectile Motion Range Determination

versus Angle
6 Static Equilibrium of Forces Measuring Hook’s constant, and

and Force Table resolving of forces
7 Roller Coaster Conservation of Mechanical Energy
8 Explosion and Elastic Collision Conservation of linear momentum.

and kinetic energy in elastic collisions.
9 Torque Parallel and Non-Parallel Forces
10 Determination of the Velocity Resonance Phenomenon

of Sound
11 The Human Arm
12 General Revision
13 Final Exam
LABORATORY REPORT SUBMISSION
Lab reports must be written individually and submitted at the end of each lab
session. Penalties will be imposed for late submissions as follows: deduction of
10% of the lab marks for each late day up to a maximum of 3 days.
Course Outline 5
LAB REPORTS ASSESSMENT
The evaluation components for each experiment will be:
Lab report (Average): 40%
Student Attendance: 5%
Oral discussion: 5%
Midterm exam 20%
Final Exam: 30%
Lab reports should consist of three elements in the following order: Statement of
Objectives, Data and Analysis of results, Discussion and Conclusion.
.
Evaluation of the lab reports will be carried out according to the criteria stated in
the laboratory Report Assessment Form.
ATTENDANCE REQUIREMENTS
Attendance in all lab sessions is mandatory. The assigned marks for attendance will
be deduced from the grade of any lab session skipped by the students.
PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is a serious academic offense. Put simply plagiarism is an action where
a person claims the work or ideas of other people as his won with the intention to
deceive. Examples of plagiarism are:
• The use of published or unpublished work of others either as whole or in parts

(such as paragraphs or sentences), which includes books, journal articles, theses,
websites, etc. without proper acknowledgment or referencing or without the use
quotation marks.
• Paraphrasing closely the work of others either as a whole or in parts without

proper referencing.
Course Outline 6
• Copying computer files without proper acknowledgments.
• Use or submission of computer programs written by others without authoriza-

tion.
• Claiming as your own work executed for you by other person or agency.
• Scattering one’s own comments through a text that has been substantially lifted
from another source.
Assessment Guide 7
Laboratory Report Assessment Guide
Prepare lab work:

• Read the experiment sheet.
• Prepare for a oral discussion during the lab session.
Guidelines to Lab Report writing and marking scheme:

• Title page
Use the cover pages provided to you at the end of the manual to write your
name, the name of your laboratory partner, the date, the section number of the
laboratory, and the instructor’s name.
• Statement of Objectives: [1 Marks]

You should outline the objectives of the experiment in your own words.
• Data and Analysis of Results: [6 Marks]

∗ Concise presentation of data and results with proper calculations and
units.
∗ Properly scaled and titled graphs with acurate slope celaulations and
graph analysis.
∗ Error analysis.
• Discussion and Conclusion: [3 Marks]

∗ The student must describe what his/her results are, and compare them
with the accepted values.
∗ Discuss possible methods to reduce uncertainties.
∗ Draw conclusions (by explaining the meaning of the experiment and the
implications of the results).
Assessment Guide 8
• References
Proper citation of references must be made whenever called for. Improper or in-
adequate citation of references can lead to a deduction of up to 10% of the total grade.
• Report Presentation:
The report must be neatly presented.
Total Mark: 10
Error analysis 9
Error analysis
Error is known to be the difference between a calculated or observed value and the
true value. All experimental uncertainties are due to the presence of two types of ex-
perimental errors: systematic errors and random errors. The difference between
random errors and systematic errors can be shown by repeating the measurement of a
physical quantity several times under the same conditions. Random errors are statis-
tical fluctuations or variations in the measured data produced by the experimenter’s
inability to take the same measurement in exactly the same way to get exactly the
same reading. Therefore, the readings will be spread about the true value. See Figure
1 (a). Systematic errors, on the other hand, are reproducible inaccuracies that causes
the measurements to constantly be in the same direction (either too high or too low).
They are mostly due to defects in the measuring devices which make them continu-
ally present throughout the entire experiment. Therefore, the readings will always be
displaced far from the true value see Figure 1 (b). For that reason, systematic errors
are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed statistically.
Figure 1: (a) A set of measurements taken with random errors only.

(b) shows a set of measurements with both systematic and
random errors.
Statistical analysis of random errors

Assume x represents a physical quantity, such as the period of a simple pendulum,
that is measured n times.
Error analysis 10
• Calculating the Mean Value

For this set of measurements, to compute the mean value of your result (also
known as the Average value) you should use the following equation :
i=n
X xi x1 + x2 + ... + xn
x̄ = = (1)
i=1 n n
where x represents the physical parameter measured, n equals the number of

measurements, and xi is the ith measured value.
• Determining the Standard Error

To compute the standard error of the measurements, we have to introduce the
standard deviation (σx ). The term refers to a statistical quantity which tells
you how your measurements are spread around the mean value. If the standard
deviation is small then the spread is also small, which indicates that your data
hold great deal of accuracy.
The following law is used to calculate the standard deviation:

v
u
u 1 i=n
X
u
σx = t (xi − x̄)2 (2)
n − 1 i=1
v
u
u (x − x̄)2 + (x2 − x̄)2 + ... + (xn − x̄)2
t 1
=
n−1
Finally, the standard deviation is used to calculate the standard error (σx̄ ),
as follows: The uncertainty or the standard error in the mean value is defined
as:
σx
σx̄ = √ (3)
n
The result to be reported from any measurement is
x̄ ± σx̄ (4)
Error analysis 11
Using the Pocket Calculator

The same analysis used to compute the mean value, standard deviation, and the
standard error can also be done simply using the pocket calculator. It is not intended
to use the calculator to preform the known binary operations such as addition or
subtraction. What is meant by using the calculator is to use the statistical mode
,also known as “SD” mode, in your calculator and the subroutines which are already
programmed in your calculator to compute the mean value and the standard deviation
required. A simple procedure is discussed to illustrate such a use of the pocket
calculator by your instructor.
Example:
For the following set of measurements of the period (T) of a simple pendulum calculate
the mean period T̄ according to Equation 1. Use the calculator to get the mean period
T̄ . Also calculate the standard deviation for the period σT according to Equation 2.
Use the calculator to get the standard deviation σT . Finally, calculate the standard
error σT̄ using Equation 3.
Table
quantity T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Ti (s) 1.430 1.368 1.402 1.324 1.389 1.422
(Ti - T̄ ) (s)
(Ti - T̄ )2 (s2 )
Error analysis 12
T̄ (The Mean Value By equation 1) =.......................................................,

σT (The Standard Deviation By equation 2) =..........................................,
σT̄ (The Standard Error By equation 3) =...............................................,
Significant figures
The term significant figures refers to the meaningful ”reliable” digits shown in a
measured or calculated value. The number of significant figures in a measured value
is determined, among other factors, by the least count of the measuring tool, which
means the smallest unit in the tools scale.
For example, if the thickness of a book is to be measured using a ruler, the measure-
ment could be 2.6 cm, which consists of 2 significant figures. Whereas if the same
measurement is carried out using a vernier caliper the result might be 2.615 cm which
consists of 4 significant figures.
The least digit (the most right digit) in a measured value is referred to as uncertain.
The reason is when taking a measurement, usually the reading is approximated to
the nearest lest count. For instance, for the reading taken by the ruler (2.6 cm) the
digit 6 is uncertain whereas in the reading taken by the vernier caliper (2.615 cm)
the digit 5 is uncertain. When using numbers having uncertainties to compute other
numbers, the computed numbers are also uncertain. The general rules to specify the
number of significant figures are as follows:
Error analysis 13
Multiplication or division
When numbers are multiplied or divided the number of significant figures can be no
greater than in the number with fewest significant figures.
Examples:
0.745 × 2.2
= 0.42
3.885
1.32578 × 107 × 4.11 × 10−3 = 5.45 × 104
Addition or subtraction
When numbers are added or subtract, the number of significant figures in the result
is determined by the number with the fewest digits to the right of the decimal point.
Example:
27.153 + 138.2 − 11.74 = 153.6

Graphical analysis 14
Graphical analysis
A graph is a diagram consisting of a line which shows the variation of two quantities
relative to each other, in lab terminology we say plot y versus x. In order to plot a
good graph you should note the following:
• Use a sharp pencil or pen.
• Draw your graph on full page of graph paper. A compressed graph will reduce
the accuracy of your graph.
• Give the graph a title.
• The dependent variable should be plotted along the vertical or y axis and the
independent variable should be plotted along the horizontal or x axis.
• Choose a suitable scale for both variables. It is not essential to have the same
scale units for both quantities, but avoid scale factors like 3 or 7. The scale
should neither be too wide nor too narrow. In any graph you should give for
both axes the proper scale, the physical quantity plotted and its unit.
• If the relation between the two variables begins from zero, then zero must be
taken as the origin on both scales. Otherwise the origin on both axes should
represent a quantity little less than the smallest value of the corresponding
variable.
• Label axes and include units.

Graphical analysis 15
• Draw a smooth free-hand curve to pass through as many plotted points as

possible. If a smooth curve does not pass through all the points, those left out
should lie evenly about it.
Linear graph
A straight line graph has a constant slope. The slope is the change in the value of the
variable plotted on vertical axis (y axis) divided by the corresponding change in the
value of the variable plotted on the horizontal axis (x axis). The slope is determined
by selecting two well separated points A and B on the line. Record the values of xA ,
yA and xB , yB . Then the slope m is given by:
yB − yA
m= (1)
xB − xA
The general equation of a straight line not passing through the origins
y = mx + C (2)
Where m is the slope and C is the intercept on the y axis (x = 0). The intercept on
the x axis (y = 0) can be obtained from
C
x=− (3)
m
Experiment 1 16
Kuwait University Physics Department

Physics 105 & 125
Measurements of Density
Objectives
In this experiment the students will be introduced to the most frequently used mea-
suring devices. Those devices are used for determining the length, diameter, and
mass of a set of cylindrical objects. The main objective of this experiment is to show
the students how to use those measuring devices properly to determine the density
of the cylindrical objects and compare it to the accepted values of the density of the
metals.
Equipment list
• Four cylindrical objects of different sizes made from the same material (alu-
minum, Maple wood, Phenolic, PVC, or Acrylic).
• Measuring devices:
the Micrometer Screw Gauge (Figure 2).
the Vernier Caliper (Figure 3, 4).
the Laboratory digital balance.
Introduction
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity that is used as
a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity. Any other value of the
physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of measurement.
For example, length is a physical quantity. The “meter” is a unit of length, used
Experiment 1 17
in global standard International System of Units (SI), and it represents a definite

predetermined length. When we say 10 meters (or 10 m), we actually mean 10 times
the definite predetermined length called ”meter”. This is also true with mass, time,
and all other physical quantities.
Figure 1. below shows different types of measuring devises all of which are used
to determine the length. Each measuring device has its won accuracy and used
according to the shape and size of the object that needs to be measured. The metric
roller (Figure1. A) used to determine the length of large curved objects, the metric
wheel (Figure 1. B) is used with field measurements, and the metric laser pointer
(Figure 1. C) is used for measuring the height of lengths of very large objects such
as bridges and mountains.
Figure 1. Various types of measuring devices used for length measurements
In our experiment we will determine the dimensions of much smaller objects like cubes
and cylinders, thus we will be introduced to other measuring devices designed specif-
ically for this type of measurements with higher degree of accuracy and precession.
Theory
Density ρ of any substance is defined as the mass m of a unit volume of that substance.
The obvious way of finding it is by determining the mass of a known volume of the
Experiment 1 18
substance and dividing this mass by the volume

m
ρ= , (1)
V
The volume of any solid which has a simple geometric form may be determined from
its dimensions; which, if the body is small, are most conveniently measured by a
Vernier Caliper and a Micrometer Screw Gauge. The mass; however , is found
by the use of the laboratory triple balance.
The micrometer screw gauge, (Figure 2), is most convenient for the accurate
measurement of short lengths. The object is placed between the end of the screw and
the anvil. The distance through which the screw travels is measured by two scales:
• Main Scale which is divided into millimeters on the lower part and half mil-
limeters on the upper part.
• Rotating Scale which is divided to (50) divisions each of which represents

(0.01 mm).
Figure 2. Micrometer Screw Gauge

The two scales are related to each other such that one complete revolution of the
rotating scale equals half a millimeters on the main scale.
Experiment 1 19
The Vernier Caliper, (Figure 3), is considered also as a convenient device for ac-
curate measurement of short lengths of objects. The object placed between the jaws.
The distance through which the jaws travel is measured by two scales:
• Main Scale which is divided into inches on the upper part and centimeters on
the lower part.
• Vernier Scale which is divided to (20) divisions each of which represents (0.005
cm).
Figure 3. Vernier Caliper
Figure 4. Magnified view of the Vernier Caliper

Experiment 1 20
How to take readings from Micro-meters
Figure 5:(a). has no zero error and hence zero correction (Z.C)=0, (b). has a zero
error of +2 and hence zero correction (Z.C)=-2, (c). has a zero error of -4 therefore
its zero correction (Z.C)= +4
Figure 6. Assuming that zero correction (Z.C)=+5. In this figure Main scale read-
ing (M.S.R)=10.5mm, and the rotation scale reading (R.S.R)=34, thus the total
reading is:
R.S.R
T.R = M.S.R +
100
34 + 5
T.R = 10.5 + = 10.89mm
100
Experiment 1 21
How to take readings from Vernier Caliper
cylindrical objects should be placed between the lower jaws of the vernier caliper, as
shown in the figure. The Main scale reading (M.S.R) should come from main scale.
To take the (M.S.R), you should carefully watch, where the zero of the vernier is
meeting the main scale. In the picture shown above you can see that 0 (zero) of the
vernier scale meets the main scale between 2.3 and 2.4. So your M.S.R will be 2.3
and not 2.4. Remember you will take the reading which is before zero always. The
Coinciding vernier scale reading (V.S.R) should come from vernier scale. To take
the (V.S.R) you should look for the first reading from the vernier scale which exactly
coincides with any of the main scale reading. In the picture shown reading 1 of the
vernier fulfills the requirement. So V.S.R=1. Remember: the Least Count (L.C) for
the all the vernier calipers in our lab is equal to 0.01 cm. So finally the total reading
T.R =M.S.R+( V.S.R
100
1
)= 2.3 + 100 = 2.31cm
Experiment 1 22
Procedure
1) Use the micrometer screw gauge to measure the diameter (d) of the cylindrical
objects. Record your data in Table (2).
2) Use the vernier caliper to measure the length (l) of the cylindrical objects.
Record your data in Table (2).
3) Use the laboratory triple balance to measure the mass (m) of the cylindrical
objects. Record your data in Table (2).
4) Calculate the volume for each cylindrical or rectangular object using the mea-
sured values of diameter and other dimensions according to the equation stated
in Table 1.
5) Calculate the density (ρ) for each piece.
6) Compute the average value of the density (ρ̄).
7) Calculate the standard error (σρ̄ )of your results.
8) Use you data on Table (2) to plot a graph of the mass m (y-axis) of each cylin-
drical rectangular object versus its volume V (x-axis). According to equation
(1) the graph should be a straight line through the origin. Get the density (ρ̄)
from the slope of this line.
9) Repeat steps (1) to (7) for a different set of cylinders and record your data
in Table (2) below.
10) Use you data on Table (2) to plot a graph of the mass m (y-axis) of each
cylindrical object versus its volume V (x-axis). Get the average density (ρ̄)
from the slope of this line.
11) Compare the measured density with the accepted values for the density of
metals.
Experiment 1 23
Table 1. Geometrical Shapes and their corresponding volumes

Experiment 1 24
.
Experiment 1 25
Kuwait University
. Physics Department
Physics Lab 105 & 125 Student Number:
Student Name: Date:
Measurement of Density
Objectives:
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Experiment 1
Table 2. Measurements of Density
Shape Lengths using Vernier Diameter using Volume (V) Mass (m) Density (ρ)
Calipers(L) micrometer (D)*
(V.S.R) (R.S.R + Z.C) m

Material T.R = M.S.R + 100
T.R = M.S.R + 100
F rom T able 1. m ρ= V
.............. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Object-1
Object-2
Object-3
Object-4
Remarks:
*The units of measurements of diameter (D) should be converted from (mm) to (cm)
Abbreviations:
T.R = Total Reading M.S.R = Main Scale reading V.S.R= Vernier Scale Reading
R.S.R = Rotating Scale Reading Z.C = Zero Correction
26
Experiment 1 27

Physics Lab 105 Student Number:
Student Name: Date:
Standard deviation and standard error calculation:
Find the average value of density for the cylinders i.e,
ρ1 + ρ2 + ρ3 + ρ4
ρ= = ..........................................
4
Complete the following table and report the result in the form
ρ̄ ± σρ̄ .
quantity ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 ρ4
ρi
(ρi - ρ)
(ρi - ρ)2
standard
v
deviation:
u
u 1 i=n
X
u
σρ = t (ρi − ρ)2 = ..........................
n − 1 i=1
standard error(σρ ).
σρ
σρ = √ = ....................................
n
RESULT : ρ̄ ± σρ̄ = ..................................
Determine the percentage error in the density (ρ):
ρtheory − ρcalculated ......................−...................

×100 = ×100 = ...................%
ρtheory ......................
Experiment 1 28

Student Name: Date:
Plot a graph of mass versus volume and determine the density
of the material used:
Discussion and conclusion:
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Experiment 2 29

Physics 105 & 125
Kinematics of one dimensional motion with

constant acceleration
Objectives
The main objective of this experiment is to study the displacement as a function of

time for a one-dimensional uniformly accelerated motion; and to determine the instan-
taneous velocity of the moving object at a given position by utilizing the displacement
(∆x) versus time (t) graph.
Equipment
• 2 m air track with a glider, mass pieces, and small flag.
• Smart timer with two Accessory Photo-gate heads.
• Air pump.
Theory
Part A:
If an object is set to move from rest under the action of gravity on an inclined
frictionless track, its displacement ∆x as a function of time t is given by
1 2 1
∆x = v0 t + a t =⇒ ∆x = a t2. (1)
2 2
where, a = g sin θ is the acceleration with which the object is moving and θ is the
angle of inclination of the air-track. A plot of ∆x versus t represents a parabolic
curve as seen in Figure 1.
Experiment 2 30
The instantaneous velocity v at a given time is defined as

∆x dx
v = lim = . (2)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Equation 2 indicates that the instantaneous velocity equals the slope of the tangent
to the curve of ∆x versus t at a given point. See Figure 1.
Also, the velocity at the end of a displacement ∆x is given as
v 2 = vo2 + 2 a ∆x. (3)
Figure 1. Displacement versus time
Procedure
1) Let the air-track (see Figure 2) be inclined by putting 1 cm support units be-
neath the legs of one side of the air-track. Make sure that the screws
attached to the legs of the Air-track are screwed inward tight.
Experiment 2 31
Figure 2. Air Track setup
2) Put the accessory photo-gate-1 at position x1 = 10 cm as indicated to you

in Table 1, and the accessory photo-gate-2 at x2 = 30 cm. Connect each
photo-gate to its proper input channel on the Smart timer (Figure 3).
3) Using a glider with the small flag mounted on top, adjust the height of each
photo-gate head so that the flag of the glider blocks the photo beam when it
passes through.
Figure 3. Smart Timer
4) On the Smart timer, set the select measurement (RED) button to “TIME”,
set the select mode (BLUE) button to “Two Gates”, and press the (BLACK)
Experiment 2 32
“Start\Stop” button to reset the timer. To confirm timer reset, (∗) will appear
on the smart timer screen.
4) Hold the glider at the beginning of the track (such that the flag is just before
the accessory photo-gate-1), turn on the air pump then, release the glider.
5) Record the time (t1) in Table 1, and Repeat this step two more times.
6) On the Smart timer, set the select mode (BLUE) button to “One Gate”, and
press the (BLACK) “Start\Stop” button to reset the timer. To confirm timer
reset, (∗) will appear on the smart timer screen.
7) Remove accessory photo-gate-1 only by rotating it 90o in the clock wise direc-
tion then, repeat steps 4 & 5, but record the measured time for ∆t.
8) Return the accessory photo-gate-1 to its previous position (i.e. at x1 = 10 cm

then, change the position of the accessory photo-gate-2 according to Table 1,
and repeat steps 4-8.
¯
9) For each ∆x in the table, calculate the average value of time (t̄), and (∆t).
¯ and acceleration a = v/t̄, where w = 0.75cm
Also, compute velocity v = w/∆t
is the distance between two leading edges of the small flag.
10) Plot the relation of displacement (∆x) versus time (t̄), then determine the slope
of the tangent to the curve at the point ∆x = 90 cm. (Note that ∆x = 90 cm
corresponds to x2 = 100 cm).
Experiment 2 33
.
Experiment 2 34

Student Name: Date:
Kinematics of one dimensional motion

with constant acceleration
Objectives:
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Table I: Flag width *w = ...........................

Two Gates Mode One Gate Mode
z }| {z }| {
x1 x2 ∆x t1 t2 t3 t̄ ∆t1 ∆t2 ∆t3 ¯

∆t v a
( ) ( ) ( )* ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
10 30
10 40
10 60
10 80
10 100
10 120
10 140
Remarks:
*The units of the flag width (w) and displacement (∆x) should be converted from (cm) to (m)
Experiment 2 35

Student Name: Date:

∗ Is the acceleration constant?............., Determine its average value ā = .......................
∗ The slope of displacement (∆x) versus time (t̄) graph = ...............................................
∗ What does the slope represent? ...................................................................................
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∗ Using the average value of the acceleration (ā), Estimate the instantaneous
velocity v at x2 = 100 cm using Equation 3.
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∗ Determine the percentage error in the instantaneous velocity v:
vestimated − vgraph
× 100 = ..................................................
vestimated
∗ Use the average value of the acceleration (ā) calculated above to determine the
angle of inclination of the air track.
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Experiment 2 36

Student Name: Date:


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Experiment 3 37

Physics Lab 105 & 125
Determination of Acceleration due to Gravity
Objectives
The aim of this experiment is to understand the concept of acceleration in general and
that due to gravity in specific. To achieve this goal, the acceleration due to gravity
(g ) is determined using two different methods. In free falling method, the kinematics
of motion with constant acceleration is utilized to determine the value of (g ). In the
second method; however, simple harmonic motion phenomenon of a simple pendulum
is used and the period of this motion is analyzed. At the end of the experiment, you
should be able to verify that the value of (g ) computed is constant and equal the
accepted value within experimental error.
Equipments:
• Experimental setup for free fall (Figure 1)
• Experimental setup for simple pendulum (Figure 4)
• Smart Timer(Figure 3)
• Small steel ball, Larger stainless steel ball (2.5 cm diameter, 70 g), Yellow nylon
ball (2.5 cm diameter, 10 g).
• Time of Flight Accessory.
• Measuring devices: metric Ruler.

Experiment 3 38
Theory
Part A: Free Fall
A freely falling body is an object that is moving under the influence of gravity only.
This object has a downward acceleration, denoted by (g), toward the center of earth.
In order to calculate the value of the gravitational acceleration, you will use the free
fall experimental setup illustrated in Figure 1. The plastic yellow ball is fixed to
the releasing mechanism of the free fall Drop Box. Allowing the ball to fall a fixed
distance h toward the Time of flight Receptor Plate, the smart timer will compute
the time elapsed for the ball to fall that distance.
Figure 1 Free Falling Apparatus
The position of the ball, starting from rest at time t = 0 and undergoing constant
downward acceleration along the y-direction, can be understood using the following
equation
1
y(t) − yo = − gt2 , (1)
2
Experiment 3 39
where yo is the initial position and g is the acceleration due to gravity. If h is the
falling distance the body has traveled from its starting point during time t, then above
equation can be written as
1
h = gt2 . (2)
2
Therefore, to calculate the value of g, you should study the relation between the
falling distance h and t2. Some further analysis will be carried out to check whether
acceleration due to gravity is constant or not.
Part B: Simple Pendulum

The simple pendulum consists of a small bob (in theory a particle) of mass m sus-
pended by a light inextensible thread of length l from some point about which it is
allowed to swing back and forth. See Figure 2. The forces on the bob are the tension
in the thread T and the weight mg of the bob acting vertically downwards (as shown
in Figure 2). Resolving mg radially and tangentially at point A we see that the tan-
gential component is the unbalanced restoring force acting towards the equilibrium
position O.
Figure 2. Simple Pendulum

Experiment 3 40
When θ, the angle of the simple pendulum with the vertical, is small (θ ≤ 10o ) then
the restoring force is proportional to θ and the period of oscillation T is constant and
given by
v
u
ul
T = 2π t . (3)
g
where, l is the length of the simple pendulum, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
T is therefore independent of the amplitude of the oscillation and at a given place
on the earths surface where g is constant; it depends only on the length l of the
pendulum.
Procedure
Part A: Free Fall
1) Set up the free fall timer as shown in Figure 3. Use the plastic yellow ball.
Figure 3. Experimental Setup.

Experiment 3 41
2) All connections of the experimental setup has to be as indicated in Figure 3

above. Set the ACTIVE/INACTIVE switch on the control box to AC-
TIVE.
3) Hang the Small steel ball from the drop box magnet.
4) Connect the Smart Timers AC adapter to its power port and turn it on.
5) Connect the remaining plug of the Timer Switch to channel 1 of the Smart
Timer and connect the Time-of-Flight pad to channel 2 of the Smart Timer.
6) On the Smart Timer, press the 1 Select Measurement button once to select
Time, press the 2 Select Mode button several times to select Two Gates
mode. and press the 3 Start/Stop button. The Smart Timer will beeps and
an asterisk (*) will appear on the display to indicate that it is ready to start
timing.
7) Once the height (h) is set, Press the Timer Switch button. The ball is released
from the drop box and hits the Time-of-Flight pad, the Smart Timer displays
the fall time. Record the time of fall (t) in Table 1. Wait until the LED on
the drop box stops blinking, attach the ball once again to the Drop Box and
repeat the measurement one more time and calculate the average time of fall.
8) Increase the height (h) to any other different value and repeat the measure-
ments made in the previous step until you complete Table 1.
9) Calculate the value of (g) for each height and record it in the appropriate
column of your data table.
10) Calculate the average value (ḡ) and the standard error (σḡ ).
11) Plot the graph of height (h) versus (t2 ) and determine the acceleration due to
gravity from the slope.
Experiment 3 42
Part B: Simple Pendulum
1) Set up the pendulum as in Figure 4,

and adjust the length l to about 30 cm. The
length of the simple pendulum is the distance
from the point of suspension to the center of
the ball. Figure 4. Simple Pendulum setup
2) Adjust the height of the photo-gate timer head in such a way that the beam
passes through the center of the bob.
3) On the Smart Timer, Press the Red button #1 to select Time Measurement,
and press the Blue button #2 to select ”PENDULUM” Mode.
4) Displace the bob from its equilibrium position by a small angle and then
release the bob to swing back and forth. While pendulum is swinging, press
the Black button #3 on the Smart timer. The period T of the oscillation will
automatically be displayed on the screen of the timer. Record the period T in
Table 2.
5) Repeat the measurement of the period T one more time only by pressing the
black Button #3 . Calculate the average value T̄ of the periods and the
squared T̄ 2 and record it in Table 2.
6) Increase the length of the pendulum by about 15 cm, and repeat the measure-
ments made in the previous steps until the length increases to 110 cm.
7) Calculate the value of g for each length and record it in the appropriate
column of your data table.
8) Calculate the average value ḡ and the standard error σḡ .
9) Plot a graph of length l versus T 2 and determine the value of g from the
slope.
Experiment 3 43
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Experiment 3 44

Student Name: Date:
Determination of Acceleration due to Gravity (g )
Objectives:
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Part A:
Table 1. Free Fall
h t1 t2 t̄ (t̄)2 g
( )* ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Remarks:
*The units of the hight (h) should be converted from (cm) to (m)
Average value ḡ = ..........................................
Experiment 3 45

Student Name: Date:

Find the Standard Error:
gi ( )
(gi -ḡ) ( )
(gi -ḡ)2 ( )
q
1 Pn
Standard deviation (σg ) = n−1 i=1 (gi − ḡ)2 = .........................
σ
Standard Error (σḡ ) = √g
n
= ......................................
Result ḡ ± σḡ = ..............................................
The value of (g graph ) = 2×slope = .....................................
Taking (g theoretical = 9.8 m/s2 ), the percentage error of your result is:
gtheoretical −ggraph
% Error = gtheoretinal
× 100= ................
Plot the graph of h versus t̄2 and determine the value of g
• Drop both the plastic yellow ball and the large steel ball from the hight (20cm)and
compare their time of flight: tsteel ball=.................... , tplastic ball=....................
Comment on your result: ..........................................................................................
Experiment 3 46

Student Name: Date:
Part B:
Table 2: Simple pendulum
l T1 T2 T̄ (T̄ )2 g
( )* ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Remarks:
*The units of the length (l) should be converted from (cm) to (m)
Average value ḡ = ..........................................

gi ( )
(gi -ḡ) ( )
(gi -ḡ)2 ( )
q
1 Pn
Standard deviation (σg ) = n−1 i=1 (gi − ḡ)2 = .................................
σ
Standard Error (σḡ ) = √g
n
= .................................
Result ḡ ± σḡ = ..............................................

Experiment 3 47

Student Name: Date:
The value of (g graph ) = 4π 2 ×slope = .....................................
Taking (g theoretical = 9.8 m/s2 ), the percentage error of your result is:
gtheoretical −ggraph
% Error = gtheoretinal
× 100= ................
Plot the graph of l versus T̄ 2 and determine the value of g
• If the same experiment is performed on the moon (gmoon = 1.6 m/s2 ), what will be
the value of the slope of l versus T̄ 2?............................................................................
• What will be the period of oscillation If the length of the simple pendulum is (0.6 m)
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Experiment 3 48

Physics Lab 105 Student Number:
Student Name: Date:

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Experiment 4 49

Physics 105 & 125
Projectile Motion
Objectives
In this experiment we study the case in which the projectile is launched at an angle
above the horizontal and onto the table top (floor) of a different level. The goal of
this experiment is to determine how the horizontal distance traveled by this projec-
tile depends on the launch angle, and determine the angle which gives the greatest
horizontal distance for this projectile.
Equipment
• Projectile launcher mounted on stand.
• Smart Timer, with two accessory photogate heads.
• Time of flight accessory.
• Measuring tape.
• Plastic Balls
• Carbon paper and white paper.
Theory
The projectile motion is a two-dimensional motion with constant acceleration. It can
be analyzed as a combination of two independent motions with accelerations ax = 0 in
the x-direction and ay = −g in the y-direction. To fulfill the goal of this experiment,
Experiment 4 50
we study only the projectile motion with constant velocity along the horizontal x-
direction. The horizontal distance, x, between the muzzle of the Launcher and the
place where the projectile lands on a surface, is given by
x = vx t = (vo cos θ)t (1)
where vo is the initial speed of the projectile as it leaves the muzzle, θ is the launch
angle above horizontal, and t is the time of flight.
Figure 1. Experimental setup for Projectile motion.
Therefore, for each shooting angle, we compare the measured and the calculated
horizontal distance x of the projectile. To do so we measure the time of flight t, as
well as the initial speed vo and substitute in Equation (1).
Procedure
1) Choose one corner of a table to place the projectile launcher. Make sure a
distance of about 3 meters is clear on the table.
2) Clamp the launcher to the corner of the table using the Universal “ C ” Clamp
(see Figure 1. above).
3) Using the attached plumb bob, adjust the angle of the launcher to 0o .
Experiment 4 51
4) Slide the Photogate Bracket into the T-slot on the bottom of the launcher and
tighten the thumbscrew underneath . Connect two photogates to the bracket.
Figure 2. Installing Photogate bracket.
5) Plug the photogate closest to the launcher into port 1 on the Smart Timer,
and Plug the other photogate into port 2 of the timer.
6) Put a plastic ball in the Projectile Launcher and use the plastic rod to cock it
to the middle range position.
7) Turn on the Smart Timer. Using the red“Select Measurement” button, choose
the “Time” measurement. Using the blue “Select Mode” button, choose the
“Two Gates” Mode.
8) As a first trial, shoot the ball and determine where about it will land on the
table top (floor). Position the Time of Flight accessory at the landing sight.
use a single sheet of white paper and carbon paper to cover the Time of Flight
Accessory.
9) Using the plastic rod, cock the Projectile Launcher with a ball to the middle
range position once again, press the black “Start/Stop” button on smart timer,
and shoot the ball to land on the carbon paper. On the smart timer, read the
Experiment 4 52
time (∆t) it takes the projectile to travel a distance of 0.1m between the two
photogates. Calculate the initial velocity ( vo )of the ball and record it the
table below.
10) Use the measuring tape to measure the horizontal distance ( xmeas ) of the
projectile. This distance has to be measured from the “Orange Mark” on the
base of the Launching Stand to the black dot the carbon paper produces on the
white paper on top of the Time of Flight accessory. Record the data in Data
Table 1.
11) Unplug the second photogate from Port 2 of the Smart Timer and connect
the Time of Flight Accessory instead. Using the plastic rod, cock the ball to
the middle range position once again, press the black “Start/Stop” button on
smart timer, and shoot the ball to land on the carbon paper. On the smart
timer, read the time of flight (t) it takes the projectile to reach the Time of
Flight Accessory and record it the table.
12) With a measuring tape, Repeat the measurement the horizontal distance ( xmeas )
of the projectile. Calculate the average value of the measured horizontal dis-
tance (x̄meas )
13) As illustrated in Equation 1, Use the initial velocity and the angle to Compute
the calculated horizontal distance (xcalc ) in meters.
14) Compare your result of the calculated and measured horizontal distance.
15) Plot the relation between the calculated range versus the angle. This graph
you will draw looks like a smooth curve through the points.
Experiment 4 53
.
Experiment 4 54

Physics
. Lab 105 & 125 Student Number:
Student Name: Date:
Projectile Motion
Objectives:
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Table I.
θ ∆t vo = 0.1m
∆t
xmeas xmeas t x̄meas xcalc = (vo cos θ) t
(deg) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
∗ From the graph, what angle gives the maximum horizontal displacement?
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∗ Comment on the acceleration of motion in the x-direction and in the y-direction:
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∗ What is the speed of the projectile at the top of the trajectory?
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Experiment 4 55

Student Name: Date:
Projectile Motion

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Experiment 5 56

Physics 105 & 125
Static Equilibrium of forces and Hook’s Law
Objectives
The aim of this experiment is to study the ”Static equilibrium of forces“ and de-
velop the conditions required to maintain equilibrium for a system of objects. (New-
ton’s 2nd and 3rd Laws). We also study Hook’s law and employ the theory of Static
equilibrium of forces to calibrate a spring as a dynamometer and use it for the mea-
surement of forces. We finally, use the theory of Static equilibrium once again to
decompose forces into perpendicular components.
Equipments:
• Experimental board with mass hangers (mass 5 g),
• Mass pieces (10 g,20 g, 50 g, 100 g),
• Dynamometer (spring balance with three different scales).
• Force Table Assembly with Legs.
• Super Pulley with Clamp
Theory
In this experiment the method of decomposing a force into components and expressing
a force as a Cartesian vector will be used to solve problems involving equilibrium of
particles. A particle of mass m under the influence of n number of forces is said to
be in equilibrium provided it is at rest if originally at rest, or has a constant velocity
Experiment 5 57
if originally in motion. In both cases, the acceleration of the particle equals zero.
Therefore, to maintain the state of equilibrium:
n
X
F = ma = 0 (1)
i=1
Since forces are vectors, and since we will mainly be dealing with forces that act in
the xy plane, then Equation 1 states that the components of the net force must each
be zero. Thus, the condition for equilibrium is written as:
n
X n
X
Fx = 0, Fy = 0. (2)
i=1 i=1
Hook’s Law
Suppose you are holding a simple coil spring of natural (or unstretched) length L.
When you apply a force Fx to stretch the spring and cause an (x) amount of extention
beyond its natural length, the force Fx is found to be directly proportional to the
extension (x). See Figure 1.
Figure 1. A spring of natural length x with applied force Fx.
Therefore, the force Fx can be written as
Fx = k (x).
Where k is a constant, known an the Spring constant or F orce constant. It represents
a measure of how elastic or how stiff this particular spring is. The extention in length
(x), on the other hand, should be small because the elasticity feature of the spring
Experiment 5 58
may be damaged if you extend the spring beyond its elastic limit. The spring itself
is found to exert a force Fs to the opposite direction of the applied force Fx . This
force is known as restoring force because it tends to restore the spring to its natural
length, and is given by Hook’s Law:
Fs = −k (x). (3)
In order to calculate the spring constant k of the Dynamometer in the lab, we apply
a force of a known magnitude Fw , (that is equal to the weight of a known mass m.
See Figure 2), and measure the resulting extension to the spring.
Figure 2. (a) The Dynamometer with its natural length

(b) The Dynamometer with applied force Fw .
Since the acceleration of the hanging mass equals zero; The forces acting on it are
said to be in equilibrium. Therefore, we can write
!
mg
* Fw + Fs = 0 =⇒ mg − k(y) = 0 =⇒ k = (4)
y
Notes that the extention of spring length is denoted by (y).
Experiment 5 59
Decomposition of Forces
In this part of the experiment we test the validity of the conditions necessary for
static equilibrium of forces, which are stated previously in Equation 2. Suppose we
have three forces acting on a circular object that is either at rest or moving with
constant velocity. See Figure 3.
Figure 3. Free-Body Diagram
If the object is at rest, then:
• along the x-direction, we should have:
F1x + F2x + F3x = 0 =⇒ F1 cos θ1 + F2 cos θ2 + F3 cos θ3 = 0

• along the y-direction we should have:
F1y + F2y + F3y = 0 =⇒ F1 sin θ1 + F2 sin θ2 + F3 sin θ3 = 0

Refer to Figure 4. The exact same analysis is carried out to show that the x component
of the force F3 that is provided by the mass m3 and applied to the force ring, is in fact
equal in magnitude to the sum of the x components of the forces F1 and F2 applied
to the same force ring by the hanging masses m1 and m2. Similarly, along the y
direction, we should show that the magnitude of the force F3 applied to the force ring
by the hanging mass m3 is equal to the sum of the magnitude of the y components
of the remaining forces F1 and F2.
Experiment 5 60
Figure 4. Assemble the force table as shown. Use three super pulley clamps (two
for the forces that will be added and one for the force that balances the sum of the
other two forces). Arrange the strings from the Force Ring over the pulleys.
Experiment 5 61
Procedure
Part I: Hook’s Law
1) Hang the spring balance on the experimental board (Figure 2.). Be sure the
spring hangs vertically in the plastic tube.
2) With no force applied to the spring balance, adjust the zeroing screw on the
top of the spring balance until the indicator is aligned with the 0 mm mark on
the millimeter scale of the spring balance as shown in Figure 2(a).
3) Hang the 5 gram mass hanger with a 50 gram mass from the spring balance.
4) Measure the spring displacement (y ) on the millimeter scale as shown in Figure

2(b). Record the values of the total mass (mtotal ) and the spring displacement
(y ) in Table I.
5) Repeat step 4 with other total masses according to Table I.
6) Calculate the total weight in newton for each value of the total mass (mtotal ).
Record your results in the table.
7) Calculate the spring constant k using Equation (4).
8) Plot the applied force Fw = mtotal g versus spring displacement (y ). The

slope of the graph is the spring constant k for the spring used in the dynamome-
ter.
Experiment 5 62
Part II: Force Decomposition
1) Set up the equipment with force table, mass hanger, masses, super pulleys,
force ring assembly and string as shown in Figure 4.
2) Hang the mass hangers directly to the strings attached to the force ring assem-
bly. Adjust the strings from the Force ring assembly over the Super Pulleys.
3) Apply two forces F1 and F2 on the force table by handing masses m1 and m2
over pulleys position at certain angles as indicated in Table II below.
4) Adjust the angle θ3 and amount of mass m3 hanging over the third pulley until
the force F3 from this pulley balances the forces F1 and F2 from the other two
pulleys
5) Test whether the system is in equilibrium. The clear disk on the Force Ring
assembly must be centered when the system is in equilibrium. Pull the disk
slightly to one side and let it go. Check to see that the disk returns to the
center in the Force Ring assembly. If not, adjust the mass m3 and/or the angle
θ3 of the super pulley clamp until the disk always returns to the center when
pulled slightly to one side.
6) Verify the conditions of static equilibrium along the X and Y directions.

Experiment 5 63
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Experiment 5 64

Student Name: Date:
Objectives:
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Part I. Hook’s Law

Table I. Determination of Spring force constant k.
Fw
Mtotal (g) y( )* Fw = mtotalg ( )** k= y ( )
95
115
135
175
195
225
Remarks: ∗ Spring extension (y) should be converted from (mm) to (m).

∗ ∗ The measurements of (mtotal) should be converted from (g) to (kg).
Experiment 5 65

Student Name: Date:
Standard deviation and standard error calculation:

Find the average value of spring force constant k of the dynamometer
i.e,
k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 + k5 + k6
k= = ..........................................
6
Complete the following table and report the result in the form k̄ ± σk̄ .
quantity k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
ki
(ki - k)
(ki - k)2
standard deviation:
v
u
u 1 i=n
X
u
σk = t (ki − k)2 = ..........................
n − 1 i=1
standard error(σk ).
σk
σk = √ = ....................................
n
RESULT : k̄ ± σk̄ = ..................................
Determine the percentage error of k obtained (ktheory = 50N/m):
ktheory − kcalculated .............−..............

× 100 = × 100 = ...................%
ktheory ..................
Experiment 5 66

Student Name: Date:
Plot a graph of Fw versus y and determine the spring force constant

(k)
Part II. Forces Decomposition

Hang the following masses over two of the super pulleys and clamp the
pulleys at the given angles.
Table II.
Masses F = mg Angles
(g) ( ) Deg
m1 = 205g F1 = θ1 = 30o
m2 = g F2 = θ2 =
m3 = 225g F3 = θ3 = 261o
Experiment 5 67

Student Name: Date:
Calculate the x and y components for each force acting on the Force
Ring:
F1x = ...................................... F1y = ......................................
F2x = ...................................... F2y = .....................................
F3x = ...................................... F3y = .....................................
From your result, test whether forces are in equilibrium the x direction?
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From your result, test whether forces are in equilibrium the y direction?
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Experiment 6 68

Physics 105 & 125
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Objectives
The goal of this experiment is to set a Mini-car in motion from rest on a step downhill
like track and investigate the conservation of mechanical energy of this car at various
points along the track which includes a circular loop configuration as well as a straight
flat portion. The height from which the car must be released from rest on the down-
hill step so that it can just barely make it through the loop can be predicted from
conservation of energy and the centripetal acceleration. Furthermore, calculation of
the normal force acting on the car at the top of the circular loop is carried out.
Equipments:
• Roller Coaster Complete System.
• Measuring devices: Metric Ruler.
• Photogate heads connected to Smart Timer.
Theory
Mechanical energy is E is defined as the sum of both Kinetic energy K and the
Potential energy U of all objects or particles in a given isolated physical system.
E= K +U
Experiment 6 69
Conservation of mechanical energy requires that the mechanical energy of any isolated
system remains constant in time, which means that total amount of mechanical energy
of the moving particles of the system is not subject of any changes as long as the
system is isolated and free of all frictional and other non-conservative forces. A
decrease or increase in the kinetic energy of the system is accompanied by an equal
increase or decrease in its potential energy. Thus kinetic and potential energies are
transformed into each other during the motion of the particles of the system in such
a way that the mechanical energy remains unchanged.
The expression of conservation of mechanical energy at any point on the roller coaster
track can be written simply as:
Ei = Ef
K i + Ui = K f + Uf
1 2 1
mvi + mghi = mvf2 + mghf (1)
2 2
Where i and f both represent the initial and final state of the moving particles. In
the presence of Non-conservative forces such as friction, initial and final mechanical
energy will not be the same which leads to the fact that
∆E = Ef − Ei = Wfriction
In this experiment (Figure 1), a single particle (Mini-car) is released from rest on the
top of the hill at point (A), reaches the bottom of the hill at point (B), it then goes
through a single vertical circular loop (B) and to a straight segment from (D) till it
reaches point (E).

Experiment 6 70
The Normal force (n) acting on the Mini-car at the top of the circular loop (C) is
calculated from Newton’s second law along the y-direction:
X
Fy = m ac
Where (Fy ) represent the sum of all y components of the existing forces acting on the
car, and (ac ) is the centripetal acceleration of the moving car in a uniform circular
motion. Therefore;
v2
n + mg = m

R
2
v
n = m  − g (2)
R
Procedure
1) Configure the track as shown in Figure 2. The photogate heads should be
attached to the bottom of the hill (point B), the top of the loop (point C), and
to the straight portion of the track at (point D) and (point E).
2) Put the catcher at the end of the straight part of the track to keep the car from
going off the end of the track.
Figure 2. Experimental Board with Loop setup and photogate heads attached.
Experiment 6 71
3) Place the Mini-car at the top of the step on the left (Point A). Mark on the
white board where you release the car. Measure the initial height (hA ) of the
car from the table to the center of mass of the car. Note that the center of mass
of the car is approximately at the slot where the flag is inserted.
4) Place the Mini-car at the top of the loop from the inside (Point C). Hold the
car with one hand and Mark on the position of the center of mass of the car
on the white board. Measure the radius (R) of the loop and the distance (hC )
from the center of mass of the car at the top of the loop to the table.
5) Place the car at the bottom on the flat part of the track (Point D) and measure
the height (hD ) of the car from the table and repeat the measurement at (Point
E) in order to measure (hE ).
6) Attach the photogate head to the photogate

bracket, and use the wing nut to attach the
bracket onto the photogate threaded rod.
at points (B), (C), (D) and (E) along the
track.(Figure 2).
7) On Smart Timer-1, Connect the jack of photogate (B) to the input channel 1.
Also, Connect the jack of photogate (C) to the input channel 2.
8) On Smart Timer-2, Connect the jack of photogate (D) to the input channel 1.
Also, Connect the jack of photogate (E) to the input channel 2.
9) On the touch pad keys of both smart timers:
* Press the Select Measurement (# 1 RED) key until you read “SPEED”
the top line of the display.
* Press the Select Mode (# 2 BLUE) key until you read “COLLISION”
the top line of the display.
Experiment 6 72
* In order to measure the velocity of the moving Mini-car at points (B), (C)
(D) and (E), Press the Start/Stop (# 3 BLACK) key then release the
car from the top of the step hill on the left (Point A). When the car reaches
the catcher, Press the Start/Stop (# 3 BLACK) key once again to stop
the timer. The displayed result of the velocity at point (B) and (C) on
Smart Timer-1 and the velocity at point (D) and (E) on Smart Timer-2
respectively are of the following format:
1: XX.X , 00.0 (cm/s) ← [press (#1) or (#2)] → 2: YY.Y , 00.0 (cm/s)
10) On the data sheet, record the results of velocities on the left side of the data
Table, and calculate the total mechanical energy at of the moving car.
11) Repeat this entire experiment but with additional mass piece added to the
Mini-car. Record your readings on the right side of the data Table.
Experiment 6 73
.
Experiment 6 74

Student Name: Date:
Objectives:
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Experiment 6
Table 1: Conservation of Mechanical Energy
R = ......( )∗∗ mcar = ...............( )∗ mcar + msteel = ...............( )∗
Point A Point B Point C Point D Point E Point A Point B Point C Point D Point E
height (h) hA = hB = hC = hD = hE = hA = hB = hC = hD = hE =
( )∗∗
velocity (v) vA = vB = vC = vD = vE = vA = vB = vC = vD = vE =
( )∗∗∗
P. Energy (U) UA = UB = UD = UE = UA = UB = UD = UE =
( )
K. Energy (K) KA = KB = KD = KE = KA = KB = KD = KE =
( )
Mechanical EA = EB = ED = EE = EA = EB = ED = EE =
Energy (E)
( )

E −E E −E E −E E −E
Percentage of = A B
EA
× 100 = D
ED
E
× 100 = A B
EA
× 100 = D
ED
E
× 100
Total energy
lost
Remarks: ∗ The units of mesurements of mass should be converted from (g) to (kg).
∗ ∗ The units of measurements of height should be converted from (cm) to (m).
∗ ∗ ∗ The units measurements of velocity should be converted from (cm/s) to (m/s).
75
Experiment 6 76

Student Name: Date:
Questions:
The following questions are related to the part of the experiment when the Mini-car
Only was used:
1 - Calculate the amount of work done by friction on the car as it travels from point
(A) to (B), and from point (A) to (E).
...........................................................................................................................................
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...........................................................................................................................................
2 - Compare your results for question 1 and state which trip has larger friction and
why?
...........................................................................................................................................
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...........................................................................................................................................
3 - Calculate the normal force acting on the Mini-car as it passes through the top of
the circular loop at point (C) from the inside.
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Experiment 6 77

Student Name: Date:
4 - What is the speed of the car at point C (vC ) in order to have zero normal force
acting on it at this point?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
5 - What should be the minimum height (hA ) of the car at point A in order for it to
have zero normal force when it reaches the top of the circular loop at point (C)?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
6 - Compute the normal force acting on the car at point at point (B).
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
7 - Compute the centripetal acceleration (ac ) of the car as it moves in a uniform

circular motion in the loop at point (C).
...........................................................................................................................................
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Experiment 6 78

Student Name: Date:
Questions:
The following questions are related to the part of the experiment when the Mini-car
and 50g mass piece were used:
1- How does increasing the mass of the car change the total mechanical energy at
points (A) and (B)?
...........................................................................................................................................
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...........................................................................................................................................
2- How does increasing the mass of the car change the speed of the car at points (B)
and (C)?
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Experiment 6 79

Student Name: Date:
Discussion and Conclusion:

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Experiment 7 80

Physics 105 & 125
Explosion and Elastic Collision
Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to study the conservation of linear momentum,
conservation of kinetic energy, and to demonstrate both conservation laws for a one-
dimensional elastic head-on collision as well as explosion.
Equipment
• 1.2 m long track with Feet and End stops.
• frictionless Plunger cart,
• frictionless Collision Cart,
• 250g (short) and 500g (long) Black Mass Bars,
• Smart timer with 2 accessory photogates.
• Photo-gate timer with accessory photo-gate.
Theory
The linear momentum p~ and the kinetic energy K of an object of mass m moving
with velocity ~v is defined as
1
~p = m~v , K = mv 2 (1)
2
Experiment 7 81
Collisions usually are categorized into two major types, mainly ”Elastic collision” or
”Inelastic collision”. The Inelastic collision is divided further into two main subcate-
gories known as the ”Partial inelastic collision”, where the lose of kinetic energy can
be greater that zero and less than 100%. The second type; however, is known as the
”Total Inelastic collision” where the lose of kinetic energy will be exactly equal to
100%. One has to keep in mind that for all types of collisions mentioned above, that
linear momentum is conserved.
When two bodies with masses m1 and m2 moving along the x-axis with initial veloci-
ties ~v1i and ~v2i encounter an elastic head-on collision, the total linear momentum will
be conserved, i.e.:
~p1i + ~p2i = ~p1f + p~2f , (2)
or
m1~v1i + m2~v2i = m1~v1f + m2~v2f . (3)
And the total kinetic energy of the system is conserved as well. i.e.:
K1i + K2i = K1f + K2f . (4)

or
1 1 1 1
m1 v12i + m2 v22i = m1 v12f + m2 v22f . (5)
2 2 2 2
And this type of collision is referred to as Elastic collision.
As an example of completely inelastic collision we should analyze the case of

explosion. In this experiment, we will consider the case when the physical system is
divided, due to the explosion, to two product bodies pushed away from each other.
If the system is initially at rest, then both the total initial linear momentum and the
total initial kinetic energy of the physical system are equal to zero. Consequently,
the linear momentum of both bodies after the explosion will be equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction. i.e.:
~p1f = −~p2f =⇒ |~p1f | = |~p2f |

Experiment 7 82
The kinetic energy, however is not conserved. Although the initial kinetic energy of
both bodied is zero, their final kinetic energies are related as follows:
!
m2
K1f = K2f
m1
Procedure
Conservation of Momentum in Explosions
1) Mount an end stop at each end of the track and Level the track by adjusting
the two screws beneath the Feets on both sides of the track until a glider placed
at the center of track becomes stationary.
2) Put two photogates on the mounting brackets or stand. They should be posi-
tioned near the center of the track. as shown below.
Figure 1. Experimental setup for One Dimensional Explosion.
3) Put a picket fence into the slots on top of each cart. Label one cart as ”cart
1” and the other (the cart with plunger) as ”cart 2”.
4) Measure the total mass of each cart with its picket fence and record the values
in kilograms in the data Table 1.
Experiment 7 83
5) Adjust the hight of the both photogates so that the beam can read the full
width of the two black strips at the top of the picket fences that are attached to
the carts. Connect both the photogates to Channel 1 & 2 on the smart timer.
The photogates must be positioned such that they are near the end of each cart
(see Figure 1).
6) Push in the plunger of the plunger cart (cart 2) to its third notch. Put the
carts end-to-end in the middle of the track.
7) Set up the Smart Timer to measure Speed by pressing button #1 on timer key
pad, and select collision (cm/s) mode by pressing button #2 on timer key
pad of the Smart Timer
8) Start the Smart Timer by pressing button #3 on timer key pad. You should be
able to see the symbol (*) on the display of the Smart timer. Tap the plunger
release button (trigger) with a short stick to set both carts in explosion motion.
9) Record your measurements of the velocity in the first line (trial 1) of Table 1
below. Note that the smart timer measures speed only (which is always positive
or zero) however the velocity recorded in Table 1 must include the signe (pluse
or minus) according to the direction of motion of the cart.
10) For the second trial, put a 250 g mass bar into ”cart 2” only. (Do not add any
mass bars to the other ”cart 2”).
11) For the third trial, put 250 g of extra mass into the ”cart 2”. Measure and
record the new mass of the cart, and repeat the data recording procedure.
Conservation of Momentum in Elastic Collisions
1) Set up the carts so the magnetic ends face each other by rotating “cart 2” 180o
horizontally, so the carts will repel each other by magnetic force when they
collide.
Experiment 7 84
2) Place “cart 2” at rest in the middle of the track (The collision zone) and “cart
1” should be kept at the left end of the track (See Figure 2).
Figure 2. Experimental setup for One Dimensional Elastic Collision.
3) Set up the Smart Timer to measure Speed by pressing button #1 on timer key
pad, and select collision (cm/s) mode by pressing button #2 on timer key
pad of the Smart Timer.
4) Start the Smart Timer by pressing button #3 on timer key pad. You should
be able to see the symbol (*) on the display of the Smart timer.
5) Give ”cart 1” an initial velocity by pushing it gently with your hand toward
the ”cart 2” which is at rest. Weigh the carts and record the masses and
the velocities in Table 2 including the signe of the velocity (pluse or minus)
according to the direction of motion of the carts.
6) Repeat the previous step; however, Put the 500g mass bar into ”cart 2” and
Place it at rest in collision zone in the middle of the track. Give ”cart 1” an
initial velocity toward ”cart 2”. Weigh the carts and record the masses and
velocities in Table 2.
7) Repeat the previous step; however, the 500g mass bar is placed into ”cart 1”
on the side and leave ”cart 2” at rest in the collision zone without any additional
masses. Push the ”cart 1” and record the masses and velocities in Table 2.
Experiment 7 85
.
Experiment 7 86

Student Name: Date:
Objectives:
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Conservation of Momentum in Explosions
Table 1: Mcart1 = .....................( )∗ , Mcart2 = ........................( )∗
pTi = pTf = % Error=

|PTi |−|PTf |
Trial M1 M2 v1f v2f M1 v1i + M2 v2i M1 v1f + M2 v2f |PTi |+|PTf |
× 100
( )∗ ( )∗ ( )∗∗ ( )∗∗ ( ) ( )
Trial 1
cart 17→Empty
cart 27→Empty
Trial 2
cart 17→Empty
cart 27→+250g
Trial 3
cart 17→Empty
cart 27→+500g
∗ ∗ The units measurements of velocity should be converted from (cm/s) to (m/s).
Experiment 7 87

Student Name: Date:
Measurements:
Trial 1:
Ktotali = K1i + K2i = .............. , Ktotalf = 12 M1 v12f + 12 M2 v22f = ............................
Trial 2:
Ktotali = ............................. , Ktotalf = 12 M1 v12f + 12 M2 v22f = ................................
Trial 3:
Ktotali = ............................. , Ktotalf = 12 M1 v12f + 12 M2 v22f = ................................
• For any given Trial. Check whether linear momentum is conserved?

.............................................................................................................................
• For any given Trial. Check whether kinatic energy is conserved?

.............................................................................................................................
• Based on the results obtained in Table 1, Please compare the velocity (magnitude
and direction) of both carts after the explosion and write a brief comment to explain
which cart has the larger velocity?, and why?
In Trial (1): .........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
In Trial (3): .........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
Experiment 7
Conservation of Momentum in Elastic collision
Table 2: Mcart1 = .....................( )∗, Mcart2 = ..........................( )∗
PT otali = PT otalf =
|PTi |−|PTf |
Trial M1 M2 v1i v1f v2i v2f M1 v1i + M2 v2i M1 v1f + M2v2f %Error= |PTi |+|PTf |
× 100
( )∗ ( )∗ ( )∗∗ ( )∗∗ ( )∗∗ ( )∗∗ ( ) ( )
Trial 1
cart 17→Empty
cart 27→Empty
Trial 2
cart 17→Empty
cart 27→+500g
Trial 3
cart 17→+Empty
cart 27→+750g
∗ ∗ The units measurements of velocity should be converted from (cm/s) to (m/s).
Measurements:
Trial 1: Ktotali = 12 M1 v12i + 12 M2 v22i = ............................................. , Ktotalf = 12 M1 v12f + 12 M2 v22f = .............................................
88
Experiment 7 89

Student Name: Date:

• For any given Trial. Check whether linear momentum is conserved?
.............................................................................................................................
• For any given Trial. Check whether kinatic energy is conserved?

.............................................................................................................................
• Based on the results obtained in Table 2, Please write a comment on the direction
of motion of cart 1 befor and after the collision.
In Trial (1): .........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
In Trial (3): .........................................................................................................................

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Experiment 8 90

Physics 105 & 125
Torque of Parallel and Non-parallel Forces
Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to study the equilibrium conditions of rigid body
and to analyze the torque produced by both parallel and non-parallel forces on a
beam balance (lever).
Equipment
• introductory Mechanics System with experimental board, Balance Arm and
Protractor assembly.
• Pulley, Mounted Spring Scale, Mass and Hanger Set.
Theory
We have seen earlier in experiment (6) th condition that needs to be satisfied in order
to get static equilibrium of forces for a point mass. This condition is:
ΣFxi = 0 , ΣFyi = 0 (1)
for a extended rigid body this condition remains valid if we apply it to the center of
gravity. If the rigid body is free to rotate however, there is an additional condition
that needs to be satisfied for equilibrium that is:
Σ~τi = 0 (2)
Where ~τi is the torque produced by force Fi about the rotating point of the rigid
body and hence it can be identified as a ”turning agent”. Figure 1 shows a force F
Experiment 8 91
acting on a beam that is free to rotate about an axis. The force is applied at point
P, whose position is defined by the vector ~
r.
Figure 1. Torque of force F about a rotating point.
The angle θ is the angle the force F makes with the direction of the arm vector ~r.
The torque τ is defined as:
~τ = ~r × F~ with magnitude τ = r F sin(θ) (3)
In this experiment the rotating point is the pivot. If the sum of all torques is equal
to zero then the lever remains in equilibrium. If the net torque is not equal to zero
then the beam starts to rotate.
Procedure
Parallel forces
1) For balancing the beam, setup the equipment as shown in Figure 2. Loosen
the thumbscrew on the base and adjust the beam so that the zero mark on
the beam is aligned with the indicator marks on the pivot. When the beam is
level, the bubble in the bubble level will be midway between the two lines on
the level.
Experiment 8 92
Figure 2. Experimental setup for Torque of Parallel Forces.
2) Find the mass of the two protractor used by the triple balance or the digital
balance and record their masses. Loosen the thumbscrew on the two protrac-
tors and slide one onto each end of the beam. Tie a mass hanger to the thread
on the angle indicator of each protractor.
3) Mount the Balance beam with the attached base near the center of the Statics
Board.
4) attache masses M1 and M2 and Position one of the protractors near one end
the beam and tighten its thumbscrew to hold it in place. Adjust the position
of the other protractor until the beam is perfectly balanced, and then tighten
its thumbscrew to hold it in place.
5) Measure r1 and r2 , the distances from the pivot to the center of each protractor
and record all readings in Table 7.1.
6) Vary M1 and M2 and repeat your measurements for different masses.
7) Use F = Mtotal g where g is the acceleration due to gravity to determine the

weight force of the hanging masses (Mtotal) and calculate the torques.
Experiment 8 93
Non-parallel forces
1) Mount the Balance beam on the left half of the Statics Board. Adjust the
beam so that the zero marks on the beam align with the indicator marks on the
pivot. Put a protractor on each end of the beam as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Experimental setup for Torque of Non-Parallel Forces.
2) Use a hanging mass and the dynamometer to apply forces F~1 and F~d as illus-
trated in Figure 3 above.
3) Fix the value of rd to 100mm, and Measure r1 and record these values in
Table 2.
4) Record M1 and F1 of the hanging mass in Table 2. and Calculate the torque
of force F1 about the pivot point.
5) By moving the pulley, you can adjust the angle θ of the force Fd .
Experiment 8 94
6) Set the angle θ to 45o . Move the dynamometer towards or away from the
pulley as needed so that the magnitude of Fd is sufficient to balance the beam,
then record the reading on the newton scale of the dynamometer.
7) Calculate the torque (τ2 ) provided by the dynamometer about the pivot point.
8) Compute the percentage difference between τ1 and τ2 .

Experiment 8 95
.
Experiment 8 96

Student Name: Date:
Objectives:
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
Torque of Two Parallel forces
The mass of protractors: Mprotractor1 = ..................... , Mprotractor2 = ......................
M1 r1 F1 = Mtotal1 g τ1 = F1 r1 M2 r2 F2 = Mtotal2 g τ2 = F2 r2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
55 75
45 85
155 65
135 55
75 75
Note that: Mtotal1 = M1 + Mprotractor1 , and Mtotal2 = M2 + Mprotractor2 .

Experiment 8 97

Student Name: Date:

• Compare τ1 and τ2 and check the equilibrium condition equation (2).
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
• From your results, what mathematical relationship must there be between τ1

and τ2 in order for the beam to be balanced?
........................................................................................................................
Torque of Two Non-Parallel forces
The mass of protractors: Mprotractor1 = ..................... , Mprotractor2 = ......................

τ2 = Fd rd sin(θ)
|τ |−|τ |
M1 r1 F1 = Mtotal1 g τ1 = F1 r1 Fd rd θ +Mprot2 g rd %Error= |τ1|+|τ2| × 100
1 2
(g) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (mm) (deg) ( )
105 100 45o
135 100 45o
165 100 45o
195 100 45o
225 100 45o
Note that:Mtotal1 = M1 + Mprotractor1 .

Experiment 8 98

Student Name: Date:

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Experiment 9 99

Physics 105 only
Rotational motion I
Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to study rotational kinematics (uniformly acceler-
ated rotational motion) and to learn how to measure moment of inertia of a rotating
disk and to verify that the experimental value of moment of inertia is consistent with
the corresponding theoretical value.
Equipments:
• Setup for Circular Motion (Cast Iron ”A” base with rotating shaft, aluminum
track, a 300g square mass with thumbscrew, rotating disk, mass hanger, mass
pieces, string with hook, mounting rod with pulley).
Smart Timer.
Ruler (For the dimensions of the rotating disk).
Vernier caliper (For the radius of the vertical pulley).
Theory
Newton’s second law for uniformly accelerated rotational motion is stated as
τ = Iα (1)
where I is the moment of inertia of the rotating solid disk about the axis of rotation,
α is the angular acceleration of the disk, and τ is the net torque applied to it. In order
Experiment 9 100
to compute the experimental value of the moment of inertia I of the solid disk, then
we should determine first the experimental value of both its angular acceleration α
and the amount of torque τ applied to it.
• To determine the angular acceleration α of the disk we will consider the following
equation
1
∆θ = ωo t + αt2 (2)
2
with initial conditions θo = 0 and ωo = 0. Hence, Equation (2) is reduced to
1
θ = αt2 (3)
2
which implies the fact the α is determined by studying the relation between
the angular position (θ) and the time of revolution (t).
• To determine the torque τ applied to the rotating disk (Figure 1), you should
keep in mind that this torque is due to the tension of the string wrapped around
the vertical pulley.
Figure 1. Rotational Apparatus and Free-Body Diagram

Experiment 9 101
Utilizing the definition of torque studied earlier in experiment 8, the torque is

identified as:
~τ = ~r × F~ with magnitude τ = r F sin(θ) (4)
where F = me g represents the magnitude of the force ( weight of the effective

mass me ) applied to the vertical pulley and causes it to rotate. The term (r)
is the moment arm and it represents the radius of the vertical pulley (r = Rvp )
mounted on the vertical shaft. Because the theory used to find the rotational
inertia experimentally does not include friction then you should find out how
much mass over the horizontal pulley is needed to overcome the static friction
and allow the hanging mass to drop at a constant speed. We refer to this mass
as ”friction mass” mf and it will be subtracted from the hanging mass mh used
to accelerate the apparatus. therefore, (me = mh − mf ). Thus, we can write:
τ = (Rvp)(me g)sin(90o) (5)
The experimental value of the moment of inertia I of the solid disk is compared to
the Theoretical moment of inertia Itheoretical of the disk about its central axis which
is given by
1
Itheocratical = Md R2d (6)
2
where Md is the mass of the solid disk and Rd is its radius.
Procedure:
Leveling the “A” Base
1) Set up the equipment according to Figure 2.
2) Attach the 300g square mass onto either end of the aluminum track and tighten
the thumbscrew.
Experiment 9 102
3) Adjust the leveling screw on the right leg of the base until the end of the track
with the square mass is aligned over the leveling screw of the left leg of the base.
4) Rotate the track 90o so it becomes parallel to the right side of the “A” base and
adjust the other leveling screw until the track remains at rest in this position.
5) The track should remain at rest regardless of its orientation otherwise repeat
steps 3 and 4.
Figure 2. Leveling the “A” base

Experiment 9 103
Moment of Inertia of a Solid Disk
1) Set up the rotating apparatus as shown in Figure 1 with the disk placed onto
the vertical shaft.
2) Using a hook, fix the string to the hole in the vertical pulley and wind the string
around that pulley by rotating the disk. The total length of the string should
deliver a suitable height h, for which the disk can make at least 10 revolutions
before the hanging mass falls to the ground.
3) Use the free spoke of the vertical pulley and the photogate timer to measure
the period of each revolution of the disk.
4) For measuring of the periods, Press the ”Select Measurement key” on the Smart
Timer until the word Time is displayed on the top line of the display. Press
the ”Select Mode key” until the Fence mode is displayed after the measurement
type. press the ”Start/Stop” to begin. You will hear a beep, and a asterisk (*)
will appear on the second line of the display.
5) Release the disk from rest and allow the hanging mass to reach the ground.
The Smart timer will show all readings on the periods automatically. Record
the all data in Table 1.
6) Plot the graph of the angular position θ versus t2 . Determine the angular
acceleration from this graph and then calculate the moment of inertia of the
disk using Equation (1).
7) Compare the experimental value of the moment of inertia of the disk with the
theoretical value calculated.
Experiment 9 104
.
Experiment 9 105

Physics Lab 105 only Student Number:
Student Name: Date:
Rotational motion I
Objectives:
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
• Measure and record the following parameters:
∗ The radius of the rotating disk Rd = ........................................................
∗ The mass of the disk Md = ........................................................................
∗ The radius of the vertical pulley Rvp = ......................................................
∗ The friction mass mf = ..............................................................................
∗ The hanging mass mh = ............................................................................
∗ The effective mass me = ............................................................................
∗ The torque τ using equation (4)= ..............................................................
∗ The moment of inertia of the disk using equation:
(Itheoretical = 12 Md R2d ) = ..........................................

Experiment 9 106
Kuwait University Physics Departement

Student Name: Date:
Rotational motion I
Table 1.
n θ = 2πn t t2
(rot) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 t1 =
2 t1+2 =
3 t1+2+3 =
4 t1+2+3+4 =
5 t1+2+3+4+5 =
6 t1+2+3+4+5+6 =
7 t1+2+3+4+5+6+7 =
8 t1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8 =
9 t1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9 =
10 t1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9+10 =
Angular acceleration α (from the graph)= ............................................
Experimental value of I (from Equation 1) = .......................................
Theoretical value of I (from Equation 5) = ...........................................

Experiment 9 107

Student Name: Date:
Rotational motion I
Plot the following graph:
Percentage error in the value of I obtained:
Itheoretical − Iexpreimental
× 100 = .................................
Itheoretical

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Experiment 10 108

Physics 105 only
Rotational motion II
Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to study rotational kinetic energy and to verify
the conservation of mechanical energy in the absence of frictional forces.
Equipments:
• Setup for Circular Motion (Cast Iron ”A” base with rotating shaft, aluminum
track, a 300g square mass with thumbscrew, rotating disk, mass hanger, mass
pieces, string with hook, mounting rod with pulley).
Photogate timer.
Ruler (For the dimensions of the rotating disk).
Vernier caliper (For the radius of the vertical pulley).
Theory
Mechanical energy (E) is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies in a system.
The principle of the conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechan-
ical energy in a system (i.e., the sum of the potential plus kinetic energies) remains
constant as long as the only forces acting on the system are conservative forces. Con-
sequently;
∆E = 0 =⇒ Ei = Ef (1)
Experiment 10 109
where i represent the initial energy of the system before the motion and f represent
the energy of the same system after the motion. As illustrated in Figure 1 below,
the investigated physical system is a system that consists of two moving objects.
Namely, the rotational solid disk that rotates sagittally about its central axis and
effective hanging mass (me ) that moves in translational motion toward the earth
surface.
Figure 1. Rotational Apparatus and Free-Body Diagram

Therefore, the total initial mechanical energy of this system is written as :

ETi = Ug(disk) + Ug(m + K(disk)i + K(me )i
e)
i i
1 1
= 0 + me gh + Iωo2 + me vo2 = me gh
2 2
where Ug is the gravitational potential energy of both objects in the system, K(disk)i
is the initial rotational kinetic energy of the solid disk that is expressed in terms of
moment of inertia (I) and initial angular velocity (ωo ) of the disk. The term K(me )i
is the initial translational kinetic energy of the effective hanging mass as it starts to
move with initial velocity (vo ) downward toward the ground. If the hanging mass
starts falling from rest at a height h above the ground then vo = 0 and ωo = 0.
Experiment 10 110
Similarly, the total final mechanical energy of the system is written as:
!

ETf = Ug(disk) + Ug(m + K(disk)f + K(me )f
e)
f f
1 1
= 0 + 0 + Iωf2 + me vf2
2 2
Therefore, by substituting these results back in equation (1) above we conclude that
the conservation of mechanical energy requires:
1 1
me g h = Iωf2 + me vf2 (2)
2 2
however, the translational kinetic energy Ktrn of the falling mass is very small (almost
negligible) then the chose to ignore it. That reduces Equation (8) to
1
me g h ' Iωf2 (3)
2
The theoretical moment of inertia Itheoretical of the disk about its central axis which
is given by
1
Itheocratical = Md R2d (4)
2
where Md is the mass of the solid disk and Rd is its radius.
Procedure:
Leveling the “A” Base
1) Set up the equipment according to Figure 2.
2) Attach the 300g square mass onto either end of the aluminum track and tighten
the thumbscrew.
3) Adjust the leveling screw on the right leg of the base until the end of the track
with the square mass is aligned over the leveling screw of the left leg of the base.
Experiment 10 111
4) Rotate the track 90o so it becomes parallel to the right side of the “A” base and
adjust the other leveling screw until the track remains at rest in this position.
5) The track should remain at rest regardless of its orientation otherwise repeat
steps 3 and 4.
Figure 2. Leveling the “A” base

Experiment 10 112
1) Set up the rotational apparatus as shown in Figure 1.
2) Measure the falling distance h and record it in Table 1. Adjust the length of
the string such that at the moment the falling mass hits the ground, the hook
would be released automatically from the threaded hole.
3) Set the photogate timer to pulse mode and measure the period Tf in the
phase of uniform motion just after the acceleration phase is over. Record it
Table 1.
4) Calculate the angular speed ωf = 2π

Tf and record it in Table 1.
5) Repeat the previous steps for other hanging masses given in Table 1.
6) Plot a graph of the rotational kinetic energy versus initial potential energy of
the effective mass. You should get a straight line through the origin with slope
equal to 1.
Experiment 10 113
.
Experiment 10 114

Student Name: Date:
Objectives:
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
• Measure and record the following parameters:
∗ The radius of the rotating disk Rd = ........................................................
∗ The mass of the disk Md = ........................................................................
∗ The friction mass mf = ..............................................................................
∗ The Falling height h = ............................................................................
∗ The moment of inertia of the disk using equation (5)= ...............................
Table 1. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
2π
mh me = (mh − mf ) Ug(m = me gh Tf ωf = Tf
Kdiskf = 12 Iωf2
e)i
(g) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
17
20
23
26
29
55
Experiment 10 115

Student Name: Date:
Plot the graph of Potential energy Vs. Rotational Kinetic energy:

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Experiment 9* 116

Physics 125 only
Velocity of Sound
Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to study the Phenomenon of Resonance in a
column of air, and use its result to determine the velocity of sound in air at room
temperature.
Equipments:
• Resonance Tube apparatus (Figure 1).
• Open Speaker.
• Sine Wave Generator.
Theory
The velocity with which sound travels in a medium may be determined if the frequency
and the wavelength are known. This relation is shown in the equation:
V = fλ (1)
where, V is the velocity of sound propagation, f is the frequency, and λ is the

wavelength. In this experiment the velocity of sound in air is to be found by using
a The Resonance tube setup that includes an open speaker driven by a Sine wave
generator (Figure 1) to produce a sound wave whose length will be measured by
means of a resonating column of air.
Experiment 9* 117

The tube set includes an outer tube and an inner tube with a scale and a removable
plug. The length of the air column is adjusted by moving the inner tube (Figure
2). When the plug is in place, the tube is closed at one end. Without the plug, the
tube is open at both ends. There are two rows on the scale: one for measuring the
resonating length when the plug is in place and one for when the plug is removed The
tube is driven by a speaker.
Figure 2. (a) Closed-end tube

with plug, (b) Open-end tube
with the plug removed,
(c) Closed-end length is measured
on top scale; open-end length
is measured on the bottom scale.
When sound waves propagate down the tube, they are reflected at the closed end
and stationary vibrations of air molecules are produced due to the interference of
Experiment 9* 118
the incident and reflected wave trains. The air column will then vibrate strongly
in segments with a frequency. Only If the frequency of vibration of the air column
is equal to the frequency of the speaker a Resonance occurs. This is indicated
by the sudden increase in the intensity of the sound when the column is adjusted
to the proper length. At the closed end of the tube the incident and the reflected
waves interfere in such a way that their amplitudes cancel each other out then the air
molecules remains at rest and this defines a Node (Figure 3). Antinode, however;
occurs at a short distance e (known as the end correction) above the open end of the
tube where the incident and the reflected waves reinforce each other.
Figure 3. Standing wave in the air column of a closed end tube.
Figure 3 indicates the conditions of vibration for the first two positions of resonance,
from which we have :
λ
L1 + e = (2)
4
3λ
L2 + e = (3)
4
by subtraction we can find λ in terms of L1 and L2 . Substituting this result back in

equation (1) we get the experimental value of speed of sound:
Vexperimental = 2f (L2 − L1 ) (4)

This experimental value of V can be compared to the result calculated from the
Experiment 9* 119
formula: v
u
u
t t
Vt = V0 1 + (5)
273
where Vo = 331 m/s, which is the velocity of sound in air at 0o C temperature and t
is the current room temperature. The value of the end correction e for the tube can
be calculated :
1
e = (L2 − 3L1 ) (6)
2
Procedure
1) Set up the equipment as illustrated in Figure 4 with the plug is installed on
the end of the inner tube closest to the speaker.
Figure 4. How to remove or replace Plug.
2) Position the speaker such that it is facing the plug and the tube and only at
few centimeters away from the plug.
3) Using the Sine wave generator, Drive the speaker at a constant frequency of
250 Hz.
Experiment 9* 120
4) Slowly increase the length of the air column by pulling the inner tube away
from the speaker until the air column resonates producing a maximum sound.
5) Measure the length (L1 ) of the air column from the ”Closed” scale on the inner
tube and Record in Table 1.
6) Repeat steps (3) through (5) one more time and calculate the average value of
L1 .
7) Increase the length of the air column further by pulling the inner tube away
from the speaker until the air column resonates producing a maximum sound
for the second time.
8) Measure the length (L2 )of the air column from the ”Closed” scale on the inner
tube and Record in Table 1.
9) Repeat steps (7) and (8) one more time and calculate the average value of
L2 .
10) Repeat steps (1) through (9) five more times for the five different driven fre-
quencies given in the Table.
11) Determine the experimental value of (V ) using equation (4) and compare it
to the theoretical value obtained from equation (5).
12) Only for the last given frequance in Table 1, determine the value of the end
correction (e) using equation (6).
13) Plot the graph of (L¯2 − L̄1 ) versus ( f1 ). Calculate the value of speed of sound
(V ) from the slope of the graph.
Experiment 9* 121
.
Experiment 9* 122

Student Name: Date:
Velocity of Sound
Objectives:
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
Table I. 1stResonance 2nd Resonance

z }| {z }| {
F requency (f ) 1
f
L1 L1 L̄1 L2 L2 L̄2 L̄2 − L¯1 V
(Hz) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
250
280
310
340
370
400
∗ Determine the average value of speed of sound in air :

V̄ = ...............................
Experiment 9* 123

Student Name: Date:
Velocity of Sound

Vi ( )
(Vi -V̄ ) ( )
(Vi -V̄ )2 ( )
∗ Standard deviation:
q
1 P6
( σV ) = (V
n−1 i=1 i
− V̄ )2 = .................................
∗ Standard Error:
σ
(σV̄ ) = √V
n
= .................................
∗ Result of speed of sound:
V̄ ± σV̄ = ..............................................
Experiment 9* 124

Student Name: Date:
Velocity of Sound
∗ The value of speed of sound in room temperature:
(V t ) = .....................................
∗ The value of (V) from the graph:
(V graph ) = .....................................
∗ For the last frequancy in Table 1, the value of the end correction
(e) by equation (6):
(e) = .....................................
∗ The percentage error of your result is:
V̄ − Vgraph
% Error = V̄
× 100= .....................

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Experiment 10* 125

Physics 125 only
Human Arm Model
Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to understand the complex movements of an actual
human arm by styding the simulations of the muscles and motion provided by the
Human Arm Model. In this model, cords representing the biceps and triceps muscles
attach to the arm. Students can pull the cords to make the arm move and use force
sensors to measure the forces exerted by the muscles.
Equipment
• Human Arm Model.
• Large Table C-clamp with 45 cm steel Rod.
• Sensor-mounting Studs, 2 pieces, and clamp.
• Two force sensors.
• Mass peices with mass hanger.
• Xplorer-GLX data acquisition unit.
How it works
Cords are used in the human arm model to represent the muscles of the upper arm.
Depending on how you will use the model, you can attach one or two cords, use
Experiment 10* 126
standard cords or elastic cords, and run the cords over and under the pulleys in
various ways.
Figure 1. Experimental setup for Human Arm Model.
The biceps cord for example can be attached at the standard muscle insertion point
as shown in Figure 1. This in fact mimics the actual representation of the biceps
muscle in the human arm. In order to attach the corde you should tie a knot near
the end of a cord and insert the other end of the cord through the standard insertion
point hole as seen in Figure 2. Pull the cord through until the knot stops against the
hole.
Figure 2. Cord attached to insertion point.

Experiment 10* 127
The remaining cord should pass over and under the pulleys in the desired configu-
ration. Use one of the cord locks to make a loop in the free end of the cord. Place
the loop over a force sensor hook. Adjust the length of the cord. Push the cord
lock against the hook and tie a knot against the cord lock to prevent it from slipping
(Figure 3).
Figure 3. Cord attached to force sensor with cord lock.
The idea in this experiment is to demonistrate to the students how thier arm is going
to performe if a load is appied to it while it is hang vertically at their side with upper
arm kept vertical and elbow is bent at 90o so that the forearm is horizontal. on the
bases of their results, the students should be able to comment on the amount of biceps
force needed to keep the elbow fixed at 90o and hold a certain weight in their hand.
If you double the mass in your hand (so the load force doubles), does the biceps force
double?
Experiment 10* 128
Procedure
1) Use the C-clamp to fix the human arm model vertically on the laboratory table
as illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Experimental setup for Human Arm model and Force Sensors.
2) Fix the 45cm steel rod to the base of the model as illustrated. Use the sensor
clamp and stud to attach a force sensor to the steel rod. See Figure 4 above.
Experiment 10* 129
3) Switch “ON” the X-plorer GLX data acquisition unit by pressing on the
(ON/OFF) button shown in Figure 5 below. After ten seconds Main Icons will
appear automatically on the Home Screen.
Figure 5. X-plorer GLX data acquisition unit.
4) Using the Arrow keys on the unit, highlight the “Digits” icon, which is located
√
on the first row on the Home screen of the unit then press ( ) button. This
screen is useful for displaying live data as they are collected from sensors.
5) Connect both force sensors to the sensor ports of your X-plorer GLX interface
for data acquisition. See Figure5.
Experiment 10* 130
6) As you connect Force Sensor 1 (represinting Biceps Force from Figure 4) to

sensor port (1) on the X-plorer interface (Figure 5), the screen will change to:
Figure 6. Digits Display on the X-plorer unit.
7) Connect the second force sensor 2 to sensor port 2 on the X-plorer interface
to measure the force of the applied load.
8) press the “Zero” button on both force sensors to reset them both befor stating
the experiment.
9) Apply the mass to force sensor 2 as indicated in Table I. and record both
measurements of F1 and F2. Please ignor (avoid) the minus sign in the
answer.
10) Adjust the length of the cord in such a way that the forearm is bent almost
45o above the horizontal. Repeat all previuos steps and record your data in
Table I.
11) Adjust the length of the cord once again in such a way that the forearm is bent
almost 45o below the horizontal. Repeat all previuos steps and record your
data in Table I.
9) On the same Graph paper, plot the graph of F1 as a function of F2 for all three
congiguration of the albows angle.
Experiment 10* 131
.
Experiment 10* 132

.
Student Name: Date:
Human Arm Model
Objectives:
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Table I.
Experiment 10* 133

Student Name: Date:
Human Arm Model
* Plot the graph of Biceps force (F1 ) versus the load force (F2) for all configration of
the elbows angle
Which confuguration of the elbows angle give the most biceps force as comparied to
the load force?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
Which confuguration of the elbows angle give the least biceps force as comparied to
the load force?
................................................................................................................................
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Experiment 10* 134

Student Name: Date:
Human Arm Model

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Kuwait University

General Physics Lab I

PHYS 105 & 125

Written and Edited by:

PHYS 105 & 125

LABORATORY COURSE OUTLINE

COURSE NUMBER: PHYS 105 & 125

LEARNING & TEACHING METHODS

• Ten experiments from the following list (illustrated below), or a combination of

• The active participation and diligence shown by students in handling instru-

• An experimental final exam will be held at the end of the term.

1. To enhance the understanding level of concepts in mechanics.

2. To become acquainted with the related instrumentations and experimental tech-

3. To develop skills in communication and ability to work in groups.

5. To gain skills in safety requirements in handling electrical components.

1. Acquire knowledge of experimental techniques related to the concepts of me-

2. Gain experience in proper data collection methods graphical representation of

3. Develop analytical and critical thinking abilities.

2. An introduction to Error Analysis, The Study of Uncertainties in Physical Mea-

4. Physics (8th Edition, 2014), D. Giancoli (Publisher: Adeson).

LABORATORY SESSIONS FOR PHYSICS 105.

Experiment Essential Physical Concepts

1 Pre-Lab Session Error Analysis and how to write a lab report

2 Measurements of Density Mass, weight, and volume

3 Kinematics of one dimensional Both Displacement and Velocity

4 Determination of Acceleration Free fall experiment and

5 Projectile Motion Range Determination

6 Static Equilibrium of Forces Measuring Hook’s constant, and

7 Roller Coaster Conservation of Mechanical Energy

8 Explosion and Elastic Collision Conservation of linear momentum.

9 Torque Parallel and Non-Parallel Forces

10 Rotational Motion I Kinematics of rotational motion.

11 Rotational Motion II Work-Energy theorem.

LABORATORY SESSIONS FOR PHYSICS 125.

Experiment Essential Physical Concepts

1 Pre-Lab Session Error Analysis and how to write a lab report

2 Measurements of Density Mass, weight, and volume

3 Kinematics of one dimensional Both Displacement and Velocity

4 Determination of Acceleration Free fall experiment and

5 Projectile Motion Range Determination

6 Static Equilibrium of Forces Measuring Hook’s constant, and

7 Roller Coaster Conservation of Mechanical Energy

8 Explosion and Elastic Collision Conservation of linear momentum.

9 Torque Parallel and Non-Parallel Forces

10 Determination of the Velocity Resonance Phenomenon

11 The Human Arm

LABORATORY REPORT SUBMISSION

LAB REPORTS ASSESSMENT

The evaluation components for each experiment will be:

Lab report (Average): 40%

Midterm exam 20%

Final Exam: 30%

• The use of published or unpublished work of others either as whole or in parts

• Paraphrasing closely the work of others either as a whole or in parts without

• Copying computer files without proper acknowledgments.

• Use or submission of computer programs written by others without authoriza-

Laboratory Report Assessment Guide

Prepare lab work:

• Prepare for a oral discussion during the lab session.