Signal & System Mid Lecture

CCE-2305 Signals and Linear Systems
Md. Humayun Kabir

Lecturer
Dept. of CCE, IIUC
2/13/2023 Dept. of CCE, IIUC 1
Overall aims of the course:
The objective of this course is to introduce the concepts and techniques associated with the understanding of
signals and systems and to familiarize with techniques suitable for analyzing and synthesizing both continuous-
time and discrete time systems which provides foundation for more advanced subjects like signal processing,
control system theory, and robotics.
Intended Learning Outcomes of the course (ILOs)/Course Outcomes (COs):
ILOs / COs Description

ILO / CO: 1 Classify signals and systems based on their properties and determine the
mathematical representations of signals and systems.
ILO / CO: 2 Analysis of signals transformation and predict the behavior of Linear
time invariant (LTI) systems.

Lecture - 1

Any system, which provides communication consists of the three important and basic parts as shown in the
following figure.
Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting station from where the signal is
transmitted.
Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to reach the destination.
Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a receiving station where the transmitted signal is
being received.

What is Signal?
Signal is a time varying physical phenomenon which is intended to convey information.
OR
Signal is a function of time.
OR
Signal is a function of one or more independent variables, which contain some information.
Example: voice signal, video signal, signals on telephone wires etc.
Note: Noise is also a signal, but the information conveyed by noise is unwanted hence it is considered as
undesirable.

✓ Any physical phenomenon that conveys or carries some information can be called a signal. A signal is anything
you can see, hear, observe or measure using some machine. For examples: Speech, audio, light, radio, TV,
radar, supersonic, temperature, ECG, EEG, etc .
✓ Usually, the information carried by a signal will be a function of an independent variable. The independent
variable can be time, spatial coordinates, intensity of colors, pressure, temperature, etc.
✓ The most popular independent variable in signal is time and it is represented by the letter “t”.
✓ The value of signal at any specified value of independent variable is called its amplitude. The sketch of the
amplitude of a signal as a function of independent variable is called its waveform.
✓ Mathematically, any signal can be represented as a function of one or more independent variables. Therefore ,
a signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with one or more independent variables.
Examples:
x1(t) = 0.5 t (varies linearly with t)
x2(t) = 0.8 t2 ( varies quadratically with t )
x(p , q) = 0.3 p + 0.6 q + 0.2 t2 ( function of two independent variables p and q )

What is System?
System is a device or combination of devices, which can operate on signals and produces corresponding response.
Input to a system is called as excitation and output from it is called as response.
For one or more inputs, the system can have one or more outputs.
Example: Communication System

✓ Any process that exhibits cause and effect relation can be called as a system.
✓ A system will have an input signal and an output signal.
✓ The output signal will be a processed version of the input signal.
✓ A system is either interconnection of hardware devices or software/ algorithms.
A system is denoted by letter H. The diagrammatic representation of a system is shown below:
The operation performed by a system on input signal to produce output signal can be expressed as :
Output = H[Input]
where H denotes the system operation or system operator

Signal Classification
The signal can be classified in number of ways. Some way of classifying the signals are,
Depending on the number of sources for the signals:

One channel signals
Multi channel signals
Depending on the number of dependent variables:

One dimensional signals
Multidimensional signals
Depending on whether the dependent variable is continuous or discrete:

Analog or continuous signals
Discrete signals

One Channel Signals
Signals that are generated by single source are called one channel signals.
Examples: Record of room temperature with respect to time, the audio output of a mono speaker, etc.
Multi Channel Signals
Signals that are generated by multiple sources are called multi channel signals.
Examples: The audio output of two stereo speakers (two-channel signal), the record of ECG at eight different
places in a human body (eight channel signal)
One Dimensional Signals
A signal which is a function of single independent variable is called one dimensional signal.
Examples: music, speech, heart beat, etc.
Multidimensional Signals
A signal which is a function of two or more independent variables is called multidimensional signal.
Examples: A photograph is an example of two dimensional signal, the motion picture of a black and white TV is an
example of three dimensional signal.
Analog or Continuous Signals
When a signal is defined continuously for any value of independent variable, it is called analog or continuous signal.
Discrete Signals
When a signal is defined for discrete intervals of independent variables, it is called discrete signal .
Most of the discrete signals are either sampled version of analog signals or output of digital systems.
Difference between the Analog signals and Digital signals
Analog signals Digital signals

Analog signals are difficult to get analysed at first. Digital signals are easy to analyse.
Analog signals are more accurate than digital signals. Digital signals are less accurate.
Analog signals take time to be stored. It has infinite memory. Digital signals can be easily stored.
To record an analog signal, the technique used, preserves the original In recording digital signal, the sample signals are taken and preserved.
signals.
There is a continuous representation of signals in analog signals. There is a discontinuous representation of signals in digital signals.
Analog signals produce too much noise. Digital signals do not produce noise.
Examples of analog signals are Human voice, Thermometer, Analog phones Examples of digital signals are Computers, Digital Phones, Digital pens,
etc. etc.

Conversion of Analog signals to Digital signals
Most of the image sensors are in the analog signal, and digital processing cannot be applied on it, as it requires
infinite memory to store because signals have an infinite value that is why we cannot store it.
To create a digital image we can convert data into digital form.
For the conversion there are two steps:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
To convert an analog signal into a digital signal, both its axis(x,y) are converted into digital format.
As we can see that image is continuous in its coordinates(x-y). So sampling deals with digitizing of co-ordinates
and quantization deals with digitizing the amplitude.

Sampling
In analog signals, there are continuous electrical signals that vary
with time. With the help of subsystem, a sampler extracts continuous
signals for the sampling of signals.
Sampling is done along the x-axis of signals that continuously differs
with time. It is divided into two category one is sampling and other
is downsampling.
In downsampling, the range of values on the x-axis is always less.
Quantization
It is a process of image processing, in which continuous and time-varying values of analog signals are divided into
non-overlapping discrete and unique values assigned to each subrange.
Sampling and quantization are opposite to each other. Sampling is done along the x-axis but quantization is done
along the y-axis.
In the image processing, the sampled image is considered as a digital value. When there is a transition of states
between time-varying values of image function and its digital equivalent signifies quantization.

Lecture - 2

Signals are classified into the following categories:
✓ Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

✓ Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
✓ Even and Odd Signals
✓ Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
✓ Energy and Power Signals
✓ Real and Imaginary Signals

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
Continuous Time Signal:
✓ A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all instants of time.

✓ A signal x(t) is said to be a continuous time signal if it is defined for all time t.
✓ A continuous time signal is a function that is continuous, meaning there are no breaks in the signal. For all real values of t you will get a value.
✓ Continuous-time signal is the “function of continuous-time variable that has uncountable or infinite set of numbers in its sequence”.
✓ The continuous-time signal can be represented and defined at any instant of the time in its sequence.
✓ The continuous-time signal is also termed as analog signal.
✓ It is a continuous function of time defined on the real line (or axis) R.
✓ It has continuous amplitude and time.
✓ That is, the continuous-time signals will have certain value at any instant of time.
The examples for continuous-time signals are sine waves, cosine waves, triangular waves, and so on.
The electrical signals also behave as continuous-time signals when these are derived in proportion
with the physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, sound, and so on.
Discrete Time Signal
✓ A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time.

✓ A discrete-time signal is defined only at discrete instants of time.
✓ Discrete-time signal is the “function of discrete-time variable that has countable or finite set of numbers in its sequence”. It is
a digital representation of continuous-time signal.
✓ The discrete-time signal can be represented and defined at certain instants of time in its sequence.
✓ That is, the discrete-time signal is able to define only at the sampling instants.
✓ Digital signal can be obtained from the discrete-time signal by quantizing and encoding the sample values.
✓ The discrete-time signals are represented with binary bits and stored on the digital medium.
The output data from a computer is one of the examples of discrete-time signals.

The differences between continuous and discrete-time signals are as follows:

Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
Deterministic Signal
A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant of time. Or,
signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known as deterministic signals.
Non-deterministic/Random Signal
A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect to its value at some instant of time.
Non-deterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called random signals.
Random signals cannot be described by a mathematical equation. They are modelled in probabilistic terms.
Even and Odd Signals
Even Signal

Odd Signal

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Periodic Signal
✓ A signal which repeats itself after a specific interval of time is called periodic signal.
✓ A periodic signal x(t) is a function of time that satisfices the condition.
x(t) = x(t+T) for all t.
or
x(n) = x(n + N).
Where
T = fundamental time period,
1/T = f = fundamental frequency.

Aperiodic Signal
✓ A signal which does not repeat itself after a specific interval of time is called aperiodic signal.
✓ Any signal x(t) for which no value of T satisfices the condition of x(t) = x(t+T) or x(t) ≠ x(t+T) is called an aperiodic or
nonperiodic signal.
✓ A signal that does not repeats its pattern over a period is called aperiodic signal or non periodic.

Causal & Non-Causal Signal
Causal Signals:
➢ Causal Signals are signals that are zero for all negative time.
➢ Causality in systems makes the most sense. Causality in signals doesn’t make that much sense. Causality in a systems
determines whether a system relies on future information of a signal x[n+1].
➢ When talking about “causality” in signals, we mean whether they are zero to the left of t=0 or zero to the right of t=0.
➢ A causal signal is zero for t<0. However, the reason why this doesn’t really make sense is that if you have a signal, the
time t=0 can be chosen arbitrarily.
➢ A continuous time signal x(t), is said to be casual if : x(t)=0 for every t<0, the signal x(t) does not start before t=0.
Condition for Causal Signal:

A signal which posses zero amplitude for all negative value of time, then the signal is known as a causal signal.
X(t) > 0 , for t >= 0 &

X(t)=0 , for t<0.
Non-Causal Signal
➢ Non-causal means that the response of the system needs to start before the excitation.
➢ For example, if you add an impulse to the input at a certain time T, a normal (causal) system will start responding from time
T, T+1, T+2,…..
➢ A non-causal system would start its response before the input, e.g. T-10, T-9, … T, T+1, …
➢ This is of course not a natural system because it would need to predict the future and start responding before the input.
➢ A continuous time signal x(t), is said to be non-casual if : x(t)=0 for every t>0, the signal x(t) start before t=0.
Condition for Non-Causal Signal:

A signal that has positive values of amplitude for both positive and negative instances of time is a non-causal
signal.

Problems on Even & Odd Signal

Even Signal
A signal which is symmetrical about the vertical axis or time origin is
known as even signal or even function. Therefore, the even signals
are also called the symmetrical signals. Cosine wave is an example of
even signal.
Continuous-time Even Signal
A continuous-time signal x(t) is called the even signal or symmetrical
signal if it satisfies the following condition,
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡); for − ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
Some examples of continuous-time even signals are shown in Figure-1.
Discrete-time Even Signal
A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be even signal or symmetrical
signal if it satisfies the condition,
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛); for − ∞ < 𝑛 < ∞
Examples of discrete-time even signals are shown in Figure-2.
Properties of Even Signals
The properties of the even signals are given as follows −
➢ The even signals are symmetrical about the vertical axis.
➢ The value of an even signal at time (t) is same as at time (-t).
➢ The even signal is identical with its reflection about the origin.
➢ Area under the even signal is two time of its one side area.
Odd Signal
A signal that is anti-symmetrical about the vertical axis is known as odd
signal or odd function. Therefore, the odd signals are also called
the antisymmetric signals. Sine wave is an example of odd signal.
Continuous-time Odd Signal
A continuous time signal x(t) is called an odd signal or antisymmetric signal
if it satisfies the following condition,
𝑥(−𝑡) = −𝑥(𝑡); for − ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
Examples of continuous time odd signals or antisymmetric signals are
shown in Figure-3.
Discrete-time Odd Signal
A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be an odd signal or antisymmetric
signal, if it satisfies the following condition,
𝑥(−𝑛) = −𝑥(𝑛); for − ∞ < 𝑛 < ∞
Examples of discrete-time odd signals are shown in Figure-4.
Properties of Odd Signals
Following are the properties of the odd signals −
➢ The odd signal is antisymmetric about the origin.
➢ The value of odd signal at time (t) is negative of its value at time (-t) for all t, i.e., −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞.
➢ The odd signal must necessarily be zero at time t = 0 to hold 𝑥(0) = −𝑥(0).
➢ Area under the odd signal is always zero.

Note – A continuous-time signal is said to be neither even nor odd if it does not satisfy the condition
of the even signal and that of the odd signal. Some examples of such signals (neither even nor odd) are
shown in Figure-5.

Lecture - 3
Basic Operation of Signal

➢ A signal, comprises of a set of information expressed as a function of any number of independent variables, that can be given
as an input to a system, or derived as output from the system, to realize its true practical utility.
➢ The signal we derive out of a complex system might not always be in the form we want, being well acquainted with some
basic signal operations may come really handy to enhance the understandability and applicability of signals.
The mathematical transformation from one signal to another can be expressed as
Where, Y(t) represents the modified signal derived from the original signal X(t), having only one independent variable t.
The basic set of signal operations can be broadly classified as below.
➢ Amplitude scaling of signals.
➢ Addition of signals.
➢ Multiplication of signals.
➢ Differentiation of signals.
➢ Integration of signals.
There are two variable parameters in general:

➢ Amplitude
➢ Time
In this transformation, only the quadrature axis values are modified i.e magnitude of the signal changes, with no effects on the
horizontal axis values or periodicity of signals like.

Amplitude Scaling
➢ The amplitude scaling is performed by multiplying the amplitude of the signal by a constant.
➢ Let x(t) be a continuous time signal. Now Ax(t) is the amplitude scaled version of x(t), where A is a constant.
When |A| > 1, then Ax(t) is the amplitude magnified version of x(t) and
When |A| < 1, then Ax(t) is the amplitude attenuated version of x(t).

Addition
Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding amplitudes. This can be best explained by
using the following example:
As seen from the diagram above,
-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + 2 = 3
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2

Subtraction
Subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their corresponding amplitudes. This can be best explained
by the following example:
-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 1 - 2 = -1
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2

Lecture - 4
Basic Operation of Signal

Multiplication
Multiplication of two signals is nothing but multiplication of their corresponding amplitudes. This can be best
explained by the following example:
-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) ×x2(t) = 0 ×2 = 0

-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) ×x2(t) = 1 ×2 = 2
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) × x2(t) = 0 × 2 = 0

The following operations can be performed with time:

Time Shifting

Time Scaling

Time Reversal
x(-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t).

Problem: 1
A continuous time signal and its amplitude scaled version are shown in fig. Sketch the signal according to
amplitude scaling.

Problem: 2
Graphical addition of two continuous time signals is shown in fig. Sketch the signal according to addition rules.
2/13/2023 Dept. of CCE, IIUC

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1 2 3 4 5

Problem: 3
Graphical subtraction of two continuous time signals is shown in fig. Sketch the signal according to subtraction
rules.

Problem: 4
Graphical multiplication of two continuous time signals is shown in fig. Sketch the signal according to multiplication
rules.

Problem: 5
Sketch the signal x(t-3) & x(t+3) according to time shifting rules.

Lecture - 5
Elementary of Signal

Lecture - 6
Introduction with Systems

System
➢ Any process that exhibits cause and effect relation can be called a system.
➢ A system will have an input signal and an output signal.
➢ The output signal will be a processed version of the input signal.
➢ A system is either interconnection of hardware devices or software / algorithm.
A system is formally defined as an entity that manipulates one or more signals to accomplish a function”.
Again, A system may also be defined as a physical device that performs an operation on a signal

Communication System

The systems can be classified in many ways
Depending on type of energy used to operate the systems, the systems can be classified into Electrical systems,
Mechanical systems, Thermal systems, Hydraulic systems, etc.
Depending on the type of input and output signals, the systems can be classified into Continuous time systems and
Discrete time systems.

Continuous Time System
A system which can process continuous time signal is called continuous time system, and so the input and output signals of a
continuous time system are continuous time signals.
A continuous time system is denoted by letter H. The input of continuous time system is denoted as x(t) and the output of
continuous time system is denoted as y(t).
The diagrammatic representation of a continuous time system is shown in fig 1.2

Discrete Time System
A system which can process discrete time signal is called discrete time system, and so the input and output signals
of a discrete time system are discrete time signals.
A discrete time system is denoted by the letter H. The input of discrete time system is denoted as “x(n)” and the
output of discrete time system is denoted as “y(n)”.
The diagrammatic representation of a discrete time system is shown in fig 1.3.

Representation of Systems
Unit-delay element: This element delays the signal by one sample i.e. the response of the system is the
excitation of previous sample. This can element is said to have a memory which stores the excitation at time n-1
and recalls this excitation at the time n form the memory. This element is represented as,
Fig.: Block Diagram of Unit Delay Element
Unit-advance element: This element advances the signal by one sample i.e. the response of the current
excitation is the excitation of future sample. Although, as we can see this element is not physically realizable
unless the response and the excitation are already in stored or recorded form.
Fig.: Block Diagram of Unit Advance Element

Series/Cascade Interconnection
A series or cascade interconnection is the results of an input x into system H1 which results in an output z that is
in turn the input for system H2 which results in an output y as illustrated below.
A cascade system can mathematically be represented as:
z=H1⋅x
y=H2⋅z
y=H1⋅H1⋅x

One key question to ask yourself is, does the order of systems H1 and H2 matter?
It does indeed matter. As illustrated below the first cascade system is not necessarily equal to the second
cascade system.
Case 1: y=H2⋅H1⋅x
Case2: y=H1⋅H2⋅x
In general
H1⋅H2≠H2⋅H1
Except for some special cases

Parallel Interconnection
In a parallel interconnection the input x goes into both systems H1 and H2 simultaneously. The output from both
systems are added together to produce the resulting output y which is illustrated below:
Mathematically:
y1=H1⋅x and y2=H2⋅x
y=y1+y2
y=H1⋅+H2⋅x
y=(H1+H2)⋅x

Feedback Interconnection
In a feedback interconnection the output itself affects the output.
y=(x+z)⋅H1
z=H2⋅y
y=H1⋅(x+H2⋅y)

𝒚[𝒏] = 𝟏Τ𝟑 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝒙[𝒏 − 𝟐]
𝒚[𝒏] = 𝟏Τ𝟑 𝑺𝟎 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝑺𝟏 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝑺𝟐 𝒙[𝒏]
𝒚[𝒏] = 𝟏Τ𝟑 𝒙 𝒏 𝟏 + 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐
𝒚[𝒏] 𝟏
= ൗ𝟑 𝟏 + 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐
𝒙[𝒏]
𝑯 = 𝟏ൗ𝟑 𝟏 + 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
𝒚𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏+𝟐 +𝒙 𝒏+𝟏 +𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏−𝟏 +𝒙 𝒏−𝟐
𝟒 𝟒
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟏
𝒚𝒏 = 𝑺 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝑺−𝟏 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝑺𝟎 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝑺𝟏 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝑺𝟐 𝒙 𝒏
𝟒 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏 𝑺−𝟐 + 𝑺−𝟏 + 𝑺𝟎 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐
𝟒 𝟒
𝒚[𝒏] 𝟏 −𝟐 𝟏
= 𝑺 + 𝑺−𝟏 + 𝑺𝟎 + 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐
𝒙[𝒏] 𝟒 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
𝑯 = 𝑺−𝟐 + 𝑺−𝟏 + 𝑺𝟎 + 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐
𝟒 𝟒

Lecture - 7
Properties of Systems

Classification of Continuous Time Systems
The continuous time systems are classified based on their characteristics. Some of the classifications of
continuous time systems are:
1. Static and Dynamic systems

2. Time invariant and Time variant systems
3. Linear and Nonlinear systems
4. Causal and Noncausal systems
5. Stable and Unstable systems
6. Feedback and Non-feedback systems

Static and Dynamic Systems
A continuous time system is called static or memoryless if its output at any instant of time t depends at most on
the input signal at the same time but not on the past or future input. In any other case, the system is said to be
dynamic or to have memory.
Static system is memory-less whereas dynamic system is a memory system.
Example 1: y(t) = 2 x(t)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0). Here, the output is only dependent upon present input.
Hence the system is memory less or static.
Example 2: y(t) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(-3).
Here x(-3) is past value for the present input for which the system requires memory to get this output. Hence,
the system is a dynamic system.

Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems
A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary with time. Otherwise, the system is considered as
time invariant.
The condition for time invariant system is:

y (n , t) = y(n-t)
The condition for time variant system is:

y (n , t) ≠≠ y(n-t)
Where y (n , t) = T[x(n-t)] = input change

y (n-t) = output change
Example:
y(n) = x(-n)
y(n, t) = T[x(n-t)] = x(-n-t)
y(n-t) = x(-(n-t)) = x(-n + t)
∴∴ y(n, t) ≠ y(n-t). Hence, the system is time variant.

Linear and Non-linear Systems
A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and homogenate principles.
If a relaxed system does not satisfy the superposition principle as given by the above definition, the system is
nonlinear.
The principle of superposition requires that the response of a system to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to
the corresponding weighted sum of the responses to each of the individual input signals.
Consider two systems with inputs as x1(t), x2(t), and outputs as y1(t), y2(t) respectively. Then, according to the
superposition and homogenate principles,
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 T[x1(t)] + a2 T[x2(t)]
∴, T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t)
From the above expression, is clear that response of overall system is equal to response of individual system.
Example:
(t) = x2(t)
Solution:
y1 (t) = T[x1(t)] = x12(t)
y2 (t) = T[x2(t)] = x22(t)
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = [ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)]2
Which is not equal to a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence the system is said to be non linear.

Causal and Noncausal Systems
A system is said to be causal if the output of the system at any time t depends only on the present input, past
inputs and past outputs but does not depend on the future inputs and outputs.
If the system output at any time t depends on future inputs or outputs then the system is called a noncausal
system.
Example 1: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2).
Here, the system output only depends upon present and past inputs. Hence, the system is causal.
Example 2: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3) + 6x(t + 3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2) + 6x(4) Here, the system output depends upon
future input. Hence the system is non-causal system.

Stable and Unstable Systems
The system is said to be stable only when the output is bounded for bounded input. For a bounded input, if the
output is unbounded in the system then it is said to be unstable.
Note: For a bounded signal, amplitude is finite.


Signal & System Mid Lecture

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CCE-2305 Signals and Linear Systems

Md. Humayun Kabir

Intended Learning Outcomes of the course (ILOs)/Course Outcomes (COs):

ILOs / COs Description

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x1(t) = 0.5 t (varies linearly with t)

x2(t) = 0.8 t2 ( varies quadratically with t )

x(p , q) = 0.3 p + 0.6 q + 0.2 t2 ( function of two independent variables p and q )

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Depending on the number of sources for the signals:

Depending on the number of dependent variables:

Depending on whether the dependent variable is continuous or discrete:

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Analog signals Digital signals

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✓ Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

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✓ A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all instants of time.

✓ A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time.

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Condition for Causal Signal:

X(t) > 0 , for t >= 0 &

Condition for Non-Causal Signal:

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There are two variable parameters in general:

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As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2

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As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2

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As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) ×x2(t) = 0 ×2 = 0

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2/13/2023 Dept. of CCE, IIUC 70

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2/13/2023 Dept. of CCE, IIUC 75

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