Organic Farming

in Australia

By Kondinin Group

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

Organic Produce Research and Development

RIRDC Publication No 00/97 ! RIRDC Project No KDI-20A

© 2000 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved.

ISBN 0 642 58128 2

ISSN 1440-6845

Organic Farming in Australia

Publication No. 00/97
Project No. KDI-20A

The views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the author and not
necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person
who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report.

This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the
Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the
Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.

Researcher Contact Details

Pamela Horsley
Kondinin Group
PO Box 5287
Wagga Wagga NSW 2729
Phone: (02)69 214047
Fax: (02)69 214182
Email: [email protected]

RIRDC Contact Details

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Level 1, AMA House
42 Macquarie Street
BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 02 6272 4539

Fax: 02 6272 5877
Email: [email protected].
Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in October 2000

Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Union Offset Printers

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Foreword
Increasing global concern over the use of chemicals in agriculture is behind a growing trend of using
organic methods of agricultural production. While adoption of organic practices doubled from 1990
to1995 it is believed this rate of adoption would increase if there was a greater level of
understanding achieved throughout the agricultural community about the factors involved in organic
farming. But the absence of a clear understanding of the issues involved with organic farming and
the opportunities available continue to impede adoption of these methods by conventional producers.

Organic Farming in Australia is therefore aimed at farmers interested in potentially converting to

organic production, and new organic farmers who are looking to source information on organic
production. The anticipated affect of promoting organic farming to the wider farming community
will be the potential to increase the number of farmers entering into organic farming which will
benefit the industry as a whole.

This project was funded from RIRDC Core Funds, which are provided by the Federal Government.

This report, a new addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 600 research publications, forms part
of our Organic Produce R&D program. This program aims to optimise the profitability of Australian
organic production in both domestic and overseas markets and to promote the utilisation of organic
farming systems as a means of enhancing the sustainability of Australian agricultural systems

Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our
website:

• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm
• purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter Core
Managing Director
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iii
Acknowledgments
The Organic Retailers and Growers Association of Australia (ORGGA) has played an integral
part in this project, supplying professional advice and technical information. ORGAA’s expertise
will also be important in developing a consultancy “hotline” and video lending library which will
deliver advise and additional technical information for specialist inquiries.

The authors would also like to acknowledge the following people for their contributions and advice
in writing the technical articles which make up this publication; Chris Alenson, Tim Marshall,
DeAnn Glenn, Paul Kristiansen, Phillip Newton, Robyn Neeson, Pat Coleby, Liz Clay, Andrew
Monk, Michael Burlace, Ian Lyall, Els Wynen, Chris Penfold and Viv Burnett.

Thanks also to Liza Cowper who was responsible for so much of the initial research and co-
ordination for this report.

Abbreviations
IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement
NASAA National Association for Sustainable Agriculture Australia
ORGAA Organic Retailers and Growers Association of Australia
BFA Biological Farmers of Australia
IOIV Interim Organic Industry Council
COGS Canberra Organic Growers Society
OPEC Organic Produce Export Committee (previously OPAC)
AQIS Australian Quarantine Inspection Service
DPI Commonwealth Department of Primary Industry
OHGA Organic Herb Growers of Australia Incorporated
OFA Organic Federation of Australia
BDRI Bio-Dynamic Research Institute
TOP Tasmanian Organic-dynamic Producers
OVAA Organic Vignerons Association of Australia Inc
OAS Organic Advisory Service
OBG Organic Beef Group
ACF Australian Conservation Farming
ACA Australian Consumers’ Association
ANZFA Australian and New Zealand Food Authority
SCARM Standing Committee on Agriculture and Resource Management
ROFO Riverina Organic Farmers Organisation

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Contents
Foreword............................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgments...............................................................................................................iv
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................iv
Executive Summary ...........................................................................................................vii
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Resource fears spurred organic pioneers .....................................................................1
1.2 Organic farming growing in Australia ............................................................................3
2. Conversion .......................................................................................................................6
2.1 Commitment crucial for organic conversion ..................................................................6
2.2 The conversion plan......................................................................................................7
3. Pest and Weed Management .........................................................................................13
3.1 The organic way to pest and weed management........................................................13
3.2 The future is integrated pest management .................................................................15
3.3 Working with nature for weed control..........................................................................18
3.4 Look at all options for pest management ....................................................................25
4. Organic Production Systems ........................................................................................31
4.1 The living soil provides a vital resource.......................................................................31
4.2 Nutrient inputs in organic systems ..............................................................................34
4.3 Soil analysis can prove a useful tool ...........................................................................36
4.4 Organic farm fertility: it’s natural .................................................................................39
4.5 Compost: turning waste into gold................................................................................43
4.6 Storing organic produce..............................................................................................48
4.7 Livestock plays a vital role ..........................................................................................48
4.8 Animal health – the natural approach..........................................................................54
5. Certification ....................................................................................................................57
5.1 Certification of organic products in Australia. ..............................................................57
6. Marketing ........................................................................................................................62
6.1 Demand based marketing is the key...........................................................................62
6.2 Adding value to organic produce.................................................................................65
7. Economics ......................................................................................................................72
7.1 Economics stack up for organic farming .....................................................................72
7.2 Trial shows concerns at bottom line............................................................................78
7.3 Conversion process under the spotlight ......................................................................81
8. Appendices .....................................................................................................................86
8.1 Wholesalers and Retailers of Organic Produce ..........................................................86
9. References - Further reading ........................................................................................91

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List of Tables

Table 3.3.1: Reproductive and vegetative characteristics of plant species commonly

considered to be weeds ...................................................................................19
Table 4.2.1: The benefit that a green manure crop can play in nutrient supply. ...................35
Table 4.4.1: Nitrogen contents of selected agricultural crops...............................................41
Table 4.4.2: Nutrient removal in grain from different crops. .................................................41
Table 4.4.3: Nitrogen fixed by legume and green manure crops..........................................42
Table 4.5.1: Carbon - Nitrogen ratio of some organic wastes ..............................................45
Table 4.5.2: Troubleshooting ...............................................................................................46
Table 5.4.3: Analysis and application rate of two types of compost .....................................47
Table 7.1.1: Input use on organic and conventional farms in south-eastern Australia..........74
Table 7.2.2: Financial aspects of organic and conventional farms in south-eastern Australia76
Table 7.3.1: Rotation at organic Rutherglen site 1994 - 1999 ..............................................81
Table 7.3.2: Soil chemical data for organic 1995 - 1999. .....................................................82
Table 7.3.3: Grain production from the cereal phase of the rotation, 1995 - 1999. ..............82
Table 7.3.4: Wool weights and stocking rates......................................................................82
Table 7.3.5: Earthworm numbers 1995 - 1999.....................................................................83

List of Figures

Figure 3.3.1: Weed management planning cycle. ...............................................................20

Figure 4.1.1: Soil structure ..................................................................................................32
Figure 4.5.1: Composting ....................................................................................................44
Figure 4.5.2: The difference between a layered pile and a pre-mixed pile. ..........................45
Figure 6.2.2: Percentage of retail dollar to each layer. ........................................................67
Figure 7.3.1: Organic Steering Committee at AV Rutherglen (2/7/99), ................................84
Figure 7.3.2: Early emergence of wheat (Rosella) sown by direct drilling ............................84
Figure 7.3.3: Rutherglen Field Day......................................................................................85
Figure 7.3.4: Spreading worm casts (3/6/99) on perennial pasture block ............................85

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Executive Summary
With a growth rate exceeding twenty per cent per annum, it seems the potential of the organic
farming industry in Australia is only just being realised. Consumers are becoming acutely aware of
the possible chemicals contamination in products they eat, drink and wear and there is subsequently
a growing demand for products guaranteed to be chemical-free. With increased demand comes
increased supply, and since the 1980s researchers in Australia have been looking in detail at the long
term potential and viability of organic farming. Much of this research, including this report, has
been aimed at finding ways to encourage producers into this industry to help match supply with the
rapidly increasing worldwide demand.

To determine the content of this report, market research was carried out and included the discussions
at a number of focus group meetings held in Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria and
Queensland and a survey being sent to over 1000 farmers (organic and conventional growers). The
aim of the survey was to help direct the content of the package and confirm the specific areas of
organic farming the report needed to cover.

The results of the focus group meetings and survey were used to develop an outline for the report on
a chapter by chapter basis. The survey results were incorporated into the outline for the manual to
ensure the report is a true reflection of the information farmers want to see included in the manual,
and this information will be applicable to all agricultural industries.

This report, Organic Farming in Australia, has been compiled for conventional farmers who are
thinking of converting to organic farming, and for producers who have recently become organic
farmers and who would like more detailed information on any aspects of their production. The
report provides a step-by-step guide to organic farming, and technical articles give a detailed
explanation of organic farming principles and accreditation, certification procedures, pest and weed
management, soil health, crop and livestock production, potential marketing strategies, industry
contacts and an economic evaluation of organic farming.

Following a brief introduction outlining the development of the organic industry in Australia, the
report looks at issues facing a farmer wanting to convert to organic production. Suitable land and a
high level of motivation and commitment are essential for a farmer looking to convert. Once the
decision has been made to begin organic production, it is suggested the farmer draws up a detailed
conversion plan to aid the change from conventional to organic farming. This plan is made up of a
thorough farm assessment or audit to establish the current situation and a step-by-step action plan.
The action plan must address issues such as information gathering, soil fertility improvement,
rotation design, weed, pest and disease control, farm infrastructure, livestock requirements,
cultivation and tillage, labour requirements, financial implications, marketing requirements, and a
risk assessment, as applicable.

The next section of the report looks at pest and weed management in an organic production system.
This is an area, which often poses the most problems for organic farmers, during both the conversion
phase, and once an organic system has been established. However, the report offers many solutions
for pest and weed control, and offers a new way of thinking to help farmers work with nature rather
than against it. Rather than simply replacing synthetic pesticides with naturally occurring products,
it is suggested that design and management are the key to success in controlling pests and weeds.

The report details the use of integrated pest management (IPM) as part of a pest control programme,
and gives suggestions for cultural, biological and allowable natural pesticides control for various
common pests. There is also a detailed list of products available to the organic farmer for pest
control, although each certifying agency may vary this list according to their own requirements.

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Similarly, suggested methods of weed control outlined in the report include cultivation, competition,
thermal weeding, solarisation, crop choice, sowing density, fertilisation, irrigation, hand weeding,
suppression, mechanical control, crop rotations, the use of livestock and biological controls. It is
interesting to note that no herbicides are currently permitted for use on certified organic farms,
although transitional farmers may use pine or citrus oil-based herbicides.

The section of the report devoted to organic production systems is broken down into three sub-
sections: soil health, crop and pasture management and livestock production.

Healthy soil is an essential part of any farming system. In an organic farming operation, an effective
nutrient cycle becomes even more important as producers are limited to being able to use only
certain approved fertilisers. However, by correctly managing the inorganic elements and organic
matter in their soil, and ensuring there is sufficient aeration and moisture, organic farmers can grow
as healthy crops and pastures as any other farmer. Many inorganic elements are an allowable input
on certified organic farms, and there is a large range of commercial mixes or single elements
available. Organic matter can be provided to the soil through composts, green manure or cover
crops, well composted animal or poultry manure or composted industry waste free of unallowable
contaminants.

The crop and pasture management section of the manual details the allowable inputs for use in soil
fertilisation and soil conditioning on organic farms. It also looks at suitable green manure crops and
strategies that can be used for enhancing soil fertility. These strategies include accurate fertiliser
placement, reducing weed competition, timing application with moisture, minimising cultivation and
water-logging and doing extensive soil tests first so nutrient inputs are matched to existing soil
conditions and anticipated plant needs. There is also a detailed section on large scale composting
and how to make and apply compost on farm to enhance the nutrient cycle.

Livestock can play a vital role in an organic production system as they provide an effective form of
weed control, pest management, nutrient cycling and help crop establishment. The livestock
production section of the report looks at how to incorporate livestock into an organic farming system
so they too can be sold as organic produce. Livestock management in this situation can differ from
conventional livestock management as synthetic chemicals can not be used to maintain animal health
without the loss of the livestock’s certified organic status. However, the report suggests a number of
ways to minimise the likelihood of a disease outbreak and control pests in livestock, much of which
has to do with getting soil and pasture health right first.

One of the most daunting parts for any farming converting to organic production is the conversion
process. This section of the report looks at domestic and international certifying bodies, why there is
a need to be certified, what is meant by the ‘organic in conversion period’, what paperwork is
involved in certification and the overall cost and benefits of certification. There are currently seven
different certifying bodies in Australia, with some being more industry-specific than others. A brief
description is given of each agency and their contact details are included in this section.

Marketing is undoubtedly one of the keys to a successful organic farming system, and this section of
the report looks at providing for an industry in which demand is currently far outstripping supply
capability. The three essential rules to marketing organic products are knowing the market culture
and its regulatory requirements, knowing the specifications and demands of the customers and
knowing your products performance and nature. The second part of this section looks at ways to add
value to organic production, at various points along the production chain ranging from the type of
produce grown to conducting tours of the enterprise. Also included are some detailed examples of
investing in value-adding techniques and the various benefits and costs these will result in. Finally
there is a small article on the potential for exporting organic produce, and some of the international
certification and quarantine requirements imposed on organic goods.

viii
The final chapter of Organic Farming in Australia looks at the economics of organic farming
compared to conventional farming. Evidence available from several studies implies that organic
cereal-livestock farming can in some cases be financially as rewarding as conventional farming, both
for individual farmers and for the sector as a whole. This is studied in more detail in an article
which compares input costs, crop yields, output prices and overall returns for a number of
neighbouring organic and conventional farms. Two other trials are discussed in this chapter,
including a trial at Roseworthy College in South Australia, which compares soil fertility, weed
control and financial returns on conventional and organic trial sites. A similar trial was carried out
at Rutherglen in Victoria and the results, which include analysis of soil composition, grain
production, wool production and earthworm numbers are also discussed in this section.

Included at the end of the report is a list of some of the organic wholesalers and retailers in Australia
as well as helpful contacts for information for interested farmers, especially when considering
potential markets for their produce.

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1. Introduction
1.1 Resource fears spurred organic pioneers
by Chris Alenson, ORGAA

From a fledgling industry in the 1980’s, organic farming in Australia is now estimated to have a
growth rate of more than 20 per cent per annum. The industry currently turns over $200-$250
million annually and is driven by domestic and international consumer demand

The pioneers of organic farming tried to produce wholesome food from soils that had been almost
destroyed by poor agricultural practices. Contamination by pesticides was not their primary motive,
rather they feared that their resource base would become bankrupt.

Organic agriculture has both a philosophical and practical base where its proponents seek to farm in
a manner that does not impact on the environment. Farmers avoid the direct or routine use of readily
soluble chemicals and all synthetic pesticides that might be toxic to man or the environment.

Weed control involves a range of techniques such as controlled grazing, timely cultivation,
mulching, rotational control, thermal techniques and sowing density. Organic farmers use some of
the latest technologies that science has to offer, including prescription mix fertilisers, new seed
varieties, microbial inoculants, innovative equipment and biological pest control.

The goal is to increase soil fertility in the context of overall farm management and to ensure the
production of healthy uncontaminated food. Practices adopted to build soil fertility include
composting, wide rotations, green manure and cover crops, legume based leys and mineral based
fertilisers.

If problems arise they are managed by gaining an understanding of the cause and by seeking to solve
the problem using management techniques that offer least disruption to the farming system and the
immediate environment.

Supporters of organic agriculture would argue that its dynamic and flexible management systems
may well be capable of addressing many of the problems that conventional agriculture is faced with
today.

Conventional concerns
As the environmental movement gained momentum in the 1960’s and 1970’s farmers, researchers
and consumers became increasingly concerned about the direction and speed at which
agrochemically dominated modern agricultural systems were heading. Agriculture, especially in the
western world, when measured by its output and its profits has been enormously successful. But it
appears this success has come at a cost.

Some of the major concerns included:

• The impact of pesticides on human health.
• Land degradation issues such as erosion, salinity and acidification.
• The energy intensiveness of agriculture in the production of food.
• The environmental impacts of farm practices, in particular the use of
agrochemicals.
• Loss of diversity of plant species in production.
• The continual battle to overcome pests and weeds.
• The cost of farm inputs.

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 • Ethical concerns regarding intensive animal husbandry methods.

Organic agriculture
Organic farming is described in the Australian National Standard for Organic and Bio-dynamic
Produce (the national standard) as ‘systems which include those which are referred to as bio-
dynamic or biological.

The basic principles are to achieve optimum quantities of produce and food of high nutritional
quality without the use of artificial fertilisers or synthetic chemicals.

Organic farming requires the nurturing and maintaining of land for future generations. Emphasis is
placed on the use of renewable resources, the need for conservation of energy, soil and water
resources and the maintenance of environmental quality. The production cycle is as closed as
possible, with limited use of external inputs permitted by this standard’.

Although many factors have led to the recent development of the organic industry perhaps two key
research reports gave it the recognition it needed.

The first of these was the 1980 report on organic farming by the United States Department of
Agriculture. The report covered a range of activities and case studies and concluded, ‘that many of
the current methods of soil and crop management practiced by organic farmers are also those which
have been cited as best management practices for controlling soil erosion, minimising water
pollution, and conserving energy.

These include sod based rotations, cover crops, green manure crops, conservation tillage, strip
cropping, contouring, and grassed waterways.

Moreover, many organic farmers have developed unique and innovative methods of organic
recycling and pest control in their crop production sequences.

Because of these and other reasons outlined in this report, the team feels strongly that research and
education programs should be developed to address the needs and problems of organic farmers.

Certainly much can be learned from holistic research effort to investigate the organic system of
farming, its mechanics, interactions, principles, and potential benefits to agriculture both at home
and abroad’.

The second report, which was widely publicised in scientific journals and in the media, was
Reganold’s 1987 study on the ‘Long term effects of organic and conventional farming on soil
erosion’. Reganold compared matched pairs of organic and conventional farms. The results
demonstrated that organic farming had positive contributions to make in the area of land degradation
problems and the maintenance of soil fertility.

This scientifically reputable study found that organic farming could match conventional farming in
yields, production and costs and provided evidence that the soil resource was sustained above and
beyond the soils studied on neighbouring conventional farms.

At a glance
Organic farming seeks to:
Preserve and improve soil fertility.
Recycle wastes for conversion to humus.
Maximise moisture retention in soil.
Prevent pest and disease occurrences.

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Useful definitions:
Bio-dynamic
Bio-dynamic agricultural practices are a form of organic farming based principally on the work of
Rudolf Steiner and subsequent developments derived from practical application, experience and
research. Today the term organic often encompasses bio-dynamic farming practices, although it is in
fact an enhanced method of organic farming which also accepts the influence of the cosmos on the
farming process.

Certification
Certification means the procedures by which an approved certifying organisation provides written
assurance that an operator has been determined to conform to the national standard for organic and
bio-dynamic produce (the national standard). Certification is based on the inspection of practices
used, sampling of product and verification of records maintained by the owner.

Certified organic
Certified organic or Level A, means a farm has fully converted to organics. This farm has been
farmed organically, usually for a minimum of three years under the watchful eye of the certifier. No
artificial chemicals are used and the farmer is managing in a way which cares for the environment
and for the quality of produce.

Certified in conversion
The ‘in conversion’ level or level B produce is from a farm which practises to the same standard as
level A but only for a year or two.

Organic
Organic goods have been produced by specific management practices, which take care of the
environment and soil. Synthetic chemicals (including pesticides and fertilisers) are not permitted
other than those listed in Annex 1 of the national standard.

1.2 Organic farming growing in Australia

by Chris Alenson, ORGAA

Interest in organic farming has been gaining momentum since the 1980’s with consumers expressing
a desire to purchase food with minimal chemical residue.

Problems associated with conventional farming systems had been getting more coverage in the
media with cases of food contamination, environmental pollution and land degradation being
highlighted.

The development of the environmental or green movement and alternative lifestyles, combined with
concern about how our food was being produced, initiated a demand for organic food not previously
seen. Each reported incident of food or farm contamination resulted in a corresponding demand for
organic food.

As certification organisations were established to develop standards and to certify organic and bio-
dynamic production systems, more research was becoming available to justify organic agriculture as
a sustainable approach to food and fibre production.

In the 1980s, researchers began to survey organic producers to examine both farm viability and the
nature of producers across Australia. This research, coupled with the active lobbying of the organic
groups in Australia led to both state and federal governments becoming aware of this industry and
the potential for increased production.

3
As the world domestic demand for organic produce increased, governments of the day were attracted
to this market for the economic potential that it might have. In Australia the Primary and Allied
Industries Council produced a report titled ‘Implications of increasing world demand for organically
grown food’.

Its aim was to review increasing world demand for organically grown food and to consider ways in
which sustainable agriculture can be developed in Australia to meet both the domestic and export
demand.

The outcome was that an expanding domestic and export market existed and that further study
should be conducted into certification issues and overseas quarantine requirements and that the
federal government adopt a higher profile on sustainable agriculture.

The development of the Australian organic industry, although not as rapid as that in the USA or
Europe, has been impressive. With very little support from government, extension or advisory
services, the organic industry is now high on the political agenda in Australia.

Public recognition and demand for organic products are increasing while all forms of the media are
keen to discuss many facets of the industry. Trading partners such as Japan, Europe and the west
coast of America have an unsatisfied demand for organic produce. In the USA organic foods have
become the fastest growing sector of the food industry. Over the last seven years growth has
exceeded 20% per annum. Sales of organic foods are predicted to exceed US$6.5 billion by 2000.

In Europe, retail sales of organic foods in 1997 were estimated to be worth US$4.5 billion. Growth
is estimated to be 20-30% per annum.

Future projections for organic farming

Description 1995 2000 2005

Number of organic producers 1429 1657 1920
% of all agricultural producers 1% 1.4% 1.9%
Total organic area (‘000ha) 336 546 887

The above industry projections were based on information available in 1995(Hassels & Associates).
The issue of genetically modified foods has placed the organic food industry on a growth curve of
about 30% across the world where demand cannot be currently satisfied. This trend is likely to
continue for some time.

Consumers are now able to access a wide range of produce to satisfy their consumption patterns. The
range and quality of organic produce had increased not only in the area of fresh fruit and vegetables
but also in dried and packaged goods such as cereals, grains, flour, nuts, dried fruits, meat and dairy
products.

It is important to recognise that producers have gone to some trouble to produce food under a strict
code of operating standards which prohibit synthetic pesticides and fertilisers from the production
process. The guarantee of authenticity for consumers is the accompanying certification logo that the
produce carries into the market place.

Today there are more than 50 groups across Australia that keenly promote the message of organic
and bio-dynamic agriculture. Included in these are seven certification organisations audited and
accredited by the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS) to advance the production of
organic products.

4
Government support is available for research through the Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation (RIRDC) which funded an organic programme to the tune of $250 million
in 1998 and again in 1999. Although small in comparison to research spending on conventional
agriculture it is recognition that the organic industry has significant growth potential.

The growth of ‘organics’ from a movement to an emerging economic industry has taken many
decades and a great deal of dedication from many practical farmers and grass roots organisations.
These farmers have actively promoted organic farming as a viable alternative agricultural industry.

Agricultural producers in Australia now are in a position to supply a demanding domestic and export
market for certified organic produce while sustaining their resource base into the future.

5
2. Conversion
2.1 Commitment crucial for organic conversion
by Chris Alenson, ORGAA

The challenge in converting to organic agriculture is to apply information and practical experience
gained so that the farm is economically viable and sustainable.

Conversion refers to the process of changing from a more conventionally managed agricultural
system to one managed according to organic methods.

While the conventional system may rely on inputs of synthetically produced fertilisers and pesticides
to provide fertility and pest and disease control, the organic system relies more on the development
of natural biological cycles involving micro organisms, soil fauna, plants and animals.

It is important to remember that many conventional systems particularly stock-based ones will not be
dissimilar to an organic system and conventional farmers will already use many techniques used by
organic farmers. These practices might include the use of rotations, chisel ploughing or soil
aeration, green manuring, waste or stubble retention.

Challenges
Some of the major challenges when converting to organic agriculture are:
• An understanding of what an organic system means in the context of nutrient supply.
• Management of pest, disease and weed problems through whole farm management rather than
simply accessing and using proprietary chemicals.
• Justifying the move to organic agriculture to the many friends, neighbours and scientists that may
see the decision as unnecessary.

There are many factors to be considered and integrated in the conversion process. Some of these are
economic, environmental, infrastructural and social factors.

Farmers should be aware of the National Standard for Organic and Bio-dynamic Production with
regard to conversion. Under the national standard, ‘organic in conversion’ means a production
system which has adhered to the standards for at least one year and has been certified as such but
does not qualify as fully organic for reasons such as:
The conversion system has not been operated within the requirements for the specified period
(usually three years).
The farm does not meet the quality standards, such as the soil structure considered appropriate
and necessary for organic farms or the overall organic management system is not sufficiently
developed.

The conversion process should only be undertaken after a thorough assessment of the farm and the
formulation of a well-designed plan which gives consideration to factors mentioned above. In this
way any risk to the farm enterprise is minimised.

Why consider changing?

In western societies conventional high technology agriculture is hailed as most successful and cost
efficient.

But for some time many farmers and scientists have felt something was wrong. There is increasing
concern about how our resource management results in land and water degradation along with the
effect chemicals used on food crops has on the health of the environment and on ourselves. There is

6
consumer concern over possible residues, food nutritional quality and also what is perceived to be an
antagonism between agricultural production and the general care of the environment.

Organic produce at the present time commands good prices and demand is increasing from supply
agents such as retailers, wholesalers and supermarkets. Consumers are becoming more educated to
both health and environmental benefits of buying organic food and this is reflected in the 20 per cent
increase in demand over the past couple of years.

Successful conversion
Successful conversion depends on two factors.
1) Suitability of the farm for conversion
2) Motivation, commitment of the farmer and family

There will always be properties which are more difficult to convert to organic agriculture than
others. Organic farms generally are mixed farms with a diverse range of crops, trees and livestock.

This is the opposite of a monocultural system where pest, disease control and nutrient cycling would
be very difficult to manage unless substantial changes were made.

It would also be almost impossible for intensively housed animal enterprises such as poultry, pigs or
cattle to comply with organic guidelines.

Climate and geographic location such as areas of high salinity, high watertables, contamination from
previous land use or even distance from suitable markets may preclude a farm from being suitable
for organic farming.

A farmer undertaking the conversion process may feel isolated, with little technical help to work
through the many areas that need addressing.

The need for a holistic or systems approach to farm management is essential in overcoming these
obstacles, as is a strong belief that the course being pursued is the correct one.

There is a lot of learning to be done and perhaps many mistakes to be made before a successful
system is established, remembering that agriculture deals with biological systems where change is
always occurring. Family support is an essential ingredient for the farmer while pursuing these
objectives.

2.2 The conversion plan

by Chris Alenson, ORGAA

The conversion plan involves a thorough farm assessment and an action plan.

The farm assessment involves an audit of the farm, detailing paddock size, layout, irrigation, soil
fertility and nutrient status (including fertilisers used). It will also cover soil structure, pest and weed
management (including chemicals used), stock and crop health, rainfall, length of growing season
and equipment.

A whole farm plan encompassing all aspects of the property is highly desirable. The aim of the farm
assessment or audit is to understand where the farm currently sits in relation to its on-farm resources.
This will then provide the data that can be compared with the requirements of the organic system.

7
This is a complex task and requires the experience of an individual who is conversant with whole
farm planning, risk assessment, and all the component parts that are necessary for a successful
organic farming system. A consultant skilled in this area may be required.

The initial farm assessment may show a need to act on key issues such as degraded areas of the
property that require remedial treatment for soil erosion or salinity, fencing realignment, water
reticulation, tree plantations or soil fertility improvement.

A key objective of organic standards is to manage the farm to ensure environmental sustainability,
these factors are important when property assessment by certification agencies takes place.

Once a farm assessment is complete the development of an action plan is the next stage in the
conversion process.

Development of an action plan

The plan for cropping enterprises will be based around establishing an effective rotation. It is
important when conversion is initiated that a suitable paddock is trialled. This should be no larger
than a grower can afford to risk. The field should be large enough to see whether the change in
management has made a difference but small enough to avoid significant economic losses if results
are not as expected.
The following elements will generally have to be considered as part of the conversion process for
both annual cropping and perennial based operations:

1. Information gathering
The intending organic farmer will need to know about organic production standards, the
requirements for certification, the agency they wish to obtain certification from and markets for
various products. Knowledge will be needed in nutrient and soil management, inputs allowed for
pest and disease control and simply what organic agriculture is all about.

Interested farmers should gather as much information as possible from other growers, certification
agencies, grower groups, agriculture departments, advisory services, books and attendance at field
days, etc.

2. Soil fertility improvement

The development of a sustainable system will depend on how soil fertility enhancement is pursued.
Both the supply of nutrients and the soils own structural development are equally important and will
require management strategies to ensure that they are addressed.

As organic systems are generally low input systems it will be necessary to look at how nutrient
supply will be managed without recourse to the synthetic fertilisers.

A full soil assessment which includes examination of soil structure, tilth and soil analysis and an
assessment of crop and animal health and other biological indicators should be undertaken. This
will indicate where soil nutrient levels, structure characteristics and crop health need to be improved.
The farmer may be able to carry out much of this on-farm assessment, although appropriate advisory
personnel or consultants may be required.

Rotational strategies will be important in ensuring the build-up of organic matter in the soil and
additions of mineral elements may be necessary where a demonstrated need is established.
Biological foliar sprays to supply trace elements and to build plant resistance to disease would be
advantageous.

8
3. Rotation design
It is essential to understand the role that rotations play in underpinning the fertility building cycle so
important in achieving a sustainable system of agriculture. A good rotation is the foundation on
which a successful organic system is based.

Continuous cropping without resting the ground will result in difficulties. These may include a
decline in soil nutrients, imbalance in soil pH, a build-up of soil pathogens, a decline in soil structure
and quite possibly land degradation in the form of wind and water erosion and the introduction of
salinity problems.

The rotation should have a balance between fertility building crops (grass or clover pasture) which
provide good quantities of root bio-mass for earthworms and micro organisms, and exploitive crops
(cereals, canola). Crops that have natural weed germination inhibiters such as rye and sorghum may
be used.

The rotation design should cover nitrogen needs, the use of legumes and green manure crops.
Organic matter improvement might be enhanced through deep rooting pasture species, legumes,
mature green manure crops, stubble or compost.

Crops which are susceptible to weeds can follow weed suppressing crops such as rye and sorghum.
The rotation must also produce sufficient feed for livestock.

Green manures play an important role in the rotation process where they are a prime source of
nitrogen, supply forage for stock, reduce weed seed banks and supply organic matter to the soil.
Planting a diverse range of crops through each rotation should be effective in reducing plant
pathogens and in preventing insect populations from becoming established.

Other factors that need to be considered when planning the rotation are whether there is a market for
the crops planned in the rotation and if they are suitable for the climate and soil type.

4. Cereal and livestock farms

In Australia it may be easier to convert a sheep, cattle or cropping farm than an intensive
horticultural operation due to legume pastures already being employed and less reliance on synthetic
fertilisers and chemical pesticides.

5. Horticulture
The conversion of a horticultural property is more difficult given the reliance on synthetic fertilisers
and pesticides to maintain yields. The use of compost and bought-in wastes for composting, form an
important part of nutrient management when animal manures are not available.

In this situation it is essential that the rotation include legumes and green manure crops to provide
nitrogen and organic matter and that provision is made for bought in waste products.

6. Weed, pest and disease control

Likely weed and pest problems will already be identified through past experience. It is often the
case that a dependence on agricultural chemicals has caused an increase in particular pest problems
which has been exacerbated by the destruction of possible beneficial predator insect populations.

Crop rotation is important for insect control and the use of natural predators should be encouraged
through the planting of herbaceous vegetation. The use of botanical sprays could be considered
although any chemical usage by those intending to seek organic certification should be ratified by
reference to organic standards or through consultation with a certification agency.

9
The removal of current agricultural chemicals for the control of such problems as weeds should now
be exercised primarily through the development of a good rotation although planting density, the
grazing of stock, mechanical and thermal weed control may also be used.

Reducing weed competition by sowing wheat more densely at rates of 150-175kg/ha has produced
yields of 3.3 t/ha from 150kg/ha of organic fertiliser.
Equipment needs for both weed and insect control should be addressed at the planning stage of the
conversion.

General fertility improvement will help to overcome soil imbalances where weeds are favoured.

7. Farm infrastructure
Conversion to organic agriculture may require different equipment and infrastructure to be in place
to support the particular enterprise. It may be a change to cultivation equipment or to packaging,
that is required to market the intended produce, cool rooms to store it in or changes to more basic
needs such as paddock re-design and irrigation supply. This is an important part of the planning
required for successful conversion.

8. Livestock and stocking rates

On a mixed farm there should be a balance between livestock and crops. Under organic management
stock numbers may need to be reduced to ensure that stock are fed from on-farm produced
foodstuffs. Mixed livestock may assist in parasite control and pasture management and recycling of
nutrients.

Poor soils are a legacy of Australia’s geological history, being an old continent. As a consequence
our soils are very fragile, suffer from poor structural development and can be compacted very easily.
Given this situation, stocking rate is very important to allow pastures to develop properly and to
avoid compaction and erosion problems through over grazing.

Farmers need to consider if the current stock on hand will satisfy the intended organic markets or if
some stock will need to be sold on the conventional market as well.

9. Cultivation and tillage

The often repeated axiom for organic agriculture is deep loosening and shallow turning. Depending
on the enterprise, equipment needs may differ from conventional agriculture.

Long standing use of either mouldboard or disc ploughs may have resulted in hard-pan structures at
plough depth which may be inhibiting the penetration of plant roots to access both moisture and
nutrients.

Similarly the trampling of pastures by stock over many years causes soil compaction which could
benefit from deeper loosening. Chisel ploughs and soil aerators are often used for opening up the
soil while weeding requirements may require a completely different set of equipment.

10. Marketing requirements

It is essential preliminary market research is carried out to see what opportunities exist to supply the
given produce. Is the product in demand and what are the packaging and market supply
requirements? Will the market accept misshapen produce?
Transportation and market location whether local or interstate or overseas are other considerations.
Inquiries should be addressed to organic wholesalers around Australia, as well as exporters,
supermarkets, retailers or others in the supply chain to determine demand and their supply
requirements.

10
11. Labour requirements
Organic agriculture is often more labour intensive as it does not rely on agricultural chemicals for
pest and weed control. For example additional cultivation, hand hoeing and more on-farm
evaluation of how the whole farm is operating, can be expected. Is there sufficient labour for the
enterprises being considered and will seasonal labour be available when required? The additional
costs of labour requirements need to be factored into the cost of conversion.

12. Financial implications

All financial considerations for plant, machinery and labour must be investigated. And is there an
adequate buffer for the initial years when income may be reduced.

During the conversion process a decrease in production may be expected of 10-15 per cent due to the
changing nature of nutrient supply to the crop from a chemical based system to one of optimising
soil based fertility.

Once the organic system has been established and a good level of soil fertility has been achieved,
production may not be dissimilar to conventional management.

Recent research on the Rodale Research Farms in the USA demonstrate that a fall in yields did not
accompany the rotation being trialled in their conversion plots and that organic plots out performed
the conventional ones in a time of very low soil moisture.

13. Risk assessment and cost

A competent authority or farm consultant should perform a thorough risk assessment for the
intended enterprise. The risk assessment should take into consideration all past chemical uses, and
may require gathering information from past owners of the land to get an accurate picture of possible
chemical residues.

The rest of the assessment should take into consideration all aspects of the conversion, particularly
the initial three year conversion period with the likely decrease in income. It should also include the
cost of any new capital equipment and infrastructural changes necessary to ensure the success of the
operation.

The cost of conversion will depend on how much the current system differs from the organic one
proposed and the amount of restructuring that may have to take place. The efficiency of the
conversion and the time taken for conversion will both affect the cost to the farmer.

14. Inputs in horticultural operations

Although organic agriculture is generally a low input system, horticultural operations on occasions
use compost and mineral fertilisers. The use of these mediums, and biological preparations such as
seaweed sprays and fish emulsions, will aid crop nutrition and health.

The organic standards insist that all off-farm wastes be composted before use, to minimise
contamination and to transform nutrients to a more acceptable form.

It is important in the transition planning to anticipate what inputs are required and how they will be
provided.

Pest and disease management is achieved through sound rotations, cultural methods, soil fertility
enhancement, the fostering of biological control and occasionally direct action with approved low
toxicity pesticides.

11
Don’t move too quickly
A change to an organic system requires both a philosophical change and the adoption of many new
management techniques. It is important not to move too fast. As attainment of a soil high in fertility
is paramount to a successful organic enterprise, it is likely that some time will elapse before that
point is reached.

Remember that organic farming is not about substituting one allowed input for a prohibited input,
but putting into place a management regime that works towards a regenerative system. To suddenly
stop using chemicals may not be the best approach, rather a slow weaning may be the best way of
achieving goals in the long term.

As mentioned earlier, try out the management techniques on a small area first where mistakes are
unlikely to be too costly. A big mistake on a small acreage may not prove too expensive, whereas a
small mistake on a large acreage may turn out to be very costly.

The development of effective rotations is the key to successful conversion of cropping and
horticultural operations. Monocropping with little diversity can only be maintained through the use
of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.

At a glance
• Is there a strong commitment to organic farming?
• Seek information and explore all options, standards, certification, conversion information and
markets.
• Farm assessment of current enterprise and changes needed to convert to organics.
• Soil fertility restoration, including rotations and nutrient planning.
• Proceed slowly (progressive conversion) while adapting to a change in management.

Information and assistance

Don’t be afraid to seek advice - there are many organic organisations, extension personnel in
agriculture departments, advisory services, and growers themselves who will be only too pleased to
offer advice and encouragement.

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3. Pest and Weed Management
3.1 The organic way to pest and weed management
by Tim Marshall, Organic consultant

A well-planned management program will help organic growers control pests, diseases and weeds
without synthetic chemical fertilisers.

Active management and planning are necessary to ensure that the ‘last resort’ chemical controls
which conventional growers use are not needed on the organic farm.

Organic growers have access to many management tools and methods, some of these are common
practice on any well-managed Australian farm, others may be traditional approaches (pre-chemical)
or leading-edge adoption of new research and technology.

Good observation skills, willingness to experiment with novel approaches and attention to local
conditions, including internal variations within a paddock, are common characteristics of successful
organic growers.

A combination of several major control methods and good farm hygiene is usually required for
successful organic pest control. Before referring to the specifics of control methods, it is useful to
understand the context in which they are used. The ‘outlook’ or ‘worldview’ of the organic grower
will significantly influence how individual control methods are selected and used. Bio-dynamic
growers may refer to this as ‘the organisation’ of the farm.

The organic outlook

All potential inputs into crop production may influence pest development, severity of damage to the
plant and recovery from pest attack. Water from irrigation or rainfall, fertilisers, pesticides and
general cultural practices may all affect the pest regime in the crop by changing the ecological
conditions in the field.

All these factors need to be taken into account in the design of the system and the special techniques
or recipes used by organic growers may only be effective in a sympathetic environment.

Organic growing systems have as a prime goal, to grow healthy plants with good balanced nutrition
and the ability to resist or outgrow pest damage and weeds. Nutrition is essential to ensure crop
plants can compete with weeds and build strong cell walls and epidermis, which will resist insect
mouthparts and disease attack.

Organic growing systems also:

• Avoid large areas of monoculture as much as possible.
• Use good quarantine and hygiene practices to avoid introducing pests.
• Preserve plant communities such as native vegetation which may harbour beneficial insects.
• Avoid pesticides which can accumulate in food webs and which kill natural enemies.
• Exploit knowledge of the biology and life-cycle of the pest or weed, to identify the time of year or
phase of growth when ‘cultural’ practices or other techniques will be most effective.

‘Cultural’ practices are any routine operations, which are applied to the crop, such as cultivation,
irrigation, mulching, pruning, or other ‘physical’ interventions.

Ecosystem diversity is particularly important as many pests can complete their full life-cycle
requirements within the crop but beneficial insects will often require different environments for parts

13
of their development. Refuge areas for predators must be provided to enhance natural biological
control.

An example is the generalist wasp predators, which may feed on nectar or pollen in their adult life,
while development of eggs and larvae occur within an insect host. To encourage beneficial wasps,
organic growers often:
• Retain flowering native vegetation, especially understorey plants.
• Plant windbreaks with species selected to extend the flowering season for as long as possible.
• Allow flowering ground covers to develop as a living mulch or ground cover.

If the wasps are to remain active for the longest period possible, windbreak or groundcover plants
should be selected to extend the flowering season. Wasps generally prefer yellow and white flowers.
They also have short feeding tubes, so flowers with exposed stamen and anthers are best.

Dragonflies are another example of an insect that is a useful predator in two stages of their life cycle,
in completely different habitats. Dragonfly larvae live in water, where they are an effective predator
of mosquito larvae. In the adult phase, they are a voracious generalist predator, and take a wide
range of prey ‘on the wing’.

Organic growers benefit from a willingness to research or observe insect behaviour to this level of
detail. They accept the necessity to allow room for these ‘natural’ controls to operate (such as
refuge areas for predators) and ‘wild’ areas are viewed not just as a concession to nature, but as an
integral part of the farm.

Other strategies permitted under organic systems include:

• Resistant plants.
• Biological controls including diseases, parasites and predators.
• Sex attractants (pheromones).
• Light traps, pit traps, attractant baits and sticky surfaces.
• Interplanting and the use of trap crops.
• Plant based repellents such as garlic and chilli.
• Hand picking or mechanical removal.
• Certain natural substances and/or botanical insecticides.

It is important not to regard organic growing as simply the replacement of synthetic pesticides with
naturally occurring products. Design and management are the key to success. The use of any
pesticide product is always a last resort and potentially a threat to the sustainability of the system.

Certification requirements
Certified organic farmers are required to maintain accurate records of pest and weed control
activities, especially ‘inputs’ such as botanical pesticides. The certification organisation may review
records to establish that even the allowable inputs have not been used too frequently or carelessly.
They may also require evidence that a ‘holistic’ pest control program has been developed to reduce
reliance on permitted chemical options.

Chemical controls should always be the last choice. Botanical pesticides do not last long in the
environment and do not accumulate in the food chain, but they may kill beneficial organisms or harm
the applicator.

Cultural, physical or biological controls are preferred because they force the grower to come to a
greater understanding of the ecological processes at work on the farm, and to work with natural
systems as much as possible

14
3.2 The future is integrated pest management
by DeAnn Glenn, Natural Resources and Environment

Managing pests effectively using biological control options is often more complicated than
conventional pesticide regimes. It takes more planning, requires a better understanding of agro-
ecosystems and involves more innovative approaches to farm management. An Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) approach can be extremely useful for effective implementation of biological
control.

IPM has been developing over the past 20 years in response to environmental concerns and pesticide
resistance issues. IPM has become more difficult to define over time, as it becomes different things to
different people.

Perceptions of IPM range from a focus on integrated whole-farm organic practices to improving some
aspect of a standard chemical program. IPM is generally defined as a dynamic, knowledge-based
scientific approach to pest management, based on best available techniques and information adapted
to different regions, conditions and management requirements.

IPM provides more options

Emphasis is given to implementing more strategic use of treatments including better timing,
monitoring and effective application. It also encompasses the use of softer alternatives such as
augmentative release of biological control agents. It becomes a series of management options
depending on conditions rather than one easy answer.
The emphasis is on correct identification and diagnosis, monitoring, incorporating available
management options and on effective timing and targeting of necessary control measures.

This approach to pest management requires a long-term perspective with accumulation of knowledge
and understanding of the agro-ecosystem gained over time. It is important to monitor and keep
effective records which can be used to gain a historic perspective of the property, and help to
implement, refine and adapt responses to different circumstances and seasons.

The IPM approach involves understanding the pest or disease, so it can be targeted at its most
vulnerable point. This means that strategies are developed to consider the particular conditions
growers’ face. Often the key to successful management is having the right information available at
the right time and the confidence to act upon it. If we have the correct information available from
monitoring, the control measures can be more effective and the risks of pest outbreaks from reduced
spraying can be substantially diminished.

The following example illustrates issues faced when developing an IPM strategy incorporating bio-
control of a particular pest into one cropping system.

Moth control in grapevines

This example illustrates the development of Trichogramma wasps for commercial use against
lightbrown apple moth (LBAM) in grapevines. This strategy could be adapted for development of
bio-control in other agricultural systems.

LBAM is an Australian native leafroller that has adapted to grapevines and other horticultural and
ornamental crops, especially in wetter, cooler regions such as Coonawarra, South Australia and the
Yarra Valley, Victoria. The larvae cause damage to grape berries by feeding in bunches, as well as
providing entry sites for bunch rots. LBAM numbers can be extremely variable between seasons and
vineyards and monitoring is important to prevent surprise outbreaks.

15
There are two generations of LBAM within the growing season in cooler regions, with an additional
generation in warm regions in some years.

They overwinter as larvae, harbouring in broadleaf weeds such as capeweed and dock. LBAM
moths tend not to be migratory and prediction of peak egg laying times is possible using day-degree
models.

LBAM are relatively vulnerable to egg parasitism as they lay masses of 20-50 eggs which take from
seven to 21 days (depending on temperature) to hatch, providing time for egg parasitoids to locate
the eggs. There are three native species of Trichogramma wasps which commonly prey on LBAM
eggs on grapevines.

Field trials using the native egg parasitoid Trichogramma carverae resulted in rates of parasitism of
LBAM egg masses on sentinel cards from 40-50 per cent at 20,000 wasps per hectare, 75-80% at
70,000 per hectare and 90-95% at 100,000 per hectare when the weather was favourable.

Cool temperatures, rain and sulphur were found to be disruptive to the Trichogramma wasps and 0-
10% parasitism was recorded in some trials under these conditions. Paper 'capsules' containing
parasitised eggs with pinholes for the wasps to escape as they hatched were effective in protecting
release material from predation. Protective release containers raise the cost of inundative releases
but increase reliability and facilitate handling.

Pheromone traps or port wine lure pots can be useful in indicating timing of LBAM flights, as eggs
were generally found in vines about seven to 10 days after moth numbers increase in pheromone
traps. Monitoring eggs in the vines is important for accurate timing of Trichogramma releases as
egg laying can be delayed due to variable weather conditions or the stage of vine development.

Pheromone trap catches of LBAM usually increase in the spring around bud-burst in grapevines. If
vine leaves have not yet expanded before the spring moth flight, high trap catches may not reflect
egg lays since LBAM females lay eggs on expanded leaves.

Cold, rainy weather can also delay or prevent oviposition even when trap catches have increased.
Monitoring of eggs on vines can also be used to determine relative egg density, assess rates of
parasitism and to determine timing of B. thuringiensis sprays. The risk of control failure is reduced
when eggs can be assessed for parasitism and follow-up sprays can be applied as necessary.

Commercial trials on growers’ properties have shown that egg monitoring can be a useful estimate of
LBAM activity in vines. Many grape growers have reduced chemical inputs significantly by treating
only when LBAM are present and at the right development stage.

IPM gives 90% control

There have been a number of reports of successful control of LBAM with Trichogramma releases in
commercial vineyards, with rates of parasitism of 60 - 90%. The success of Trichogramma releases
can be assessed by monitoring egg masses which are white if unparasitised and black if parasitised.

In cases where releases of Trichogramma have not been effective, reasons suggested include: high
temperatures during shipment, damaged wasps, numbers released were too low, timing of releases
did not coincide with presence of LBAM eggs, weather was cold and wet and sulphur was sprayed
prior to wasp release.

As illustrated by this example of a bio-control strategy, the major drawback to adoption of IPM is
the need to simplify complex IPM concepts and to tailor the management options more closely to
grower needs.

16
Growers are often faced with the task of developing a broader management perspective as well as
the complicated task of interpreting research methods and outcomes from publications or seminars
and incorporating them into their particular farm system.

Understanding the variation in local and regional conditions and adapting the system to fit the
situation is critical to successful use of IPM. Ongoing interaction between the IPM developer and
the user is crucial to the successful adoption of bio-control.

IPM in Viticulture
In response to grower requests for more information on pest and disease management, a series of
regional workshops was developed to improve the development of IPM strategies in viticulture.

The exchange of information between growers and researchers helps incorporate research outcomes
and new technology into practical and economically feasible management strategies for pests and
diseases in each region. Many workshops have been run in major viticulture regions where
researchers participated in teaching situations and hands-on demonstrations. This approach could be
adapted to most other agricultural industries.

The collaborative approach to development of information gives growers and crop consultants a
better chance of success with pest and disease management through strategies tailored to their
regions.

The complexity of a dynamic IPM approach, based on a better understanding of the vineyard
ecosystem has stimulated participants to think and discuss together new ways to manage pests and
diseases in their vineyards.

Variability across regions and between seasons means that the IPM approach provides tools to
develop customised pest management programs. Participants recognise that IPM is a long-term
approach to better pest management, and that historic information, preparation and planning are
important. Researchers also receive feed-back on their work, and gain insights into industry needs
and priorities in research directions.

The future of IPM

IPM is a relatively new approach to pest management in vineyards and agricultural industries in
general. As growers become more experienced and confident using IPM processes, improved
economic returns can be expected in the short term and a better understanding of its potential for
meeting the demands of a changing marketplace, the potential for resistance management and
environmentally sustainable viticulture practices.

IPM itself is a dynamic process, between growers, researchers, chemical companies, and others in
the industry. It continues to change in light of new observations, evidence and experiences. We
have become more aware that IPM requires an extensive support system including targeted research,
monitoring, diagnostic and information services as well as trained consultants.

The reduction in government provision of extension services has hampered the implementation of
IPM in recent years but has resulted in more commercial services being developed.

It has become more apparent a best practice IPM program can be very complex. A clear and
comprehensive understanding of all the pests and diseases and management options available is an
immense task. This is most often coupled with a similar approach to other aspects of integrated crop
management (ICM) which includes vine nutrition and soil and water management.

17
Although it is difficult to estimate the number of growers who have begun to adopt IPM practices, the
most common comment about the effects of the IPM viticulture workshops is that it has changed the
way they look at their vines.

Many growers have realised that the broad knowledge base of IPM makes it easier to get planning
and management decisions ‘right' and avoid unanticipated problems and costly ad hoc solutions.
Several growers who would have normally applied sprays reported that they had begun regular
monitoring of lightbrown apple moth, and after finding no sign of lightbrown apple moth, did not
spray. This has resulted in many thousands of dollars in savings.

Closer involvement of growers and crop consultants in research, training and technology transfer
gives IPM the greatest chance of adoption.

To further integrate pest management across the agro-ecosystem, we need to continue to explore the
options for management of soil, weed, cropping, water and associated practices and to consider the
effects of different practices on the overall fauna, nutritional state, and balance of local ecosystems.

3.3 Working with nature for weed control

by Paul Kristiansen, Horticultural Researcher, University of New England.

With experience and persistence, weed management for organic growers becomes easier and less
expensive as grower confidence and skills increase. Weed management can be a difficult and
expensive part of any farming operation.

For organic growers, controlling weeds can seem like an endless tail-chasing exercise.

In any agricultural production system, the management of weeds must be based on a long-term
strategy that combines knowledge about the weeds, the crop, the farming system and local
conditions. It can be a difficult and expensive part of any farming operation.

The understanding required to successfully manage weeds can be gained through reading, talking
and listening but the main source of knowledge is experience. As each season passes, the farmer's
skills improve and the weed problem decreases.

Each farm, perhaps even each paddock, is unique and ready-made solutions are not necessarily
available. Nevertheless, common principles and practices can be developed from the experience of
other growers, and these can be adopted to suit a particular property.

During the conversion phase, from conventional farming to organic production, growers can usually
expect an increase in weed infestations and a change in the species of weeds occurring.

While it is not uncommon for new organic growers to succumb to weeds and give up within the first
three years, this may often be due to the existing weed seed bank becoming activated through
different management practices. Sensible planning and persistent effort can eventually reduce the
seed bank to manageable levels.

In this review of organic weed management, the general principles of organic weed management will
be introduced, followed by a discussion of the various weed control methods available to organic
growers during preparation, cropping and between crops.

Understanding weeds
Weeds come from a wide variety of plant families, although they share some common features
(Table 3.1). In agriculture, a plant becomes a weed when it is perceived to be interfering with the

18
production cycle, or causing crop yield reductions, contamination, stock poisoning, access
difficulties or some other problem. But growers differ in their attitudes to which species are weedy
and which are not.

Not all weeds are equally undesirable. Some weeds may not be highly invasive or may not cause
problems in crop production. In the context of limited time and money, some weeds may not need to
be controlled. Weeds also can be beneficial for the farm by providing erosion control, habitat for
beneficial insects and wildlife, nutritional and medicinal value to stock.

Table 3.3.1: Reproductive and vegetative characteristics of plant species commonly considered to be
weeds

- quick to reproduce
- simple pollination requirements
- high seed production
- extended seeding periods
Reproductive strategies
- effective dispersal mechanisms
- seed dormancy
- long seed viability periods
- persistent vegetative parts
- vigorous growth
- smothering growth habits
Vegetative strategies - allelochemical suppression of neighbouring plants
- toxicity to discourage browsing by insects and animals
- brittle stems and roots

The features listed in Table 3.3.1 don't necessarily cause weediness. Weed infestations are often
encouraged by the landscape disturbance which is typical of agricultural activity. Annual cropping
systems with repeated tillage, fertiliser application and irrigation generally promote annual weeds.

Perennial farming systems, with less frequent disturbances, tend to include both annual and
perennial weeds. Weeds often have the ability to move quickly into newly created niches and
establish themselves. They may then require a similar on-going disturbance pattern to maintain their
presence, otherwise a new group of weeds may take over.

This process of succession may be manipulated on a farm by varying weed management methods
over time to disadvantage the weeds and favour the crop.

Long term and dynamic

No single weed management strategy will apply to all organic farms. The repeated use of any one
method can have harmful effects on other aspects of the farm, such as excess tillage causing erosion.
Also, different weed species respond to different control methods. For example, while many annual
weeds are susceptible to control by tillage, weeds with tuberous roots, such as oxalis, resist removal
and desiccation due to tillage. It is important to develop an integrated strategy based on the crops
being grown, the weeds that are present and the local soil, terrain and climate.

Management based on short-term considerations, such as one season or one year, is flawed because
it ignores changes in weed populations over longer time spans and possible negative environmental
side effects. Therefore, weed management should be planned as a long term, dynamic process.
Figure 3.3.1 illustrates the cyclic nature of weed management planning and lists many of the
principles.

19
 1. Know your farm 2. Develop a strategy
- which weeds are a problem? - what crops to grow?
- where do they grow? - how to grow them?
- when are they a problem? - timing of activities?
- how does the soil vary? - preparing paddocks?
- how does drainage vary? - in-crop weed control?
- what have you tried in the past? - control in non-crop areas?
- subsequent rotations?

4. Monitor & review the 3. Implement the strategy

strategy - do it once, do it properly
- which weeds persisted? - be thorough
- which methods were effective? - allow for weather conditions
- did any events affect outcomes? - be observant
- any side-effects (e.g. erosion)? - be flexible!
- any surprise successes? - carry out extra tasks, if needed
- costs versus benefits?

Figure 3.3.1: Weed management planning cycle.

(Adapted from Powles, S. and Britton, R. 1998. Elective 1. IWM in cropping systems)

Assessment of the situation

Identification of weeds is a first step towards managing weeds. By accurately identifying weeds on a
property, a farmer can then seek information about suitable control methods for that species.
Although common names are often easier to remember and pronounce, scientific names are more
reliable and don't vary between states and growing regions. Once a weed is identified, observations
and knowledge about its establishment, growth and spread (does it flower quickly, how long do the
seeds last) can be used in the weed management planning cycle.

The total weed population on a farm is determined by the number of actively growing plants and the
number of seeds and regenerative plant parts (propagules) in the soil. On-going efforts should be
made to reduce the number of weed propagules in the soil and prevent any further addition from
plants that are producing new seeds. This is generally achieved by killing or removing the weeds
when young and by slashing the flowering tops before they set seed.

Hygiene and quarantine

Maintaining a high standard of farm hygiene also helps to ensure off-farm inputs are free of weed
propagules. Composting organic materials thoroughly may be necessary to kill seeds, likewise a
germination test on any introduced composts can be used to ensure they are weed free before
purchase. Farm machinery and other equipment should be cleaned regularly, especially after
working in areas with large numbers of weed propagules present.

Organic weed control principles

1) Timeliness: Carry out all weed control activities when it is optimal to do so. For example before
seed set, before the weeds get too large and while the ground is dry enough to work.
2) Persistence: Leaving just one weed or one patch uncontrolled could mean returning next year
to repeat the same or an even bigger task. Spending the extra time to be fussy now will mean
time saved in subsequent seasons.
3) Observation: Keeping an eye on where, when and which weeds occur on the farm. Making
notes to help remember the details can highlight areas in need of greater attention in the current
year and help planning for subsequent years.

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 4) Flexibility: Seasons, weed infestations and weed control methods vary in their level of success.
Therefore, it is important to adopt the weed management strategy to suit the changing
conditions.

Reducing the seed bank

Weeds have been the downfall of many aspiring organic growers and this may often be due to poor
preparation. Reducing the weed seed bank, especially when previously uncultivated land such as
pasture is going to be used, is an important part of preparing an area for cropping.

It is easier to control weeds when there is no crop to avoid because more management options are
available and more intensive operations can be carried out. If a significant decrease in the weed seed
bank can be achieved, then there will be fewer weeds when the cash crop is grown. An integrated
strategy developed for a specific property is the most suitable approach to preparing land for organic
farming.

Cultivation
In the preparation phase, long bare fallows with repeated tillage over 1-2 years are commonly used
before planting a cash crop. The aim is to encourage weed germination by inverting the soil to bring
buried weed seeds closer to the soil surface. These weed flushes are controlled with further tillage,
gradually getting shallower and less aggressive.

Deep rippers are sometimes used initially to break up the sub-soil and control some perennial weeds.
Chisel or disc ploughs are then used to further prepare the soil and remove weeds.

They are replaced by scarifiers, which are then replaced by lighter cultivators such as ticklers and
brush weeders. Timing of the cultivations is critical. It is important to allow maximum weed
germination but not allow the weeds to become large enough that they will survive the tillage
operation by avoiding uprooting or re-rooting afterwards.

Rotary hoes may also be used to hasten the breakdown of plant residues and soil clumps. Several
short term green manure rotations in association with well timed cultivations can dramatically
decrease the weed load before establishing a cropping sequence.

It should be stressed that the heavy reliance on tillage beyond this initial preparation phase is not
recommended as an on-going weed management option. Over-reliance on tillage can have
significant detrimental effects on soil structure, biology and nutrient levels.

During the cropping phase, mechanical tillage is often the most common method of weed control for
many organic growers. Numerous implements are available for in-crop weeding such as ticklers,
spring tine harrows, brush weeders and many other variations.

These implements vary in their level of crop damage, distance from the crop row, travel speed, depth
of tillage and level of weed control.

Cultivations should be undertaken when the weeds are at the most vulnerable stage for a given
implement and when weather conditions permit. Cultivating early on a hot day will be more
successful than late in the day followed by rainfall.

Speed of travel should also be considered. Travelling too slow may not dislodge weeds enough to
kill them, while travelling too fast may dislodge crop plants and cause soil damage.

Carrying out tillage operations in the dark, either at night or using lightproof covers over the
implement, has been reported to reduce the amount of subsequent weed germination. Results have

21
been inconsistent, although some control has been noted for weed species which require light for
germination.

Competition
Green manure or cover crops are also a key part of both the preparation and cropping phases,
especially in orchards, vineyards and on some vegetable farms. Low-growing, dense ground cover
species are used including varieties of clover and peanut. In addition to suppressing weeds, cover
crops provide nutrients and organic matter to the soil, provide habitat or food for beneficial
organisms, and can improve soil structure.

Vigorous cover crops are aimed at out-competing the weeds and then smothering them.
Considerable skill is required to grow both the cash crop and the smother crop together successfully.
Some cover crops also produce allelochemicals which inhibit the germination and growth of certain
weed species.

Dense sowing rates and careful management are essential to provide sufficient ground coverage,
otherwise a poorly established cover crop may not suppress weeds at all. Care should be taken to
turn in cover crops which have the potential to become weedy themselves, such as mustards. Several
varieties are generally suitable as cover crops depending on local conditions, including the cereals
rye and barley, and the legumes vetch and lupin.

Thermal weeding
Thermal weeding methods, including flame, infra-red and steam, have been receiving more attention
from growers and equipment manufacturers over the past few years. These techniques have the
ability to control newly emerged weeds in both the preparation and cropping phases without causing
the level of soil disturbance common to tillage.

The equipment is normally used towards the end of preparation phase, once the seedbed has been
prepared and further tillage is undesirable. Effective knockdown of certain weeds can be achieved in
the lead up to sowing or planting, and even into the early stages of crop growth, without encouraging
a new flush of weed emergence.

These methods can be practised further into the growing season by fitting shields to the implements
to protect the plants in the crop rows as they get larger. To get worthwhile weed control with
thermal methods, several issues must be considered, including timing, tractor speed, distance from
heat source to target, application pressure or volume, types of weeds and climatic factors.

A variety of thermal weeding implements are available for broadacre application, but are still being
tested to determine the best conditions for use, and the range of weeds which are susceptible.
Thermal weed control may include burning of stubbles to remove weeds or seed, although this
strategy will not be favoured because the organic matter content is destroyed.

Solarisation
Solarisation of seedbeds can be carried out during the hotter months of the year, before planting a
crop. This technique involves the laying and sealing of clear plastic sheeting over prepared and
moistened beds for a period of at least 6-8 weeks.

The energy from the sun heats the soil and kills weed seeds and emerged plants. Not all weed
species are controlled, and success can vary depending on soil type, soil preparation, type of plastic
and climate.

22
Most reports indicate that weeds are killed to a soil depth of only 5cm. Solarisation may be an
appropriate method for small to medium scale properties seeking to reduce their level of tillage.
This method may also assist with pest and disease reduction through soil sterilisation.

Cultural techniques
The management of weeds by cultural methods involves a range of strategic decisions. Careful and
informed choices should be made about cultivar selection, timing of operations, fertiliser rate and
application method, irrigation method and various other agronomic factors.

The ecosystem of a paddock can also be manipulated to amend the conditions in the field, so that
pests and diseases are not favoured. For example, many weeds with taproots, such as dock (Rumex
spp.) grow well in waterlogged or low pH soils. Improving drainage or raising pH removes some of
their competitive advantage. Some other cultural techniques are:

1) Crop Choice
Strategic cultural methods that advantage the crop and disadvantage the weeds begin with the
selection of appropriate crop species and varieties. Varieties which lack early growth vigour may be
swamped by weeds. Narrow-leaved crops such as onions are poor competitors, so they would be
unsuitable in weedy paddocks.

2) Sowing
The sowing or planting density of many crops, such as cereals and pulses, can be increased to
achieve quicker canopy closure and enable more of the crop (and less of the weeds) to capture the
available light, water and nutrient resources. Transplanted seedlings rather than direct seeding also
gives the crop a head start. Vigorous, well-grown transplants will establish and develop quickly,
while newly emerging weeds will be at a competitive disadvantage for resources.

3) Fertilisation
Fertiliser can be applied strategically to maximise nutrient uptake by crop plants and minimise
uptake by weeds. This can be done by applying the fertiliser in bands along the planting rows or
around individual plants, and by providing fertiliser at key times in the crop's growth cycle.
Excessive fertiliser application is more likely to assist weeds.

4) Irrigation
Strategic irrigation also may be used to advantage the crop against weeds. Careful timing and
placement of water during the cropping phase will assist the crop, while excessive and widespread
irrigation will assist the weeds. A light irrigation can be used to deliberately encourage weeds to
germinate before controlling them through cultivation.

Hand weeding
For organic farmers, hand weeding and chipping are the most widely practiced weed management
methods. When all else fails, the final choice in the cropping season is manual weeding. No other
in-crop method can achieve such accurate and thorough results, however, the cost of manual
weeding often make up the bulk of weed management expenses. Numerous hand tillage tools are
available and preferences vary from person to person.

Chipping-type hoes are more suited to heavy work, while stirrup-type hoes are better for very young
weeds. Wheel hoes make the task easier and more accurate, although they are not as versatile as
hand-held tools.

Like mechanical cultivation, timing is crucial in hand weeding - too early and un-germinated weeds
are not controlled, too late and the weeds may be too large to kill without considerable effort. Many
weed infestations start small. Vigilance and willingness to use hand methods are well rewarded.

23
Suppression
Weed control can also be achieved using suppressive techniques, the most common being mulches.
Mulches are usually limited to smaller, intensive horticultural operations where the cost of materials
and labour can be justified. A variety of organic mulches are used such as hay, straw, compost,
paper and cardboard. These materials vary in their cost, durability, ease of laying, ability to suppress
weeds, effects on soil moisture and fertility.

Synthetic mulches such as weed matting (woven black plastic) and plastic film are also used
occasionally in organic production. The latter is discouraged as it is non-renewable, poses disposal
problems and has negative effects on soil health. Commercial carpet and underfelts are generally not
acceptable due to treatment with insecticides.

Mechanical control
Weeds remaining towards the end of the cropping phase and between cropping phases should be
slashed or mowed in order to prevent seeding. Depending on the cropping system, mowing may be
carried out after harvest to avoid damaging the crop or before harvest if between-row access is
possible.

Crop Rotations
Changing the land use of any given paddock helps to break established cycles of weed regeneration.
Numerous options are available to organic producers depending on the cash crops that they normally
grow and their local conditions, including green manure crops, fallowing, pasture or fodder crops
and other cash crops. Well-planned rotations can help to manage weeds by a number of processes.

Using vigorous cover crop species in crop rotations can suppress weed growth directly through
resource competition or allelochemical activity. Rotations also can be effective by disrupting weed
lifecycles and preventing regular annual seed production.

Use of Livestock
Use of grazing animals is a very important strategy for weed control on organic farms, because of
their low economic cost and high sustainability. Intensive grazing using sheep, cattle or goats during
fallow periods can control a wide range of perennial weeds and prevent seeding of annual species.
Mob stocking (extra grazing pressure for short periods) and running different types of stock can
increase the range and number of weeds controlled.

While the health of animals needs to be considered, a tactic like spraying low-palatability, non-toxic
weeds such as African daisy with molasses dissolved in warm water will improve control by cattle.
Sheep will assist with control of ragwort, buttercup, scotch thistle, barley grass, gorse and salvation
jane. The particular breed can make a big difference, for instance Dorsets are better than Merinos
for controlling barley grass.

Other grazing animals such as geese, ducks and even native animals have been integrated into many
organic farms (eg bandicoots for soursob). Growing fodder crops such as cereals, pulses and
mustards followed by grazing is another option for suppressing and interfering with weed lifecycles.

Biological control
Biological control methods are a useful option for longer-term control of some specific weed
species. Insects, fungi or other organisms which are harmful to a weed's growth or reproduction can
provide ongoing weed management without incurring significant costs to the grower.

Most biological control agents have been developed for herbaceous broadleaf and perennial woody
weeds rather than weedy grasses. In annual cropping systems, whether broadacre or intensive,

24
suitable host plants for bio-control agents are unavailable for much of the year and insect lifecycles
tend to be disrupted by tillage and other cropping operations.

These constraints are less common in perennial-based pastures, orchards and vineyards. Maintaining
refuge areas, such as fallow paddocks, in the farm rotation sequence can partially overcome these
problems by providing a diversity of habitats.

Tackling weeds on an organic vegetable farm

Here is a description of how a typical organic vegetable farmer might attempt to control weeds on a
property. This example has been used successfully in carrot production, but the basic principles apply
to other vegetables and to broadacre production also.

1) Crop rotation using vigorous green manure crops to smother and out-compete weeds in the
preceding fallow period.
2) Six-eight weeks before sowing, mechanically cultivate the soil to a moderate depth (150-250
mm). This will kill existing weeds and bring new weed seeds closer to the surface. Repeat
once or twice.
3) Two to three weeks before sowing, shallow cultivate so that the soil is not turned, but new
flushes of weeds are killed. Timing is important - get the weeds when they are young.
4) Final shallow preparation (no deeper than 20-30 mm) of the field before sowing the crop
5) Sow seeds in straight rows to enable close, accurate cultivation later.
6) One day before the crop emerges, flame any weeds that are present.
7) Fertilise only with compost or manures that are free of weeds seeds
8) 14 days after crop emergence, mechanically cultivate with fine tines or brushes as close as
possible to the rows.
9) Two weeks later, carry out a second cultivation.
10) Place fertiliser as close as possible to the plants in the crop row.
11) Follow up the mechanical cultivation with hand weeding where necessary, using a chipping
hoe or stirrup hoe.

This is not a recipe for all situations, but rather an example that can be adapted to the problems of
any particular crop. Soil type, cropping history, existing weeds and climate will also need to be
taken into account. A key goal is to reduce the number of weed seeds in the soil, which may take
several years to achieve.

3.4 Look at all options for pest management

by Tim Marshall, Organic Consultant

Organic farming requires a much different approach to pest management than is used in conventional
operations. More planning is required along with a longer-term focus. A choice of control methods
should be made after consideration of:
• Pest or weed biology and life cycle (a basic understanding of this will aid selection and timing of
pest control methods).
• The possibility that natural controls will be effective (weather, predators etc).
• The likely economic and ecological consequences of no control (damage threshold).

No control
Organic growers may well accept higher levels of pests than usual for the district or farming
enterprise. The concept of a ‘control threshold’ is replaced with the concept of an ‘injury threshold’.
If there is no significant injury, no control may be an acceptable response.

25
Hygiene and quarantine
Good farm hygiene is essential to avoid transfer of pests. Hygiene includes strategies such as
ensuring that any equipment brought onto the property is clean and use of a quarantine paddock for
all stock brought onto the farm.

Cultural techniques
Many cultural activities will directly influence pest incidence and damage. Good crop rotation,
selection of healthy planting material, avoidance of monoculture and correct fertilisation are
examples of positive cultural techniques. Cultural practices that contribute to pest problems include
growing large areas of susceptible plants, destruction of plant communities which harbour insect
predators or growing unhealthy plants with unbalanced nutrition.

1) Use of resistant varieties

Common examples of using resistant varieties are Phylloxera resistant grape vines or lucerne aphid
resistant lucerne.

2) Hand control
Like hand weed control, hand removing pests is slow but very selective.

3) Physical barriers
Physical barriers include total exclusion of pests by netting (orchards) or floating row covers (row
crops).

4) Traps
Yellow painted boards coated with non-drying glue attract many insects, such as whitefly, which
become stuck fast. Other traps are simply made from old containers baited with a variety of
fermenting substances. Some traps are commercially available, such as traps for removing blowflies.

Light traps are permitted, but may be non-selective, so they should be carefully located.

Solarisation
As for weed control, solarisation is also effective at killing insect pests and diseases by using clear
plastic sheet (40 -100 um thick) to capture the heat of the sun. The soil must be moist and the edges
of the sheet must be secured. Solarisation works most effectively in the warm season. A minimum
four weeks of treatment may be required, depending on temperature.

Cultivation
Cultivation can also have an influence on pest development. For instance rough cultivation inhibits
movement of pests such as snails, while timely cultivation can destroy pupating larvae or expose
them to drying sun and wind or to bird predators.

Biological controls
Classical biological control refers to the control of an introduced foreign pest where its natural
predators and parasites are missing. Biological controls have been developed for many insect pests
and some weeds.

Augmentative and inundative biological control generally refers to the release of mass-reared
predators or parasites. The aim is to artificially increase the population of biological control agents
to address the lag time between the increase in pest numbers and the build-up of the natural
predators and parasites. In Australia we have a number of companies who rear insects for release,
including egg and larval parasites of caterpillar pests such as heliothis, diamondback moth and
lightbrown apple moth.

26
We also have available a range of beneficial bacteria, fungi and viruses which can be sprayed onto a
crop to control insects and fungal pathogens. The microbial insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis is a
very effective caterpillar control, used on many organic farms.

Other examples are nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) for lepidopterous pests, fungi such as
Metarhizium anisopliae for crickets and locusts, and Trichoderma spp. which are used against pest
fungi such as Botrytis cinerea and others. Nematodes are also commercially available for use
against a number of insect pests, including weevils and cutworms.

Many other biological control programs are in progress. Organic growers can use any of these in
their pest and weed control program, as long as they have not been genetically manipulated.

Environmental enhancement
The provision of shelter for natural competitors beneficial insects and birds etc is a very important
strategy. Mulches have been used to control slugs and snails by providing habitats for predatory
centipede and ground beetle populations.

Natural chemicals
Some use of natural pesticides is permitted in organic farming. No herbicides are permitted for use
on certified organic farms, although transitional farmers may use pine or citrus oil-based herbicides.

Examples of pesticides that are permitted include:

Botanical/biological insecticides
• Granulose virus preparations.
• Homeopathic and bio-dynamic preparations.
• Pheromones (sex attractants).
• Propolis
• Pyrethrum - an extract from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. Synthetic pyrethroids and the
synergist piperonyl butoxide are not permitted in certified organic farming (sesame oil is
sometimes used as a natural synergist).
• Quassia - an extract from Quassia armara
• Rotenone - an extract from Derris elliptica.
• Ryania – an extract from Ryania speciosa.
• Vegetable oils including canola oil and essential oils from plants such as tea tree, citrus, pine,
peppermint or neem, or Azedaractin (an extract from neem).
• Seaweed, seaweed meal, seaweed extracts, sea salts and salty water.
• Natural plant extracts from many sources, including garlic, onion, chilli, wormwood, tomato
leaves, rhubarb etc. Tobacco extract may not be permitted.

Natural products
• Bordeaux or Burgundy mixtures – copper based products.
• Carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas.
• Light mineral oils (white oil).
• Naturally sourced, untreated ‘diatomaceous earth’ (the fossilised remains of a single celled
organism).
• Potassium permanganate
• Pure natural soap or potassium based insecticidal soap.
• Sodium silicate.
• Sodium bicarbonate.
• Stone meal.

27
• Sulphur – dry or wettable formulations.
• Vinegar.
• Wetting agents – usually only plant and some seaweed products, as some commercial
formulations may contain unacceptable products.
• Pyrethrum - an extract from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. Synthetic pyrethroids and the
synergist piperonyl butoxide are not permitted in certified organic farming (sesame oil is
sometimes used as a natural synergist).
• Rotenone - an extract from Derris elliptica.
• Quassia - an extract from Quassia armara.
• Naturally sourced, untreated ‘diatomaceous earth’ (the fossilised remains of a single celled
organism).
• Bordeaux or Burgundy mixtures – copper based products.
• Sulphur – dry or wettable formulations.
• Sodium silicate.
• Pure natural soap or potassium based insecticidal soap.
• Vegetable oils including canola oil and essential oils from plants such as tea tree, citrus, pine,
peppermint or neem, or Azedaractin (an extract from neem).
• Seaweed, seaweed meal, seaweed extracts, sea salts and salty water.
• Natural plant extracts from many sources, including garlic, onion, chilli, wormwood, tomato
leaves, rhubarb etc. Tobacco extract is not permitted.
• Vinegar.
• Carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas.
• Wetting agents – usually only plant and some seaweed products, as some commercial
formulations may contain unacceptable products.
• Pheromones (sex attractants).
• Homeopathic and bio-dynamic preparations.

Source: National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce, Second Edition, 1998.

These chemicals should only be used as a last resort. They are an important strategy, but may have
some negative effects. They may need to be used more frequently and at closer intervals than
synthetic chemicals because many of them are not effective against insect eggs, and they are usually
quickly degraded by sunlight.

28
 Examples of Organic Pest Control

Pest Cultural controls Biological controls Organic chemicals Comments

Ants Pour boiling water on the Echidna Pyrethrum Ants are extremely successful surface scavengers in
nest. Pyrethrum or derris Some birds & lizards Derris Australian ecosystems and many species are very
may be added to the water, Some spiders Diatomaceous earth (sprayed useful in the garden. First decide if they need to be
but a strong detergent is Some beetles and bugs may around or tipped into the nest). excluded, or if they must be killed. Choose the
generally effective. eat ant larvae method which will be effective with the least impact
Bait: mix equal parts of Ant lions (lacewing larvae). on other species and on soil.
borax and icing sugar or
jam (derris could be used
instead of borax).
Barriers: sticky bands (non-
drying glue, tar or vaseline)
physical barriers such as
steel wool.
Caterpillars Hand picking. Encourage natural beneficial Garlic and chilli sprays. Cultivation can affect the population of many soil
Intercropping and insect controls by providing Pyrethrum or derris and dwelling caterpillars, such as cutworm, or their
avoidance of monoculture. habitat and withholding rotenone. pupae.
29

Barriers such as floating pesticide pressure. Pheromone sprays for codling

row covers or exclusion Trichogramma wasps. moth or other lures sex
netting of fruit trees. Bacillus thuringiensi.s attractant.
Collar traps or paper traps
for climbing caterpillars. Some birds are very useful.
Entomophthora fungi.
Snails General hygiene to remove Toads, bullfrogs, lizards, Copper sulphate and iron The effectiveness of barriers is reduced when wet so
sheltering sites. some birds, turtles, small chelate sprays (commercially locate them away from watering points.
Fine tilth soil is a highway native marsupials and some available). Feed poultry on greens before releasing them into the
for snails – leave soil other creatures eat snails. Diatomaceous earth. garden, they will then be seeking a protein diet. You
rough. Handpicking. Some flies lay eggs on snails Quassia. may need to control their access to seedlings.
Traps: One of the simplest and the young become Rotenone.
traps is a board placed over parasites. Lime or alum sprays.
two bricks. Other good Poultry can be effective. Strong wormwood or garlic
traps are clay pots, cabbage Many small ground dwelling spray.
leaves and empty grapefruit arthropods will attack small Repellents: snails dislike
halves. Beer traps are made snails or slugs, before the wormwood, prostrate
from shallow containers shell hardens or the slime rosemary, acacia bark, and oak
sunk into the ground and layer gets too thick. leaves. Stinging nettle as a
filled with beer or other Rove beetles or ground companion plant.
fermenting substances. Mix beetles and centipedes eat
in a little cornflower for snail eggs.
extra stickiness. Some native predatory snails
 Pest Cultural controls Biological controls Organic chemicals Comments
Barriers: Hydrated lime, and slugs, such as
wood ash, sharp sand or Strangesta tumidula are also
any dry, dusty or sharp effective. Although most of
material. A band 20cms these will also consume
wide and one centimetre growing plants, they do not
high is required. Snail reach the same populations
fences made from as the pest snails, so they
galvanised metal, window can be encouraged. Leopard
screen wire and 30 mesh slugs are another well
copper screen. known omnivorous slug.

Whitefly Yellow coloured sticky The parasitic wasp Encarsia Soapy water (use any plain soap) Soap must be mixed with good quality water. High
boards formosa (commercially or insecticidal soap (eg levels of salts will negate the effect of the soap.
Adequate ventilation and available). potassium soap). Traps are best used early in the season before pest
air movement Some small spiders, White spraying oil. numbers build up.
ladybird and mantid larvae, Eucalyptus or tea tree oil.
lacewings, hoverflies and Garlic, wormwood and
damsel bugs. nasturtium sprays.
30
4. Organic Production Systems
4.1 The living soil provides a vital resource
by Chris Alenson, ORGAA

A healthy fertile soil is a complex mixture of mineral, organic matter, biological organisms, air and
water. All terrestrial life depends on this thin veneer of soil roughly 50mm thick over the surface of
our planet.

The soil provides plants, animals and man with food and in turn by recycling manure and wastes the
soil’s fertility is renewed. Continued growth of vegetation requires not only mineral elements for
correct nutrition but biological activity to enhance this fertility.

The biological cycles of life, death and decay operate to restore the soils health. The intervention by
humans through agricultural practices has broken this cycle resulting in soil degradation and fertility
decline across the world.

Soil texture
The mineral skeleton of the soil is formed from rock that has been broken down by either chemical,
physical or biological weathering. Some soils (loess) are wind blown deposits carried from great
distances and other soils such as glacial soils were deposited after being carried by glaciers and ice
sheets.

Notwithstanding the methods of deposition these fragments may be stone, gravel, sand, silt or clay.
Sand and silt particles are roughly spherical while clays are platey. Clay particles are generally less
than two micron in size and are termed colloids.

The composition of an average silty loam by volume might be 46 per cent mineral matter, 25%
water, 25% air and 4% organic matter and biota. But in 75% of our surface soils there is less than
1% organic carbon.

The value of a soil as a medium for plant growth depends not only on its nutritional characteristics
but also on its physical structure. There are two aspects to the physical structure of the soil. The
first is soil texture, which is the particle size of the mineral matter, and the second is the structure,
which is the arrangement of the mineral and organic components of the soil.

Soil aggregation
Intermediate products formed in the decay of organic residues can link clay particles together into
water-stable, clay-humus complexes called aggregates. These products of decay are subject to
further break-down but they are very important elements in the preservation of structure. Their
presence depends on inputs of fresh organic residues, microbial activity sufficient to initiate decay
and adequate soil mixing to bring organic agents into close contact with the mineral particles.

A soil with an ideal structure (often said to have good crumb structure) contains large pore spaces to
aid drainage and facilitate the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the entry of plant roots.
It must also have micro pores capable of retaining an adequate reserve of soil moisture for plant
growth.

The ideal structure will therefore consist of fine particles aggregated into water-stable crumbs. It is
in the formation of these particles that organic matter plays such an important role. Grass and hay
crops provide the basis for nurturing soil structure. The action of grass roots on the formation of soil
aggregates should not be underestimated.

31
Good soil structure provides soil anchorage for plants, moisture, air and nutrients. It also provides a
deep rooting medium for plants and an environment suitable for the activity of micro-organisms and
earthworms.

The soil structure we are trying to achieve is found in the upper levels of the soil where there is the
highest level of biological activity. By increasing the depth of this layer soil fertility can be
increased.

Good crumb structure

There are a number of factors essential for the promotion of good crumb structure. These are:
1) Clay - minimum of 10% and ideally as high as 30%.
2) Adequate return of fresh organic residues.
3) A pH of 6.5-7.0 should be maintained.
4) An active microbial population promoting rapid decay of organic residues giving a continual
supply of organic structure stabilising agents.

One of the principle agents responsible for the soil granulation is the action of grass roots, especially
those associated with long term pastures. The earthworm must also be regarded as essential to the
formation of good soil structure through the various gums it produces during the ingestion of soil.

Figure 4.1.1: Soil structure

Source: Bio-dynamic farming practice, Sattler & Urlstinghausen, 1989, Cambridge University Press

Organic matter and humus

Organic matter in a soil is its life blood. Its content in a soil can vary from 1% (Australian average
content) to 5% by volume. It may be the smallest percent of material present but it is of the utmost
importance.

In the USA Yearbook, Soils and Men (1938) the following telling extract illustrates the importance
given to organic matter:

“There is no true soil without organic matter. The high productivity of most virgin soils has always
been associated with their high content of organic matter, and the decrease in the supply with
cultivation has generally been paralleled by a corresponding decrease in productivity. We can now

32
feed plants on diets that produce excellent growth, without the use of any soil whatever. Yet the
decaying remains of preceding plant generations, redissolved by bacterial wrecking crews into
simpler, varied nutrients for rebuilding into new generations, must still be the most effective basis
for extensive crop production by farmers. Soil organic matter is one of our most important national
resources; its unwise exploitation has been devastating and it must be given its proper place in any
conservation policy as one of the major factors affecting the levels of crop production in the future.”

Decomposing organic matter provides a well-balanced, slow release source of nutrients. It is

composed of plant foods, carbohydrates (sugars, starch and cellulose), proteins and lignins, gums,
resins and other organic compounds. Physically it provides a balance between free draining pores
for aeration and small water retentive pores.

Humus, like clay, is a soil colloid and is involved in nutrient supply via exchange mechanisms. It
has the ability to absorb trace elements such as copper and cadmium which might otherwise be toxic.
It has a moderating influence on nutrient supply where elements might be either too low or too high.

Humus is not merely organic matter, or the decaying remains of micro-organisms but the end result
of a living process where decaying organic matter is transformed by the action of soil organisms into
a jelly like substance with colloidal properties. The restoration of humus to the soil can improve the
nutritional value of our crops.

Good soil husbandry will ensure organic wastes are returned to the soil, adjust pH as required, while
protecting the surface soil against nature’s elements of wind and rain. Through judicious cultivation
it will maintain adequate oxygen supply to plant roots.

Biological life in the soil

By returning wastes to the soil we are stimulating microbial activity and ensuring the population of
soil organisms is maintained or increased. The vast majority of soil organisms, bacteria, fungi,
actinomycetes, protozoa, algae, mycorrhiza are creators of fertility and are invaluable aids to the
farmer. Nodule-forming bacteria in association with legumes can fix up to 60kg of nitrogen per
hectare per year.

Mycorrhiza are fungi-like threads that invade plant roots in a symbiotic relationship exchanging
carbohydrates from the plant in return for supplying phosphate and trace elements to the plant.
Mycorrhizal infection can more than double the root capacity of plants enabling them to source
nutrients from a wider area, increasing their productive capacity while also protecting them against
some soil-borne pathogens.

Conditions which are favourable for the maintenance of an active biological soil population are air,
water, food and warmth. Careful management of this soil through cultivation, the return of organic
residues and perhaps the occasional input of natural mineral nutrients will assist in maintaining and
enhancing the fertility of the soil.

Larger soil organisms like earthworms, springtails, termites and ants provide valuable services of
mixing soil with organic matter and aerating the soil.

Earthworms of course with their extensive tunnelling create passages for plant roots and moisture
penetration into the soil. Their ingestion of soil and its subsequent expulsion as worm castes
provides an enrichment process further mobilising soil elements. In one year the humble earthworm
can produce almost 4kg of castings. As Charles Darwin said “without the earthworm - no tillable
soil”. Referred to as the farmer’s friend this invertebrate animal is a perpetual soil builder, acting as
a chemist, cultivator, recycler and distributor of plant food.

33
4.2 Nutrient inputs in organic systems
by Chris Alenson, ORGAA

Sound rotations, correct stocking rates and recycling of nutrients are all part of the balanced
approach to organic farming.

The management program should not only ensure correct nutrition for the crops but should also aim
to encourage and increase the biological life of the soil.

Organic farming is not about replacing one less desirable input with a more acceptable one. An
approach along these lines would demonstrate the lack of understanding of what an organic system
involves.

It can be seen that in most situations the input of nutrients is essential to ensure productivity of the
soil. The encouragement of the biological cycles operating within the soil is a key management
strategy and as such the selection of fertiliser inputs and the use of organic matter will determine the
success of increasing this living soil.

Based on a full soil assessment, a soil fertility building program can be designed to ensure full
productivity while increasing the value of the soil for the future.

Do the research first

Before selecting a particular fertiliser or manuring program, an examination of all available
information on the soil and the crops should be made.

Reference may be made to soil or plant analysis or other information on the soils of that locality. A
physical examination of the soil and its fertility indicators may also be undertaken.

If the crop or stock suffer from pest or disease problems it is possible that the nutrient supply to the
crop or forage may be responsible.

All the above information will help to indicate what is required in the way of nutrients, and what
may be required in the way of a change in management strategy such as cultivation.

Nutrient input
In a very fertile soil with a high level of biological activity there may be little need for broad
spectrum fertilisers. The mobilisation of nutrients from the sub-soil may be sufficient to supply the
growing crops needs.

Certainly research on long-term biodynamic farms in Germany indicates that productivity has
increased in what is almost a closed system of agriculture without outside inputs.

But a farmer must always be aware that the soil could be mined of scarce nutrient elements unless
the law of return is adhered to.

Bearing in mind the age of most of Australia’s soils and their inherently fragile nature, the addition
of some fertilisers may be necessary to give optimum productivity. A truly fertile soil is made up of
two essential components:
1) Inorganic elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium, copper, etc.
2) Organic matter decomposing to humus with all the diversity of biological life that accompanies it.

If the farmer can manage these two key areas of nutrient supply, and ensure maximum aeration and
moisture supply, the crops should be healthy and productive.

34
1) The inorganic elements
Based on correct soil assessment there may be a demonstrated need for a broad spectrum mineral
type fertiliser, or one based more on an animal or poultry manure source. Organic farmers are
fortunate that there are available a number of commercial suppliers capable of providing mixes
based on the needs of that particular soil. The addition of gypsum (CaSO4) may help to break up
heavy clay soil and supply needed calcium and sulphur.

It is recognised that until a soil reaches a reasonable level of fertility there may be some nutrients
that are unavailable to the plant due to either pH being too low or too high, or unbalanced soil
nutrients causing antagonisms to other nutrients. The use of chelated foliar sprays in the short term
may be required until the soil fertility is restored.

2) Organic matter
The supply of organic matter to the soil is an essential part of the management for the organic
farmer. The organic matter used will also have a bearing on the type of humus that is eventually
formed.

The organic matter could be provided through the use of composts, green manure or cover crops,
well composted animal or poultry manure or composted industry waste that has been demonstrated
to be free from undesirable contaminants. It should be noted that any material sourced from off the
farm should be checked by one of the major certifying organisations to see whether its use is
allowed.

Although the nutrient analysis of such products is useful in establishing a feeding program for a
crop, their main role is in supplying organic matter to the soil for improving its structural
characteristics and stimulating biological activity.

Green manuring
Green manuring enriches soil by the addition of undecomposed plant material either in place or
brought in from a distance.

It is estimated that the contribution of organic matter for the soil following a green manure crop is
comparable to the addition of 20-30 tonnes per hectare of manure.

Due to its nature it undergoes rapid degradation and stimulates biological activity, it therefore
contributes more to the nutrition and less to the stable fraction of humus in the soil. Some stable
humus is however provided. To provide more structural material the crop would have to be grown
until it is more mature and hence more carbonaceous.

The following benefits can be attributed to green manuring:

1) Improvement of soil structure.
2) Increase soil biological activity.
3) Reduced nutrient leaching.
4) Weed suppression.
5) Reduction of disease and pest problems.
6) Usefulness for animal fodder.

Table 4.2.1: The benefit that a green manure crop can play in nutrient supply.

Crop Green Organic Production (t/ha)

Mass Matter
(t/ha) (t/ha) N P K Ca Mg

35
Rape 5.26 0.47 0.41 0.08 0.48 0.24 0.02
Mustard 2.83 0.31 0.29 0.04 0.32 0.17 0.02
Radish 3.24 0.34 0.43 0.05 0.41 0.20 0.03
White Lupin 4.05 0.45 0.46 0.08 0.36 0.20 0.03
Etch 3.24 0.38 0.46 0.06 0.33 0.17 0.02
Oats & Vetch 5.26 0/54 0.48 0.08 0.48 0.20 0.03

Adapted from Hasler & Hofer, 1975 in Green Manures, Elm Farm Research Centre, Practical
Hanbook Series, 1982

Foliar sprays
The foliar applications of fish emulsion, seaweed sprays and other biological preparations are useful
adjuncts to the main soil fertility building operations supplying valuable nutrient elements and other
organic compounds which may assist in building stronger plants more capable of resisting pest and
disease problems. Bio-dynamic preparations such as BD500 will assist in stimulating biological
activity and improving soil structure.

4.3 Soil analysis can prove a useful tool

by Chris Alenson, ORGAA

Soil analysis is frequently carried out by farmers but questions should be asked as to how useful is
the analysis for those pursuing organic management.
Soil analysis is still the most commonly used technique for assessing a soil and deciding what it
might need in the way of fertiliser additions.

It is absolutely essential that a farmer understand that a soil analysis is only one of the many pieces
from the jig saw of information that should be obtained before undertaking management
intervention.

Soil physical properties should be interpreted, the biological properties of a soil studied, weed
species, animal and plant health investigated. All will provide information on which to base a
management decision.

These observations together with the benefit of a soil analysis can provide valuable information on
which management strategies can be implemented to improve the long term sustainability of the
farm itself and its associated ecosystems.

Providing all the complexities of soil analysis are understood, and the interpretation of the analysis
done with care, it can be a useful technique for developing a greater understanding of what is going
on in the soil.

Concerns
There are four areas of concern that an organic farmer or any farmer should be aware of:
1) The difficulty of taking a representative sample.
2) The variation of results that can occur.
3) The value of a chemical analysis, especially for the organic farmer, and its ability to give an
indication of biological activity in the soil.
4) The interpretation of the analysis, in particular how it relates to organic management of the
property.

1) Difficulty in taking a sample.

36
A hectare of soil to a depth of 250mm weighs about 2500 tonnes. About 150 grams is sent to the
laboratory of which about 5g is used for the analysis. This small sample is meant to be
representative of the soil from possibly a 100 acre paddock.

It is therefore important that the soil submitted for analysis is representative of the paddock sampled.
As many samples as possible should be collected and carefully mixed to avoid any particular area of
the paddock influencing the results.

Soils from different fields, from different soil types and from different fertiliser treatments should be
sampled separately. Avoid areas where animals have camped and where manure concentrations will
affect results.

In the same way avoid areas where fertiliser may have been dumped on the ground. Avoid water
troughs, dip tanks and stock yards where chemical residues may be found.

Paddocks can either be sampled in a random manner or a transect can be taken across the paddock.
The minimum number of samples that should be taken would be 20-30 samples for a 10ha paddock.

It is important to take equal quantities of material from the top of the profile down to normal root
depth of the crop grown.

2) Results can vary

It is generally accepted that there can be up to a 10 per cent variation in results from different
laboratories analysing the same sample. This could be due to different methods used, different
equipment used, the calibration of equipment and even the analyst who did the job.

Analysis of soils based on available nutrients will vary depending on the time of the year that the
sample is taken. Depending on the level of biological activity, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
other nutrient elements will change.

An increase in soil temperature with sufficient moisture means greater biological activity which will
lead to an increase in the availability of some nutrient elements. This is particularly true of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium.

An analysis of soil sampled during the colder months will more than likely show low available
nitrogen and phosphorus. Soil should therefore be sampled in colder areas during the spring when
biological activity is increasing, particularly if the analysis is for nitrate nitrogen. Total nitrogen
would be a better option.

There has always been controversy over whether analyses should show available or total levels of
nutrients. By only analysing total nutrient levels, the soil fertility bank can be seen but the
availability of these elements cannot be gleaned. This may result in deficiencies when crops are
growing.

On the other hand an analysis indicating available nutrient levels runs the possibility of fertiliser
recommendations being based on these levels despite the fact that good levels are actually held in the
soil bank awaiting release. The farmer therefore may waste a great deal of money applying a
fertiliser to a soil that contains a large store of that element which due to current management
practices and soil constitution is unavailable at present.

If there is an increase in soil temperature with sufficient moisture, there will be greater biological
activity which will lead to an increase in the availability of some nutrient elements. This is

37
particularly true of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. An analysis of soil sampled during the
colder months will more than likely show low available nitrogen and phosphorus.

Soil should therefore be sampled in colder areas during the spring when biological activity is
increasing, particularly if the analysis is for nitrate nitrogen. Total nitrogen would be a better option.

For some elements like phosphorus, it may be appropriate to request an analysis that provides both
sets of data. This however will increase the cost. Phosphorus is a good example of the dilemma in
Australia, where regular applications of super have built up high levels of soil phosphorus. An
analysis showing low available phosphorus in acid soils is common in Eastern Australia while total
phosphorus may be high. If this information is not available to the farmer, then based on the
available analysis more super may be applied and the total phosphorus bank increases and money is
wasted.

What is more disturbing is that if a liming agent has not been added to the acid soil, the addition of
the phosphorus fertiliser will result in up to 75% of the phosphorus being fixed in the soil as
aluminium or iron phosphates.

If both available and total phosphorus is supplied in the analysis then the farmer can see how a
change in management practices may allow biological activity to increase the supply of available
phosphorus from that held in the soil.

This may mean the addition of green manure crops or compost, which in decomposition may release
organic acids and other organic compounds that will chelate (take up) the phosphorus from the soil
and make it available to the crops. It will also stimulate biological activity that will result in similar
acids being released, which will fulfil the same function.

The application of BD 500 and other biological preparations may build humus and also stimulate
biological activity and increase the uptake of phosphorus from the soil.

3) Interpretation is the key

The greatest problem for the organic farmer in interpreting the soil analysis is that it is difficult to
get an idea of biological activity from a chemical analysis.

An organic farmer should closely examine the level of organic matter and interpret this along with
the nitrogen level as an indication of cycling of the organic matter and see how it might be benefiting
biological activity.

Calcium and phosphorus levels are also important as soil life needs these elements to build
protoplasm.

An acid soil below pH 5.5 does not suit many species of earthworms or micro flora and fauna.
Rhizobia bacteria, the nitrogen fixing bacteria associated with the nodules on legumes do not operate
well in very acid soils. As the soil becomes more acid the availability of some elements also
decreases.

It should be remembered that most soil analyses give supplies of available nutrients in order for the
farmer to know what might be available for the coming growing season.

An organic farmer whose aim is to nurture and encourage biological activity also wants to know the
best way to mobilise nutrients from the sub soil clay, rock particles and biota which forms the soil
bank of reserve nutrients in the soil. If the available phosphorus is high or adequate it means
mobilisation of this element is occurring and the fungi and bacteria which make this process possible
must be functioning reasonably well.

38
By careful interpretation of the analysis some information on the biological activity can be gained.

4) Using results for organic management.

It was explained earlier in the article how soil analysis is only one piece of the information jigsaw
that the farmer must examine. As long as this is understood then worthwhile information can be
obtained which will enable farm improvement strategies to be implemented.

If analysis indicates low levels of elements, fertiliser applications should not be applied without first
examining all available data.

Low nitrogen may indicate low biological activity during colder periods. It may mean that organic
matter which can hold up to 90% soil nitrogen is not cycling correctly.

The farmer should regularly dig large soil pits for examination. If it is compact and doesn’t allow
adequate oxygen penetration, then low biological activity is to be expected in this soil.

Corrective soil management

By opening up the soil with a chisel plough or soil aerator (non-inverting cultivation equipment) this
allows oxygen and moisture to revitalise biological activity, thus cycling organic matter more
efficiently and increasing nitrogen reserves.

Again it may be that an acid soil with pH of 4.5 is responsible for the low biological activity and
consequently low nitrogen levels. The application of the correct liming agent will assist in making
conditions more favourable for biological activity.

This example of the nutrient element nitrogen demonstrates how careful the farmer must be to
ensure that the correct management strategy is followed.

Choosing the right liming agent is again another complex area of the analysis which needs to be
understood. An understanding of the cation exchange part of the analysis is required to ensure that
the correct balance between calcium, magnesium and potassium is maintained. This is a complex
area and requires very careful consideration and experience to arrive at the correct levels.

4.4 Organic farm fertility: it’s natural

by Phil Newton, Agriculture Victoria – Rutherglen, Department of Natural Resources and
Environment

One of the first twentieth century advocates of organic agriculture - following the use of chemical
fertilisers - was Sir Albert Howard, who said " the maintenance of soil fertility is the fundamental
basis of health".

Enhancing the processes of natural fertility

The underlying fertility of a given soil depends on the origin of the parent material and the processes
that built the soil profile in the first place.

The fertility of a soil refers to its ability to supply nutrients. A fertile soil will have a range of
physical, chemical and biological attributes that will enable adapted plants to grow without serious
limitation or deficiency in a given environment. For instance, the amount of organic matter will

39
depend on rainfall and temperature (drier, hotter climates lower the capacity of soils to retain organic
matter). The soil should be friable, without compaction by traffic, to allow roots to grow with
minimal restriction. Nutrients should match the needs of plants being grown, without toxicity or
deficiency caused by pH imbalance.

Some steps that can enhance fertility, especially in degraded soils are:

• Store and maintain the pH balance, ideally in the range 5.5 - 6.5 in calcium chloride.
• Ensure that organic inputs have a Carbon to Nitrogen (C:N) balance of 12:1 for rapid mixing in
the soil.
• Match inputs to the export of nutrients in produce.
• Use soil management practises that minimise off-site transfer of nutrients via surface, deep
drainage and lateral flow of water and soil erosion. Rainfall and irrigation should be carefully
considered, and nutrients matched accordingly.

Limitations to these processes

The major limitations to the processes of natural fertility occur when components in the system are
not in equilibrium.

There are 16 essential macro and micro-nutrients for plants in the soil. The macro elements (other
than carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) at concentrations greater than 1g/kg are nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and chloride (Cl). The
micro-elements include zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and
Boron (B), which are usually less than 100 mg/kg.
The essential micronutrients for animals include chromium (Cr), selenium (Se), iodine (I) and cobalt
(Co). Too much of either the essential nutrients or non-essential elements would be toxic to plants
or animals.

If any of these essential elements are not present at all or not in sufficient quantity, they must be
supplied, whether in an organic or conventional system. In organic agriculture the organic matter
layers and resident biota in the soil take on a much greater role in the maintenance of soil fertility
than in conventional systems.

What is allowed
On organic farms, no artificial chemicals are used to prepare the soil, grow the crop, or to store and
market the produce. An artificial chemical is one that has been processed chemically or
manufactured. Rock phosphate is acceptable on an organic farm, but superphosphate is not. The
difference is that superphosphate is rock phosphate with a manufactured chemical (sulphuric acid)
added to make more of the phosphate soluble.

The national standard for organic and bio-dynamic produce explains that naturally obtained
materials are not necessarily non-toxic. Where inputs are required they should be used with care and
with the knowledge that even permitted inputs can be subject to misuse and may alter the ecosystem
of the soil or farm. Use of any product has the potential to introduce unwanted residues and
contaminants. Use of any organically certified products should be based on an assessment of need
and with knowledge of chemical analyses of the material. Use of any materials must be recorded in
the farm diary or logbook.

Examples of allowable inputs for use in soil fertilising and soil conditioning, from the National
Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce, Second Edition, 1998:
• Slurry from certified sources.
• Aerobic and anaerobic compost.
• Straw.

40
• Mined carbon based products such as peat , or coal.
• Blood and bone, fish meal, hoof and horn meal, or other waste products from fish or animal
processing.
• Seaweed or seaweed meal.
• Plant and animal derived by-products of the food and textile industries.
• Sawdust, bark and wood waste, from untreated sources.
• Basic slag, tested for heavy metals.
• Dolomite and lime from natural sources.
• Gypsum (calcium sulphate) from natural sources.
• Calcined or rock phosphate and other crushed mineral bearing rocks, excluding those minerals
which are more than 20 per cent soluble.
• Phosphoric guano.
• Rock potash and sulphate potash.
• Wood ash from untreated sources.
• Sulphur.
• Clay, bentonite.
• Attapulgite.
• Perlite.
• Trace elements include materials such as borax, not synthetically modified.
• Homeopathic preparations.
• Approved microbiological and biological preparations.
• Naturally occurring biological organisms (eg worms and worm castings), excluding products
derived from genetic modification technology.
• Fish products.
• Zeolites.
• Vermiculite.
• Potassium glauconite.

Sources of fertilisers for organic uses include: certified manufactured fertilisers such as bio-dynamic
preparations 500 – 507, animal manures, reactive phosphate rock (RPR), worm casts and guano.

Many of these inputs have the advantage of long term slow release to the soil, unlike the rapid
release of the more soluble synthetic fertilisers. Producers also need to be aware that these inputs
may not meet plant needs during rapid periods of growth in some crops such as canola.

Legumes and green manuring

Nitrogen is the nutrient extracted in the largest amounts by plants from the soil. The amount of
nitrogen taken up depends on the crop (see Table 4.4.1).

Table 4.4.1: Nitrogen contents of selected agricultural crops.

Crop N content
(kg/ha)
Wheat, 6t/ha (grain and straw) 120
Grass, 10t/ha (dry matter) 250
Maize, 13t/ha (grain and stover) 360

Grain crops remove large amounts of the macro nutrients N, P and S (and some micro-nutrients) but
most of the potassium (K) remains in crop stubbles, particularly the cereals, and is more readily re-
cycled (Table 4.4.2). The K requirement for crops ranges between 100 - 300kg/ha.

Table 4.4.2: Nutrient removal in grain from different crops.

41
 Crop Kg removed per tonne of grain Yield Kg removed per ha
(t/ha)
N P S Zn N P S Zn
Canola 41 7.0 10 0.040 2.0 82 14 20 0.080
Lupins 53 3.0 2.3 0.035 2.0 106 6.0 5.0 0.070
Wheat 23 3.0 1.5 0.020 4.0 92 12 6.0 0.080

Typically, the range for calcium requirements is 10 - 100kg/ha and 5 - 25kg/ha for magnesium (50-
60kg/ha for some high yielding crops).

Green manure legume crops are a prime source of atmospheric nitrogen, and the balance of nutrients
with water encourages rapid re-cycling of the nutrients (Table 4.4.3). Green manures have the added
advantage of being able to be selectively grazed and used to reduce weed seed banks.

Table 4.4.3: Nitrogen fixed by legume and green manure crops.

Legumes Kg N fixed per ha/year

Soybeans 60 – 90
Cowpeas 80 – 90
Clover 100 – 160
Lucerne 120 – 600
Lupins 150 – 170

Strategies used for enhancing fertility

• Accurate placement of fertilisers near the seed: the highest phosphorus requirement is in the early
growth stages of the crop. Sowing machinery that allows placement 2-5cm below the seed can
improve uptake efficiency.
• Reducing weed competition: sowing of wheat at rates of 150-175kg/ha has produced yields of
3.3t/ha from 150kg/ha of organic fertiliser.
• Timing of application with rainfall and soil moisture.
• Site preparation to optimise availability for plant or animal demand: heavy grazing pressure of
50-100 dry sheep equivalents (DSE) to turnover standing pasture and minimise crop competition.
• Minimum cultivation to reduce oxidative losses of carbon: 1 - 2 cultivations at sowing to kill
standing weeds and reduce the opportunities for erosion.
• Waterlogging decreases worm numbers and depletes nitrogen.
• Green manure crops: legume crops (grazed or ungrazed) for green manure such as Balansa clover
of 6t/ha dry matter (120 kg N/ha) are beneficial. They can be used with a single incorporation
cultivation in spring (also preventing seed set in following weed population), followed by each
way scarifying before sowing.
• Matching nutrient inputs to existing soil levels and anticipated crop needs. (Based on
observations of organic conversion at the AV Rutherglen demonstration site).

Animals and fertility

Nutrients are removed at a slower rate by animals in grazed pastures due to metabolic and transfer
limitations in the animal’s digestive system. Once grazing animals are fully mature they will re-
cycle more of their nutrient intake. In (productive) grazed pastures, the availability of nutrients in
the soil can be limited, as they are held in organic matter or are rapidly taken up by growing plants.
But about 85% of the nitrogen is returned as faeces and urine, where it can be leached as nitrate,
volatilised as ammonia or lost as nitrogen gases from denitrification. In contrast, the return of
carbon to the soil from dung produced by dairy cows grazing productive pastures is 3.5 - 4.5t/ha/yr.

42
Getting soil fertility right
• Monitor regularly - know what you have and how to use it.
• Be aware of the amount of product removed and how these nutrients will be replaced.
• Plan for production levels - have alternative strategies ready if necessary.
• Stimulate nutrient cycling - remember to consider the C to N ratio of 12:1 for organic inputs.
• Don't let unproductive weeds tie up valuable nutrients in pastures or crops.
• Above all, maintain the standards for the organic product grown.

4.5 Compost: turning waste into gold

by Chris Alenson, ORGAA

Compost in one form or another has been made for thousands of years with the earliest references to
be found in the Bible. But it wasn’t until the early 1930’s that Sir Albert Howard, a British
agronomist made the first important advances in the science of composting. The Indore Process,
named after the area in India where Sir Albert was working, involved creating a layered pile about
1600 millimeters high of garbage, night soil, animal manure, sludge and agricultural wastes.

The pile was turned twice to facilitate mixing, and composting was completed in three months.
The Chinese have composted every conceivable organic waste for over 3,000 years. Their ability to
feed such a large population has been largely due to their return of wastes to the soil as compost, and
therefore preserving the fertility of their soils. Various methods have been used to compost wastes,
such as the use of static piles, rotating cylinders, fixed chambers, and anaerobic methods (exclusion
of oxygen).

The most common and cost effective method used today is the windrow system where shredded,
well mixed, solid waste is deposited in windrows, utilising either quite simple handling equipment or
more sophisticated machines.

Many countries are now finding composting a beneficial process, and a financial answer to the
accumulation of solid wastes. Holland for example has been producing thousands of tonnes of
compost from garbage for over 40 years. Local municipalities in the United States are composting
as a means of disposing of wastes, and also as a supply source of all their landscaping and
horticultural activities, thus saving thousands of dollars.

The composting process

Composting can be defined as the process where a collection of organic wastes of varying
compositions are mixed together and undergo a fermentation due to biological processes. The
resulting product is known as compost.

How composting works

When the correct mixing of ingredients has taken place and when the temperature, moisture and
oxygen levels are favourable, micro-organisms will grow and start the process of decomposition.
The micro-organisms use some of the available nutrients in the wastes, such as nitrogen, carbon and
others, as a source of fuel. As their life cycle proceeds the temperature increases from the heat
generated by biological oxidation, and the compost pile heats up (Figure 1). As the decay process
slows down the temperature reduces.

The composition of the materials in the compost pile alters as a result of the biological activity and
the resultant form of organic material is called humus.

43
The role of science in the commercial composting process has been to try and understand the
biological processes and see how they can be controlled or regulated to achieve a finished product
with a reliable consistency of composition.

Figure 4.5.1: Composting

The temperature profile through a compost pile can be seen in Figure 4.5.1. The temperature starts
at the surrounding air temperature, but as the micro-organisms grow the temperature increases.

The stage up to 40oC is termed the mesophilic stage, and it is at this stage that most initial microbes
will die off and be replaced by those preferring higher temperatures. The stage from 40oC to 70oC is
termed the thermophilic stage.

Well-built compost piles reaching these temperatures will have steam emanating from them. As
Figure 1 shows, over time the temperature declines and eventually returns to the first stage.

Two important factors in the composting process are the supply of moisture, and oxygen to the pile.
A lack of water will result in low biological activity and a pile that will not compost adequately.
Too much moisture and an anaerobic pile will result, which tends to emit putrid odours.

Optimal moisture content is 50-60 per cent. A handful of organic matter should feel damp but not be
able to have water squeezed from it.

The other important factor is oxygen. Micro-organisms require oxygen to grow. If they do not grow
the pile will again stagnate due to a lack of biological activity. Compost piles are aerated by either
thorough mixing or by air holes driven into the pile at regular intervals.

The carbon-nitrogen ratio

Probably the most important aspect of a successful compost pile is the relationship between the
carbon-nitrogen ratio and the rate of organic matter decomposition. Micro-organisms use carbon for
growth (energy source), and nitrogen for the synthesis of protein. As they utilise 30 parts of carbon
per 1 part of nitrogen a carbon-nitrogen ratio of 30 : 1 is the aim in composting.
Grass clippings as an example have a lower ratio of about 20:1, which would tend to balance out the
higher ratio of leaves 40-80:1.

Grass clippings composted by themselves smell of ammonia due to the volatilization of nitrogen.
They also tend to pack together and cause oxygen to be excluded from areas of the pile.
Woodchips with a ratio of 700:1 would require large additions of nitrogen to bring it to the desired
ratio of close to 30:1. (See table 4.5.1 for some carbon/nitrogen ratios of common organic wastes)

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Table 4.5.1: Carbon - Nitrogen ratio of some organic wastes

Product Carbon : Nitrogen ratio

Straw 80-100:1
Leaf litter 60-100:1
Lucerne hay 12:1
Weeds 30:1
Sawdust 500:1
Grass clippings 20:1
Chicken litter 15:1
Compost 25-30:1
Cattle manure 12:1

Building a commercial compost pile

Compost can be manufactured by two aerobic methods in the pile system, which are either a layered
pile or a well mixed pile.

A layered pile consisting of 200mm layers of carbonaceous material and a 100mm layer of
nitrogenous material will provide the balanced carbon-nitrogen ratio required. The carbonaceous
material could be leaves, pine needles, hay, straw, sawdust, woodchips or shredded paper.

The nitrogenous material used could be grass clippings, weeds, vegetable wastes, garbage and
manure. This pile once aerated by forcing holes at two metre intervals and with the correct moisture
levels, will take about 6-8 months to decompose. This pile is not shredded or turned.

The pre-mixed pile

By turning the pile several times and by shredding a mixture of organic wastes in the ratio of two to
three parts carbonaceous material to one part nitrogenous material, compost should be produced in
about three weeks.
Assuming directions have been followed closely, only outside temperature variations will affect the
actual completion date for the finished compost.
Both methods operate most efficiently when the piles are about 1650mm high and 2700mm wide.
Figure 4.5.2 illustrates the difference between a layered pile and a pre-mixed pile.

Figure 4.5.2: The difference between a layered pile and a pre-mixed pile.

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Materials for the compost pile
It would be preferable to have the supply of raw materials for the composting pile on the farm.
Some farmers grow crops especially for this exercise. A grass crop like oats grown with a legume
crop would supply much of the bulk required for the pile. Cattle manure, sludge from dairy
operations, fruit wastes, can all be used as long as careful attention is paid to adjusting the carbon-
nitrogen ratio.
If off farm wastes are used, it is even more important that an efficient composting process is
employed to ensure destruction of any possible contaminants.

Equipment required
The simplest method of windrow composting involves a dump truck to deliver the wastes and a
front-end loader to mix and turn the piles. Rotary hoes and grader blades can be used to mix and
form a compost pile.

A continuous input of raw materials would require several composting piles running concurrently.
As one pile is completed another might be in the process of being built. As a rough guide 100 tonnes
of organic wastes would reduce to about 50 tonnes of compost depending on the ingredients and the
efficiency of the composting process.

Site preparation
The site should be leveled or slightly raised and clear of grass and provision made for water runoff
and leaching. A concrete sump or shallow trenches filled with sawdust could be used to absorb the
liquid and prevent contamination of any nearby watercourse or aquifer. The windrow piles should
not stand in water but be prepared on raised ground.

Successful compost manufacture

o A balance between carbon-nitrogen materials must be maintained.
o The finer the material the more successful the decomposition.
o The better the mixing the better the decomposition.
o Adequate moisture is required.
o Provision of an activator such as animal or poultry manure will help to stimulate biological
activity.
o A high temperature in the pile is needed.
o A well-made pile of correct dimensions is required.

Table 4.5.2: Troubleshooting

Problem Cause
Smell of ammonia emanating frompile Materials packed too tightly, or too wet (reform pile)
Compost soggy, black and putrid Too much moisture and lack or air
Excessive leaching of nutrients from base Too much water during preparation
Pile does not decompose Poor aeration, lack of moisture, not enough nitrogen

When is compost ready?

When the material in the pile possesses an earthy structure, and the original constituents are difficult
to identify then the compost is in a state ready for use. It will also possess a pleasant smell
indicating that proper decomposition has taken place.

Controlling plant disease with compost

The biological control of plant diseases depends on the establishment of a balanced soil microflora
that exhibits antagonistic biological activities towards phytopathogens.

46
Chemical and physical factors can affect the disease suppressive nature of the compost.
Particle size, nitrogen content, cellulose and lignin content, soluble salt content, pH and organic
compounds released by composts are all known to affect the incidence of disease caused by
pathogens residing in the soil.

The more varied and numerous the soil microorganisms, the greater the chance of biological control
of a pathogen.

Examples of disease controlled by suppressive soils include:

• Fusarium wilt
• Streptomyces (potato scab)
• Phytophtora root rot
• Sclerotinia rot
• Pythiun dampening-off,
• Aphanomyces root rot
• Gaeumannomyces (fungul rot, take-all in wheat)

Nematode diseases are also suppressed by composts and beneficial, saprophagous nematodes are
increased by compost amendments.
The use of sound rotations with compost amended soils provides a powerful biological control of
many plant diseases.

Phytotoxicity of compost
At various times injuries to plants or to germinating crops has been noted after the application of
organic matter.

The use of crop residues, green manuring, compost applications have all been associated with plant
damage.

Toxins released from decomposing organic matter often represents a temporary state. The toxins are
produced in certain stages of composition and tend to be quickly activated. Any damage to plants on
most occasions is not permanent and recovery tends to be rapid.

But it is wise to remember immature compost does have high levels of acetic acid and other minor
acids such as propionic acid and butyric acid, which can be phytotoxic at the levels represented at
this stage of decomposition.

Studies show that mature compost does not contain these high levels of organic acids.

Analysis and application rate

The analysis of the compost heap will depend on the components of the pile and the state of
decomposition.

Although the analysis will dictate the actual quantities of nutrients supplied to plants, it is worth
remembering that even more important, is the supply to the soil of millions of micro-organisms that
are contained in the compost. Research has often demonstrated that there is very little difference in
plant growth from the use of high analysis compost and low analysis compost. See Table 3 for an
analysis and application rate of two types of compost.

Table 5.4.3: Analysis and application rate of two types of compost

Compost Percentage kg of plant food Appliction rate kg of plant food
materials N P K per ton of (t/ha) per ha (suggested
compost rates)

47
 N P K N P K
Farm Waste 1.0 1.0 10 10 22 225 225
1.0 10 225
Composted 1.5 2.5 25 15 15 180 300
poultry manure 1.5 12 180

4.6 Storing organic produce

by Pamela Horsley, Kondinin Group

According to the national standards, all organic produce must be handled and stored in a way which
prevents contamination or substitution with non-organic produce. Storage areas must be separate
and clearly identified if there is similar, conventional produce on the same farm or areas of the farm
are still converting to organic. All equipment used to handle, store or transport organic produce
must be suitably cleaned before use to avoid contamination. Different certifying agencies may have
different cleaning requirements and conditions of equipment use. The national standard also
requires operations on organic produce must be carried out continuously until the complete run has
been dealt with and separate from similar operations on conventional produce.

Substances permitted as post harvest- storage treatments:

• Carbon dioxide, in controlled atmosphere

• Oxygen, in controlled atmosphere
• Nitrogen, in controlled atmosphere
• Ehtylene gas, as a ripening agent
• Physical barriers, for pest control
• Temperature control, for pest control
• Diatomaceous earth, for pest control
• Sticky boards, for pest control
• Rodenticides, for pest control. Must be in enclosed traps outside of food processing or storage
areas and only used when other pest control means have proved ineffective.

Source: National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce, Second Edition, 1998.
4.7 Livestock plays a vital role
by Robyn Neeson, NSW Agriculture

Livestock can produce meat and fibre for sale but they can also be useful on organic farms for weed
control, pest management, nutrient cycling and crop establishment.

Nitrogen fixed by legumes and other nutrients consumed by livestock during grazing are returned to
soil as manure and urine. Managed carefully, livestock and manure can play an important role in
nutrient cycling on the organic farm.

Livestock can graze down weeds before sowing a crop or after crop establishment Livestock can also
selectively graze out weeds and avoid the less palatable crop.

They can also assist with paddock preparation for sowing by grazing and trampling stubble.
Livestock play an obvious role in the pastures phases in crop rotations. Pastures build fertility and soil
structure-building while reducing the potential for the build-up of insects and disease.

Nutrition
Organic farming aims to provide a diet which livestock are most adapted to consume. Organic
husbandry does not aim to maximise weight gain at the expense of animal health and happiness.

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Diet diversity is the key factor in balancing nutrition. A balanced diet helps to meet livestock’s
physiological needs. Research has shown cows with a high production level due to emphasis on
concentrates in their diet have a shorter productive life.
Organic systems use a variety of plant species in the pasture. A mixture of deep-rooted and shallow-
rooted species increases the potential for making nutrients available and avoids nutrient deficiencies.

For example, in organic pastures, herbs such as chicory, plantain, yarrow and caraway are often
added. Deep-rooted native species can recycle and make available nutrients, which otherwise may be
unavailable deep in the soil profile. Legumes such as lucerne can supply organic nitrogen to the grass
component of pastures and help recycle deep nutrients.

The long-term aim of organic systems is to correct soil deficiencies. Under the organic standards,
mineral supplements used to correct deficiencies should be from natural sources. For example,
certain additives such as urea and synthetic amino-acids are not allowed but seaweed and seaweed
extracts, containing a range of minerals are permitted. Nutrients can also be fed in mineral licks,
fodder mixes or by drench gun (refer to Pat Coleby’s article below).

According to the national standards, 95 per cent of food for organic livestock must be produced
organically (either as purchased input or preferably, produced on the farm). Up to 5% may be used as
feed supplements, for example minerals, kelp, molasses, stone meal and charcoal (see National
Standard). In extenuating circumstances (such as fires and drought), exemptions to this rule may be
granted and feed from non-certified sources may be increased to 40% of dry matter intake. Stock fed
non-organic inputs must be fed on organically sourced inputs for a period of six months before they
can be marketed as ‘organic’.

Soil management for nutritious pastures

Slow, organic remediation of soils through improved biological activity provides healthier plants and
stock.

Conventional management of pastures often involves a sledgehammer approach to correct

deficiencies. The use of synthetic fertilisers has resulted in problems of soil acidity and declining soil
structure. Organic management, on the other hand, provides long-term improvement in soil and crop
health but requires careful long term planning to ensure crop and livestock needs are met.

Encouraging predators to manage pests

Providing shelter, breeding grounds and year round food sources for predators encourages their
presence. Nectar producing species incorporated into pastures and windbreaks attract parasitic
wasps which parasitise scarab species in pastures. On-farm wetlands encourage predatory waders
and when correctly located and designed, provide a filter for nutrients in drainage before it exits the
farm.

1) Shelter

The benefits of shade and shelter for livestock have been well documented. Organic animal
husbandry requires that sufficient protection be provided against excessive sunlight, temperature,
wind rain and other harsh climatic conditions. This can be achieved through the provision of
windbreaks or housing for livestock.

2) Breeding

In conventional livestock systems, genetic emphasis is on high production. The organic farmer selects
livestock for a wider range of qualities. These include pest and disease tolerance or resistance (for
example Brahman’s tick tolerance) and mothering ability. Breeding for lifetime yield is more

49
commonly the practice in organic farming. While the aim of conventional livestock production is for
high, early productivity (early maturity), the aim with organic livestock is to increase their productive
life and this is often associated with resistance to disease.

Longevity advantages:
• Long growth period means long youth, and a long immature stage has been shown to be a
precondition for a longer life.
• The farmer has the opportunity to get to know herds which makes handling easier and provides
thorough knowledge of the herd’s disease history.
• The herd establishes a stable social order and stable health state.
• Stress factors become adapted to the conditions over a longer period.
• The quality and quantity of colostrum in older cows is greater.

Breeding should be within the genetic capacity of the species concerned. For example, breeding for
high feed conversion can lead to arthritis, whilst large hind quarters can lead to birthing difficulties.

Organic standards and breeding

During conversion to organic production, livestock bought in must be organic or, if conventional,
placed in a quarantine area for three weeks. Once fully organic, external purchases are confined to
breeding stock only - all other livestock should be bred on the property. Replacement breeders may
be introduced at an annual rate of 10 – 20 per cent (depending on certification organisation) of
existing breeding stock.

Livestock produced by A.I. are allowed by some certification organisations when natural behaviour is
not practical. It is unlikely embryo transplant would be permitted since this technique usually requires
hormone injection to synchronise breeding cycles. Livestock produced using genetic modification
techniques (genetic engineering) are not permitted under the organic standards.

Livestock welfare
Organic farmers aim to minimise physical or psychological stress in livestock in order to promote
well-being and reduce the incidence of disease. Non-stressed livestock also has implications for
maintaining meat tenderness.

The national standards require that “maintenance of livestock must be guided by an attitude of care,
responsibility and respect for living creatures.....Living conditions must consider the natural needs of
the animal for free movement, food, water shelter and shade. Consideration must be given to their
specific natural behaviour patterns.”
In respect to specific stress, “pain inflicted by treatments such as castrating, marking and mulesing
must be kept to a minimum.” For example, NASAA prohibits certain practices such as the docking of
cows’ tails. Dehorning and castration are allowed when carried out in as humane a fashion as
possible. The national standard states that the use of anaesthetics will not result in loss of organic
status.

Management aims to minimise stress during potentially stressful periods. For example, after shearing,
stress can be reduced by providing good pasture with low or no parasitic burden. Eliminating noise
such as noisy motor bikes and not rushing stock through gateways can also help to minimise stress
during handling.

Animals experience further stress during transport to market and during slaughter. The standards aim
to minimise stress during this period. For example, NASAA standards state: “slaughter will be carried
out quickly and without undue stress, and.......animals may not be held or herded in an area where the
killing of other livestock is visible.”

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Health
Prevention of disease through diet, shelter, breeding and husbandry practices, rather than treatment is
the organic approach to animal health care. While it is not possible to extinguish all animal disease,
when disease does occur, a healthy animal is in a better position to cope with it.

Many organic farmers regard good observation as an important part of disease management. Keeping
daily or frequent records assists the producer in assessing possible origins of the disease or injury.

The routine use of any veterinary drugs such as antibiotics and vaccinations is not permitted by
organic standards. Organic farmers rely on treatments such as herbs, vitamin and minerals,
homoeopathy, acupuncture and dietary additives such as probiotics. But there is not always a
satisfactory ‘organic treatment’ to health problems which may occur and when an organic treatment is
not effective, there is no doubt that conventional treatment has to be used since the welfare of the
animal is the primary objective.

Where an animal is treated with a non-permitted substance it must be identified and quarantined from
other stock from the time of treatment for at least three times the withholding period specified. The
quarantine area of the farm may not be used for organic production for a period of at least 12 months
after it has been used for such purposes. Treated animals may not thereafter be sold as organic.
Where law requires the treatment of diseases or pests, this will overrule the organic standards.

Selection of stock based on disease tolerance and resistance is a primary tool of the organic farmer.
Re-occurring health problems indicate that something in the system may be wrong. If individual stock
exhibit recurring problems they are culled.

Internal parasites
Organic farmers are not permitted to use anthelmintics for the control of internal parasites. Drenching
is carried out on a needs basis only, as routine use is not permitted and could lead to resistance
developing. But if permitted substances or practices do not satisfactorily treat an animal their welfare
is the first priority over organic status.

Organic treatments include a drench made from a mixture of garlic, molasses vegetable oil and cider
vinegar. Others have used aloe vera. Homoeopathic remedies and some other substances listed as
permissible are not registered as veterinary treatments. Authorities have been asked to explore the
legality of using these unregistered substances.

Alternative management practices aim to disrupt the lifecycle of the parasite. Temperature and
moisture favour the development of internal parasites, so after rainfall or irrigation livestock are
moved to a clean pasture, or pastures can be harrowed following grazing to expose the eggs and larvae
to sunlight and heat. New Zealand’s agroecology program found certain pastures (such as chicory and
lucerne) to be least conducive to parasite larvae intake.

Resistance to internal parasites increases with age because immunity develops through previous
exposure. Sheep reach a higher level of resistance to internal parasites around nine months whereas
cattle reach this stage around 18 months. Late pregnancy, lambing and weaning are critical periods of
infection as resistance drops with increased stress and as feed intake increases, so it is critical to
provide clean pastures at these times. Good nutrition assists in developing and maintaining resistance.

Grazing management is very important in managing parasites. Spelling can control worm populations
as can alternate grazing. This system can have older, less susceptible stock grazing pasture before
young stock, or have a higher number of less susceptible stock together with young stock. Another
form of grazing is to graze alternately with different species (cattle before sheep as cross-infection
does not occur to any great extent).

51
This has additional benefits as different grazing habits do not allow domination of any one weed
species. Strip grazing involves back-fencing stock to match larvae development so that stock do not
contaminate their pastures.

Some organic farmers prefer low stocking rates, although more recently there is a trend towards cell
grazing where a large number of animals are grazed for a shorter period and then moved on. This
requires smaller grazing units and results in greater fencing costs.

Cultivation and intermediate cropping provide a break in the build-up of insects, parasites or disease
and therefore a clean pasture. Sowing mustard and ploughing it in as a green manure has been shown
to clean a pasture.

In summary, maintaining good health and reducing the risk of parasites involves:

• Maintaining a high plane of nutrition and minimum stress

• Grazing management which reduces exposure to parasites
• Eliminating herd drenching and only drenching individual stock when infection is sighted. Close
observation is a crucial factor.
• After the system is established, cull animals which show signs of heavy infestations.

Liverfluke (Fasciola hepatica) control can be achieved through control of the intermediate host, the
freshwater snail. In organic farming systems this is achieved by excluding livestock from water
sources where the snail inhabits and by the use of birds such as ducks. Snails prefer damp, slightly
acid conditions so addition of lime may reduce snails. Copper sulphate is approved under the national
standards but its use is subject to review.

Clostridial diseases are caused by spore forming anaerobic bacteria which cause a wide range of
disease. At present the conventional control of these diseases is through vaccination. In organic
farming the use of vaccines is restricted and is only permitted with approval from certification
organisations and only when a specific disease is known to exist on the organic farm or on
neighbouring farms which cannot effectively be controlled by other management practices.

To deal effectively with clostridial disease the first goal is to avoid predisposing factors. For example,
in blackleg or malignant oedema (Cl. Chauvoei) a significant predisposing factor is injury.
Management strategies include, avoiding and treating injuries, avoiding using the same site for
operations such as mulesing and lamb marking, and burning dead stock where they lie.

Some practices emphasised in organic farming reduce the likelihood of injury. For example, dipping
and drenching are avoided (stress and rough handling is minimised), and birth complications are
minimised through appropriate breed selection.

Where a serious disease is endemic and cannot be otherwise controlled then vaccination is appropriate
and an important management strategy.

External parasites are managed through a range of practices. These include:

• Observation of livestock
• Selection of resistant or tolerant stock (genetic selection and culling of susceptible stock)
• Monitoring the presence of pests eg. traps
• Cleanliness, for example in yards, burn crutchings
• Biological controls, for example, the use of dung beetles to remove faeces and hence the eggs of
buffalo fly (Siphona exigua).

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• Organic treatments - derris and rotenone can be used for lice, lime sulphur for itch mite, zinc
sulphate for lumpy wool and neem and eucalyptus (E. globulus) oil for fly strike.

Homoeopathy works on the principle that if substances are given to individuals in extreme dilutions,
they produce a therapeutic effect. Therefore, the whole organism can be treated in an attempt to
raise its levels of resistance and stimulate its ability to throw off disease. Homoeopathy embodies
the law of similars to stimulate the body’s natural defence mechanisms. There is little scientific
evidence of the effectiveness of homoeopathy. But only a few trials have been conducted with some
trials showing effects, while others fail to do so.

Marketing
In 1995, combined organic livestock products consisting of dairy, meat, poultry and fibres were
valued at $7.5 million at the national retail level.

Consultants Hassall and Associates made the following comments regarding markets for organic and
bio-dynamic livestock products:

For dairy products, opportunities include wholemilk, butter, yoghurt and cheese from cows and sheep-
goat dairy products.

The shortage of suitable feed grains appears to have curtailed development of an organic poultry
industry in Australia. Growth potential for eggs was recorded in South Australia.

Overseas interest in Australian organic wool is high and enquires have been made from both Japan
and Western Europe. If this interest can be converted into sales the potential for organic wool as a
product is impressive. The main limitation appears to be the availability of an organic scouring
facility.

Meat marketing
Livestock to be sold as certified organic must be processed through a certified abattoir. Currently
(December, 1999) there are six certified abattoirs:

BFA Certified:
Pittsworth Abattoir, Pittsworth QLD.
Cudgegong CC TA Mudgee Regional Abattoir, Mudgee, NSW
DA Holdings, Moruya, NSW
Q Meat Ipswich, Churchill, QLD.

NASAA Certified
Loxton Abattoirs, Loxton, SA.
Thomas Borthwick & Sons, Mackay, QLD.

Meat opportunities include certified lamb and beef. The potential for pork products may be limited
by the availability of certified feed grains.

A number of factors impact on the marketing of meat and meat products. One significant factor is
the requirement for certified slaughtering and processing facilities. Continuity of supply is an issue
with most producers. This has led to producer’s pooling resources, but this in turn creates
difficulties with providing consistent quality and grade.

53
Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA) is interested in assisting organic producers with the formation of
a vertical alliance for marketing bio-dynamic or organic meat products because from the consumers
perspective it is safe, clean, green and promises taste.

Some of the problems envisaged by MLA include those of quality consistency and continuity of
supply and packaging (retaining integrity of product).
Product consistency could be improved by designating a number of finishing-off properties located
near processors and by developing a common genetic base. Continuity of supply can be overcome to
a large extent by the diverse geographic distribution of producers. Integrity would be retained (and
substitution minimised) by pre-packing (vacuum packed and branded) all the cuts for retail or food
service applications. A number of organic livestock marketing consortiums now exist.

4.8 Animal health – the natural approach

by Pat Coleby, Organic Consultant

Many farmers throughout the world are now finding stock do much better if drugs and chemicals are
not used. Animals rely on the land to provide them with the right balance of major minerals to
maintain them in a disease free state.
But Australia's soils are not strong enough to hold the amounts of minerals needed to achieve this, no
matter how well balanced the soils are. Therefore, with few exceptions, animals farmed for products
like milk and wool have to have other assistance, in the form of mineral supplements.

Correcting mineral deficiencies

Even beef cattle may need licks to ensure they do not run short of copper, sulphur, dolomite and
seaweed, or minerals such as cobalt or boron that the soil is deficient in.
Just as weeds in paddocks can denote a poor unbalanced soil so can worms and diseases denote a poor
deficient beast. Nature creates resistant strains of bacteria, worms or other pests almost as fast as the
new chemicals can be made. But the use of basic minerals and vitamins will not produce a resistant
strain of any of these organisms.

Perhaps the biggest worry nowadays is the fact that on any farm where artificial fertilisers are used,
either in phosphatic or nitrogenous form, the natural copper in the soil becomes unavailable for use by
plants and animals. This is old information and may account for the huge number of diseases,
including Johne's, worms and footrot, currently rampant in stock because they are copper deficient.
They are of course usually deficient in other minerals as well, but I have found that unless the copper
was in the correct balance, diseases like Johne's, tuberculosis and brucellosis have a habit of becoming
endemic. Research has drawn some very interesting conclusions and often places the high incidence of
cancer in the same bracket.

Acidic soils have a low pH (from 3.5 to 5.5) and in these circumstances all trace minerals and iodine
will be virtually unobtainable. No stock of any kind can stay healthy in those conditions. Feeding the
required minerals in bail feed, licks or hand feeding of any kind is a very short-term solution. Until the
health of the land is addressed, they will not be in full health. Acidic soil lacks gypsum, lime or
dolomite. Some or all of these minerals will have to be applied, according to the soil analysis results.

In the meantime all stock should have unlimited access to a balanced lick which includes urea free
seaweed meal and 25kg of dolomite, 4kg each of copper sulphate and yellow dusting sulphur.

Even on the saltbush country, sheep farmers claim the above lick makes a considerable difference to
their productivity and cuts out the need for drenching and dipping. Saltbush in theory has more
minerals in it than seaweed but the extra minerals in the lick have still allowed a big improvement in
performance.

54
Getting the soil right first
We bought a farm in Gippsland where the pH was 4.1 and the previous owner had spread super and
potash for many years. The analysis showed iron 1600 times too high and salt 600 times too high. The
first topdressing with the lime minerals leveled out the salt and brought the iron down to about 300
times too high. The stock on the farm then became susceptible to anaemia and fluke within two
months. I was already feeding a maintenance ration of dolomite, sulphur and copper but obviously far
to little of the latter. I raised it to double what I had been feeding. The fluke were gone in three weeks
and the eye membranes of all the stock became a good pink colour within ten days. Iron cannot be
absorbed without the right amount of copper.

Cobalt inhibition was also a serious problem and I had to bail feed it for the first 18 months. At the end
of that time (17 months after remineralisation) cobalt was back in the food chain and from then on
things started to go well. As the pH comes up the trace minerals become available again. Trace
minerals cannot be spread under any circumstances until the pH is 5.5 or above, or the acidity of the
soil will sulphate them out and they will be lost. This can be very expensive.

On farms in northern Victoria, a copper bearing weed called heliotrope claimed the lives of many stock
each spring. Heliotrope likes a soil low in lime minerals so straight dolomite was put out to neutralise
the copper. The mayhem stopped in one year, and after that, remineralisation did the rest.

Pest control
Lice and ticks only attack sulphur deficient stock and ticks are only a problem on sour, out-of-balance
soils. More importantly, without sulphur the amino acids, particularly methioine and cysteine, cannot
attend to their job of synthesising selenium in the gut.

Seaweed as a supplement is far superior to made up mixtures as the minerals in it are in full balance
and it contains every trace mineral so far mapped. Seaweed has been known in Europe for about 50
years, but its use is only just becoming more widespread in Australia. The previously mentioned lick
has maintained a great many and a broad range of cattle herds as well as being much used in the dairy
industry. Many farmers prefer stock to be able to help themselves but this is not always possible in
dairying in which case 40 -60grams per day per head seems to work well. English farmers find 80
grams is good, but most of them have a long history of super and ammonium nitrate spreading so once
the soils are rectified the cows should not need so much.

Permitted materials for animal pest and disease control

Source: National Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce, Second Edition, 1998
• Pyrethrum extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerariafolium, without piperonyl butoxide
• Rotenone extracted from Derris elliptica
• Quassia extracted from Quassia armara
• Neem oil and extracts
• Garlic oil, garlic extracts or crushed garlic
• Seaweed, seaweed meal, seaweed extracts, sea salts and salty water
• Sulphur
• Potassium permanganate
• Homeopathic preparations
• Natural plant extracts obtained by infusion, excluding tobacco
• Essential oils
• Methylated spirits
• Tallow
• Cider vinegar, certified organic
• Nettle
• Diatomaceous earth, in non-heat treated form

55
• Selenium and other trace elements, to correct identified deficiencies only
• Zinc sulphate
• Copper sulphate
• Vitamins
• Biological controls
• Charcoal
• Clay
• Vaccines, only for specific disease known to exist on the organic or neighbouring farms, which
threatens livestock health and which cannot be effectively controlled by other management
practices
Wetting agents, plant products and some seaweed products. Some commercial formulations may
contain unacceptable products.

56
5. Certification
5.1 Certification of organic products in Australia.
by Liz Clay, Certification Inspector

For many farmers entering the organic industry, the paperwork required for certification is daunting.
But the rewards through quality assurance and having a product consumers easily recognise as being
organic make it worth the effort.

In Australia the production and manufacturing of organic products is regulated by the National
Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic Produce. This commonly agreed to definition of organic
agriculture and processing is the guideline for Australian certification agencies to develop their own
more specific standards.

An industry organisation must be accredited by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service
(AQIS) before it can certify organic operations. The organisation must show that its certification
program will meet all the requirements of the national standard. All production, processing,
handling, transport, storage and sale of organic products must be certified through an accredited
certifying organisation.

International certification
In 1992 the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) set up its own
accreditation program to co-ordinate and standardise organic accreditation programs worldwide.
This provides an international guarantee of organic quality for accredited producers, processors,
manufacturers and retailers. IFOAM has recently developed a seal for use by IFOAM accredited
certifiers and the parties they certify. The seal will provide consumers with a clear, worldwide,
common recognition of genuine organic products certified to IFOAM standards.

The organic standards in Australia and throughout the world do not make claims that organic
farming produces better or cleaner food. But they do describe the method of agricultural production
and outline the inputs that may be used in an organic farming system.

Organic agriculture also requires that all possible preventative measures are in place to ensure that
the production system is not exposed to prohibited chemical, physical or microbial contaminants.
More recently the risk of genetic pollution from genetic engineering is also considered a potential
source of contamination that must be avoided.

The standards define organic farming and the processing of organic products. They detail how both
should be monitored by documentation and annual, objective, third party inspection. The intention
of labelling of certified organic products is to send a clear message to consumers, - that when you
buy organic products you are assured that you are not contributing to the contamination of the soils,
the water and the air by synthetic agro-chemicals.

Organic farmers are contributing to the sustainable use of the earth’s natural resources. The growing
numbers of consumers who believe in this ethic demand production assurance.

Certification of organic farming and manufacturing systems allows Australian producers and
manufactures access to the lucrative international organic market place. Our major markets are
Europe, Japan and North America where organic products fetch premium prices.

57
All organic products exported from Australia must be accompanied by an Export Control Order. It
is illegal to export without one. These certificates provide verification that the product is certified
organic and are only issued by the AQIS accredited organic certification organizations.

What is the conversion period

Conversion of a farming system to organic requires a long term perspective. It therefore requires a
plan to accommodate the impacts of the change of management practices regarding soil fertility,
plant nutrition, animal health and pest, disease and weed control. For this reason certifiers recognise
a conversion period that may take some three years or more years to achieve.

The national standard states that a farming enterprise must undergo a twelve month period of
supervision by an accredited certifying agency to ensure a workable conversion plan is in place. The
period of supervision occurs after the first inspection and before entering the ‘organic in conversion
period’ when produce can be sold in the organic market place labelled accordingly.

A property in conversion is defined in the national standard as ‘…a production system that has
adhered to the standard for at least one year, and has been certified as such, but has not qualified as
organic for various reasons. These include reasons such as the conversion system has not been
operated within the requirements for the specified period (usually three years); the farm does not
meet quality standards, ie soil structure considered appropriate and necessary for organic farms; or
the organic management plan has not been sufficiently developed.’

What paper work

Certification is granted upon inspection by an approved inspector who reports to the certification
body. Before the inspection the farmer must complete a farm conversion plan questionnaire
provided by the certification body. Information required includes a background to the operation, the
management plan, maps detailing production areas, irrigation system, storage facilities, and
surrounding land use. The dates of application of the last prohibited inputs are also required. The
farmer is expected to work closely with the inspection body and must complete legal documents that
pledge to abide by the regulations of the organization.

Certified farmers are licensed to use the certification agency’s organic label on their produce. To
ensure their production methods are in compliance to the standard, certified farmers are subject to an
annual inspection by the certification agency. The inspection includes a review of the farmer’s
performance and ability to comply with the standard.

Records must be kept of all inputs used on the farm and all outputs including sales, wastage and any
produce that might be withheld from sale such as for seed and feed. Dates, volumes, destination,
unit description and application rates, must be recorded. Farmers are expected to keep a diary of day
to day farming activities and must report any changes to the site or to the nature of the enterprise.

Farms may be converted to organic gradually. If the farm is only partially certified meticulous
records must be maintained of both the organic and conventional enterprises. Farming of the same
variety of species on a farm that is partially certified is called parallel production and is not allowed
because of the opportunity for mixing.

The national standard now requires every organic farmer to have in place a quality management
program that is compatible with Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) principles.
A range of industry sectors have already developed quality management programs for their
industries and organic farmers are encouraged to tap into these systems.

58
What is HACCP
HACCP is an internationally recognised basic tool used to develop food safety and quality
management systems. The main focus of a HACCP food safety program is to put in place measures
that prevent microbiological, chemical or physical contamination, rather waiting for the hazard to
occur before taking action to correct it.

The process of HACCP is to analyse every part of the businesses’ production, harvest, and handling
to identify the major hazards with respect to food safety and quality. The identified hazards are then
monitored and preventative measures are put in place to prevent the hazards from occurring.

Some important food safety hazards to consider on an organic farm might include
the manufacturing of compost, water quality for processing or washing produce, pest control and
contamination from outside sources and clean down procedures.

Record keeping is vital

The national standard describes the definition for organic production in Australia with a guarantee to
the consumer that these production methods are monitored. The inspection body relies on the
accuracy of records maintained by the farmer as the essential elements for providing credibility and
transparency. Insufficient record keeping is not only an infringement of the standards but effectively
prevents an inspection from being carried out. If an organic farmer does not keep proper records, a
warning is usually given. If this is not corrected certification will be withdrawn.

What is the cost of certification

There are currently seven AQIS accreditation agencies in Australia which are audited by AQIS to
ensure they are maintaining the required level of supervision over their licensees. In turn AQIS
themselves may be monitored by other organisation such as the European Union. These levels of
scrutiny come at a cost.

The certification agencies generally operate as not-for-profit organizations with a range of structures
from co-operatives to private companies. Each has a different fee and membership structure which
may change from time to time. Some agencies offer certification for a wide range of products while
others are industry sector specific. Some agencies may only certify organic or bio-dynamic
production systems. Growers are advised to shop around to ensure that the certification agency of
their choice provides the service they are looking for not only for now but in the future.

Most agencies charge an initial joining fee that may include membership to the organization,
inspection costs, soil and tissue testing, administration and review fees. New growers, depending on
their size of operation could expect to pay around $500.00 to join. Each year thereafter, annual
inspection, administration, and membership costs are required. Some certification bodies charge a
levy based on the percentage of product sold into the organic market place, others a flat fee with
inspection costs billed separately. Once again potential organic farmers should shop around to find
the agency that best suits their situation.

Certification bodies in Australia

There are seven organisations currently certified with AQIS.

National Association for Sustainable Agriculture, Australia (NASAA)

PO Box 768
Stirling SA 5152
Ph: (08) 8370 8455
Fax: (08) 8370 8381
E-mail: [email protected]

59
NASAA certifies producers from small to intermediate and extremely large operations throughout
Australia and extensively in South-East Asia. NASAA covers some 9 million hectares and about
500 operators involved in horticultre, broadacre, livestock and mixed farms. NASAA is one of the
few certification agencies worldwide to achieve IFOAM accreditation and is currently the only one
in Australia to do so.

Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA)

PO Box 3404
Toowoomba Village Fair Queensland 4350
Ph: (07) 4639 3299
Fax: (07) 4639 3755
E-mail:[email protected]

The BFA was formed in 1987 at a meeting of interested parties held in Dubbo, NSW. The objective
of BFA is to bring together farmers, processors and the like who have a common interest in organic
and bio-dynamic production and systems as a means of conserving resources and processing food
without the use of synthesised chemicals.

Bio-Dynamic Research Institute (BDRI)

Main Road
Powelltown Victoria 3797
Ph: (03) 5966 7333
Fax: (03) 5966 7433

The Demeter trademark has been used in Australia since 1953 to symbolise produce produced using
the Bio-dynamic agricultural method. The symbol was registered in 1967 by the Bio-Dynamic
Research Institute. When a certain standard of bio-dynamic development has been established,
farmers may apply to the Bio-Dynamic Research Institute to become certified users of the Demeter
trademark.

Organic Herb Growers of Australia (OHGA)

PO Box 6171
South Lismore NSW 2480
Ph (02) 6622 0100
Fax (02) 6622 0900
E-mail:[email protected]
OHGA was established in 1986 to promote the growing and processing of herbs and herbal products.
OHGA members include fruit and vegetable growers, organic manufacturers, wild harvesters and
mixed farmers.
Organic Vignerons Association of Australia (OVAA)
1 Gawler Street
PO Box 503
Nuriootpa SA 5355
Ph: (08) 8562 2122
Fax: (08) 8562 3034
E-mail: [email protected]
The OVAA was established in 1992 following an increasing demand for organic wine, particularly
from overseas. The OVAA was formed specifically to promote the growing of grapes organically
and the production of wine from those grapes.

Organic Food Chain (OFC)

PO Box 2390

60
Toowoomba Queensland 4350
Ph: (07) 4637 2600
Fax: (07) 4696 7689
E-mail:[email protected]
The OFC began through the co-operation of five commercial organic farmers who wanted an
organised, highly accountable system of organic accreditation and product differentiation. Now the
OFC acts as a producer, agent buyer and consolidator of a wide range of organic products and
members include organic farmers, processors, wholesalers, brokers and retailers.
Tasmanian Organic-Dynamic Producers (TOP)
PO Box 434
Mowbray Heights Tasmania 7248
Ph: (03) 6383 4039
Mobile: 0408 171 473
E-mail: [email protected]
The TOP Co-operative was formed in the early 1990s in response to calls from Tasmania’s rural
sector for a body to represent and support organic growers. Current grower members include
producers of dairy products, grains, vegetables, herbs, fruit and wine. TOP is also involved in
Skillshare and Landcare projects.
The following organisation is not currently AQIS accredited but does offer an organic advisory
service and voluntary retail certification:
Organic Retailers and Growers Association of Australia (ORGAA)
PO Box 12852
Melbourne Victoria 3000
Ph: (03) 9737 9799
Fax: (03) 9737 9499
Toll free: 1800 356 299
Further information can be obtained from:
Organic Federation of Australia (OFA)
452 Lygon St
East Brunswick Victoria 3057
Ph: (03) 9386 6600
Fax: (03) 9384 1322
E-mail: [email protected]
This is the peak industry body for organic farming in Australia.
Organic Produce Export Committee (OPEC)
Australian Quarantine Inspection Service
GPO Box 858
Canberra ACT 2601
Ph: (02) 6272 4783
Fax: (02) 6272 3682
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.aqis.gov.au
This committee was responsible for developing national standards and certification procedures for
organic produce for the domestic and international markets.

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6. Marketing
6.1 Demand based marketing is the key
by Andrew Monk, organic consultant

Sustainable farming ventures in the next century will be based on active marketing by the primary
producer. The days of supply led marketing are dying and being replaced by demand led marketing.
This is marketing based on what is in demand, rather than what you might have in supply. With
demand for organic products far outstripping supply capability, there is a need to consider markets
and the feasibility of supplying them.

Demand can also be created by the appropriate marketing, but efforts must be constantly refocused
to ensure that the product is satisfying demand, rather than simply relieving supplies. To achieve
this effectively, suppliers must know their markets, their product, and the culture that produces that
product.

A diverse industry
There is significant diversity within both the existing and future potential organic industry, in terms
of industry sectors, regions and types of markets. Diversification of both production and markets is
an accepted means of helping ensure long-term economic survival for primary producers. Markets
of any kind go through periods of flood and drought – it is important to treat such occurrences as
natural disasters and best to prepare for them.

Diversification often means that the organic producer may need to consider the possibility of having
to market some of their produce on the conventional market at times. Indeed, for many larger
producers, this back up is often essential in smaller markets where there is a propensity for flooding.

The other key reason for diversification is that in developing new markets, such ventures can be
risky, and such risk needs to be managed by a balanced approach to market outlets. Diversity means
lowered vulnerability, both on-farm and in market. Diversity may also allow for bargaining power
over buyers. A product you have which is more in demand might be linked with mandatory sales of
your other products which may be over supplied in the market. Larger suppliers call this “key hole
marketing”.

Marking out your product in the market place is also essential to protect the work you do to get that
product to market. Differentiation by means of labelling and packaging may be part of this. Some
producers in livestock and commodity based markets have tried to become certified under the
organic system in order to differentiate their produce from the general market place.

Successful marketing cannot of course be discovered in a book. Marketing is an active process of

individual work and research. It is about contacts, and it is about taking calculated risks and learning
lessons as you go. Essentially it is about assessing future demand potential and building supply
capability. To achieve this in the organic market, you will need to know both the specialised
contacts for marketing, as well as the type of culture that many of these marketeers operate within.

There are three essential rules to marketing organic products. Know the market culture and its
regulatory requirements, know the specifications and demands of your customer and know your
products’ performance and nature.

Know thy product

For those moving into organic production, a working knowledge of the performance of the products
to be marketed is essential. Some organic produce has a shorter shelf life than its conventional

62
counterpart. Other products can have longer shelf life when stored and transported effectively and
this also should be capitalised on where relevant.

Using the apparent weakness of a product to a market benefit is essential. For example, softer,
sweeter tasting berries may need to be marketed very differently than their harder bodied
equivalents. Local markets, pick your own, or similar market outlets may be the most appropriate
here. Poorer quality product – from pest or disease damage may also require different approaches to
marketing. The “ugly apple” has been used as a marketing campaign by some to capitalise on an
inherent weakness of the product in terms of aesthetics. Juicing and processing of damaged produce
may also be a possibility.

Sweeter tasting meat products, higher protein grains and other natural characteristics your own
produce may exhibit, need to be taken into consideration when planning your marketing campaign.

The message is: “know thy product”. Know its inherent limitations as well as its potential for
differentiation in the market place. Use this knowledge to enhance the marketing.

There may be unique requirements for the organic product to be processed, packaged and stored in
accordance with the National Standard for Organic and Bio-dynamic Produce. Aspects such as
labelling, packaging materials and transport and retailing arrangements require consideration and
careful planning to ensure that there is compliance with all regulatory requirements, while
maintaining the unique marketability of the product you have for sale.

Research is required to ensure requirements all along the production chain are maintained. For
instance, there may be mandatory fruit fly control requirements across state borders, containers for
export may require fumigation, and there may be food safety requirements to be met which have the
potential to eliminate certain products from the organic market without alternative treatments or
technologies in place.

There are technical and management means of dealing with these issues, but this entails direct
involvement of the producer in the entire supply chain. Some excellent ventures have failed to reach
market success due to some of these regulatory barriers. Rather than ignoring them, the savvy
operator needs to seek them out, understand them and the people who maintain them.

Knowing and understanding the role that all regulators play in the supply chain is essential. For
exporters, there are international as well as importer country regulations which may require extra
documentation, testing or quality specifications which go beyond the requirements of the national
standard.

A joint venture mentality is required between regulators, certifiers, inputs suppliers and transporters,
to ensure that the chain of production – and hence marketing – is not jeopardised. The strength of
this chain is always dictated by its weakest point. Knowing these weak points and working to ensure
they are strengthened is essential to the successful marketing campaign.

For those not yet certified, selecting the right certifier may also be an essential aspect of marketing –
which includes supply chain aspects (see Chapter 5). Some certifiers only allow for ‘organic’ to
appear on labelling, even if the produce is in fact bio-dynamic. Others only allow ‘bio-dynamic’,
while some allow both ‘organic’ and ‘bio-dynamic’ to appear on the label of a bio-dynamically
produced good. It should be noted that while there is no domestic legislation in place for organic
produce, all the major supermarkets and processors in this country demand that produce they source
be only from certified operators – certified by AQIS.

63
Know thy market, know thy consumer
The market for organic produce is diverse, not only across sectors but also across regions of
production and population. We trade involving all sorts of niches, local and direct, international,
supermarket and large processors. Local markets or niche restaurant markets can be large depending
on the approach taken.

The key aspect to any effective and sustainable marketing system must be based on demand rather
than supply led principles. Ongoing research, possibly entailing direct buyer or consumer contact, is
vital to remaining on the path of demand rather than supply led marketing.

Market intelligence can come from many sources. Most certifiers send out regular newsletters
which contain market reports from wholesalers and their contact numbers. Visiting markets,
speaking directly with buyers, regularly staying in touch with the end consumer – asking their views
on the product you market – are all part of maintaining markets as they change and grow.

The internet is also an increasingly effective means of remaining informed. The Department of
Primary Industries in Queensland has a site called Farmlink – where buyers and sellers can advertise
their goods – across Australia and the world. Other web sites are available for the same purpose,
while your certifier can assist in providing a list of all certified exporters, wholesalers and
processors. Go to organic certification on the search engine to find some useful links.

The internet should not be underestimated as to its future potential power. The web is now available
at local libraries or home computers, and it provides an up to the minute marketing tool. Many
buyers for major processors and supermarkets increasingly prefer communication via email.

Market research is often carried out by government as well as private agencies. Staying in contact
with your state’s department of agriculture, business development units and related service providers
will keep you in contact with market intelligence regarding emerging markets as well as over-
supplied markets.

Advertising is all about finding the right place. Many producers do not advertise simply due to the
under-supply of produce. In the current environment of growth of market outlets for organic
produce, there may be a need to consider advertising outlets which capture new potential buyers.

Co-operate to compete
Effective marketing increasingly is based upon the principles of co-operating to effectively compete.
With changes to once regulated markets and in the face of stiffening competition both nationally and
internationally, going it alone is often a high risk option for many producers. A quantum leap is
often required for the opening of new markets. Such leaps in the ability to supply often require a
collective approach to enable sufficient volume and consistency of supply. Lack of consistent
supply is one of the key aspects holding back growth in organic markets for some sectors.

Such an approach is still foreign to many producers. But co-operative marketing, consortia or
companies are proving their worth as new markets are being developed and maintained. Only other
like co-operative ventures can usually compete with such market supply chains. Establishing such
links can be costly and time consuming, requiring building of trust within and between producers
and buyers, processors and retailers. Such co-operative development can also require start-up costs
which often cannot be borne by a single operator.

In the existing organic market there is a significant degree of co-operation between wholesalers and
their dedicated growers. There is direct communication and a support system to deal with product
supply ebbs and flows. This style of wholesaling may be important – rather than constantly seeking
the highest bidder for produce.

64
Worthwhile investment
Government assistance is available for some sectors and regions to establish co-operative networks.
The benefits are that the producer maintains market intelligence, has access to more assured markets
and maintains contact with the end consumer, and therefore the demand, by remaining within the co-
operative supply chain.

Maintaining supply chains is about maintaining the production chain. Production chains are
becoming longer and more complex as the food industry evolves. Such chains require open
communication and trust between operators at both ends of the chain.

Sustaining an effective market for organic produce is often based on longer term commitment with
investment in time, energy and finance. For those who continue to treat marketing as their own
responsibility and as an ongoing commitment to their sustainable farming future, there are rewards
and advantages not enjoyed by others who expect that a supply-led mentality will continue to get
them by.

Marketing the organic product poses challenges mostly common to other specialised market niches.
Knowing the exact nature of the industry, its regulatory requirements and the types of consumers
now demanding organic produce will help steer a steady marketing course for the willing adventurer.

6.2 Adding value to organic produce

by Michael Burlace, Organic Advisor

Australian farmers have faced a situation of

increasing costs and reduction in income since the
1950s.

Figure 6.2.1: The Passing Years

If farmers sell for less than it costs to grow

produce, they subsidise the consumer. Even if the
consumer meets visible costs, what about
repairing acidity, salinity and erosion? There will
be no sustainable farming until there is
sustainable marketing.

According to figures from the Australian Bureau

of Statistics, real farm income has barely risen
since 1952. But costs have risen steadily and
strongly except in 1991.

65
Niche markets
Once there was a bulk market. This is changing but there is some demand for bulk farm produce.
Farmers can't make much from these bulk markets. The rest of the market is niches within niches.

The egg market used to be graded only on size but since deregulation, consumers choose from
ordinary (cage) eggs, vegetarian eggs (fed no animal products), organic eggs, free-range eggs, 'heart
safe' eggs (higher omega-3 fatty acids), brown eggs, barn eggs and so on. There is a mass egg
market and many niches. Often cage eggs retail for less than the cost of production. Those farmers
are at the wrong end of the graph.

Factors influencing what people buy today:

• Smaller families and more women working mean demand for small serves of convenience foods.
• More people diet and generally eat less.
• Convenience products (citrus, which peels easily, seedless grapes) are more attractive.
• Many people graze continuously instead of having three meals.
• People want value for money but many will pay extra for quality.
• Taste and texture sell organic tomatoes and other fruit.
• Many people eat in a healthy way to prevent heart and cancer problems.
• Some people have high incomes and high commitment to work, children, interests or friends.
These cash-rich and time-poor people pay for convenience.

Why add value?

Most farm produce is almost valueless unless it has value added to it. Processed goods give greater
flexibility in marketing and storing and adding value gives more chances to set price instead of being
given it. By processing, the selling season and shelf life can be extended. Adding value can also
make a product more attractive.

Organic farmers have four main ways to increase profit:

1) The produce is different (organic not ordinary) and can attract a premium.
2) The produce can be processed to increase the return significantly.
3) The cost of production is sometimes lower, therefore there is room for more profit above that
cost.
4) Because the produce is different it can be sold more directly to the consumer.

Processing generally adds more value than the fact that the product is organic. An organic jam
maker is not competing with conglomerates but in a niche. A conventional farmer trying to sell jam
would find it difficult to establish a niche and may be up against big-name brands.

Selling direct to the customer can be more profitable, particularly if the other factors are working
well.

Where the value goes

The consumer pays $100 and the farmer nets between $4 and $10 in many industries. There are
many costs between farmer and consumer and a rise in price from farm to retail is the reality. But
very little of the final price goes on raw materials. And even in a pure wool jumper there will be
non-farm "raw materials", such as the label and the thread for assembling and embroidering the
jumper. In a suit there are many raw materials including labour (see graph 2).

66
 Figure 6.2.2: Percentage of retail dollar to each layer.

A $100 item of clothing typically returns $40 to the retailer, $30 to the manufacturer, $20 to the
fabric maker and $10 for the raw materials. The farmer doesn't get all the $10. There will be
buttons, sewing threads, transport and other items to come out of the $10. What is left may pay for
shearing, breeding, pasture, fences, wool levies, commissions and so on.

The closer you get to the consumer, the bigger the slice you can get. There will be costs, mainly
administrative and processing costs but these are generally more than covered by the returns. Closer
means fewer people between you and the consumer, and that your price rises as each is removed
from the chain.

The value of processing

Few commodities can be stored raw, but once processed may store for years. So processing gives
more control of when to market. Flour, jam, wine and juices are more easily marketed and sales can
be spread through the year.

Much of the increase in price for processed commodities compared with raw ingredients is from the
processing and presentation. If this can be done for a reasonable cost, you're ahead. The ingredients
are often the cheapest part.

67
Many ways to add value
There are more ways than processing to add value. By taking people on farm tours, for example,
value can be added to the enterprise.

• Growing a super-sweet variety of corn or a rare variety of vegetables. Medicinal instead of

kitchen herbs is another area;
• Providing greater convenience, by making ready-made salads or pre-cut vegetables for a busy
cook. Add a dressing or sauce to increase the appeal and value;
• Increasing the value of your animals by using stud genes. Instead of a bull being worth hundreds
of dollars as meat, it could be worth thousands as a breeding prospect. Obviously not all animals
in a stud get that sort of money, but the average in a stud is higher than in almost any commercial
mob. And you don't have to be a registered stud. If your animals are worth more because they are
resistant to pest problems, you can get a higher price. Producing seed to be sown rather than seed
that is eaten is similar to being a stud;
• Food which is low fat or suits people with diabetes or allergies can attract a premium;
• Finding different ways to pack can be worthwhile. Garlic in plaits gets a better price than garlic
sold loose;
• Using people's nurturing tendencies can add appeal to products. People will often do more for a
baby than they will for themselves and they may be prepared to buy organic lambskins, baby
clothes, baby foods.

Investing in processing
Sensible investments in processing usually give a greater return on capital, labour and time than the
same investment in farming. Setting up a processing plant can cost less than $50,000. That wouldn't
buy much land or farm machinery. So value adding plant can mean a relatively small investment.
Depending on what you process and what machinery you use, no labour may be required. Often
there is no need for your own equipment, the work can be contracted out.

An example: Milling wheat into flour

Most organic producers who mill grain actually make more from milling than from farming. The
following gives an idea of the returns from milling wheat. While the figures are approximations they
are based on real farmers’ real figures. It is based on high interest and conventional wheat prices of
($250/t for 13.5+% protein) and a normal organic premium (20% or $50/t).

A stone mill to handle 1t/day (365t a year) costs $10,000. Allow $30,000 to put it in a shed with a
small cool room and meet health regulations. This gives a capital investment of $40,000.

This family enterprise mills 100t/year and sells to a wholesaler in 5 kg bags at $4.20 which is
equivalent to $840/t. One of the two adults checks the mill once an hour so they and the other can
do other work. So labour was not costed in. Because it is wholemeal flour, there are no losses, 1t in
gives 1t out. If we subtract what the family could get for the unmilled wheat, $300/t ($250+50), this
leaves an increased return of $540/t for the flour compared with wheat. So the family has increased
the income by 100 tonnes times $540/t which is $54,000.

Running and power cost $150/t, bags cost $90/t to give a total of $240/t or $24,000. The interest
cost (at 15% on $40,000) to establish the mill is $6,000 for the first year. Add them for a total cost
for the first year of $30,000, not including the $40,000 setup or capital.

After one year and after repaying all capital and running costs, the family is $16,000 worse off than
at the start. This includes paying interest on the setup costs, less the first year's return.

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 First year's milling returns
Increased income $54,000

Total capital investment $40,000

Mill running costs $24,000

Interest $6,000

Total cost, including capital $70,000

First year loss $(16,000)

Second year's milling returns

Increased income $54,000

Mill running costs $24,000

Net profit in second year $30,000

Year 1 loss, plus $2,400 interest $18,400

Profit after second year $11,600

In the second year, the family pays $2400 interest on the loss from the first year. By the end of the
second year the family has paid all capital and running costs and is $11,600 ahead overall.

After that there are no more interest bills, so each year the family has an increased income of $54,000
and running costs of $24,000, leaving them a $30,000 profit.

Third and following years' milling return

Increased income $54,000
Running costs, no interest any more $24,000
Net each year after first two $30,000

Even if the economics change a lot, this family will probably still have an excellent investment.

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Adding value without big costs
• Renting facilities to freeze fruit to thaw later to make jams and sauces.
• Using home equipment to run trials to find out the potential.
• Contracting out all or part of the processing operation to avoid the need to invest in plant (for
example a butcher cuts and packs your beef or lamb).
• Having food processing or marketing students do some work: developing recipes to meet organic
standards and commercial needs, designing packaging, locating equipment, students can also
help with promoting, researching markets and legal research.
• Renting a shop approved for food use.
• Buying industrial equipment second-hand.

Resources
• ABC rural radio and rural TV are excellent.
• Rural papers and magazines.
• Ask local agriculture department officer or consultant to connect you with specialists.
• Look at the value adding section of The Organic Exchange website:
www.organicexchange.com.au

Why people don't add value

Most farmers just want to farm and so marketing, processing and such may not suit them. Most
people don't like a negative response which happens with many sales calls. Many farmers don't
believe they have access to the capital they would need and there is a risk of losing money just like
in farming.

70
All in all, you need initiative and a lot of push to get through the maze of rules, market demands and
processing needs, let alone the economics. But those who persist and get through can do very well.

6.3 Exporting organic and bio-dynamic products

by Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS)

The stimulus to introduce an export facilitation program in Australia was created by the increasing
world demand for organic produce and the need to provide assurances about the integrity of the
product.

Export demand
By 1990 Australia had achieved a niche market in the European Union for organic produce. While
this market has continued to grow other markets have also opened up for organic produce. These
include Switzerland, Japan, the United States, Singapore, and Hong Kong. In was estimated in 1996,
that the organic sector in Australia was $90 million, with exports adding an additional $30 million.
The current estimated total value of organic produce is more than $200 million.

As most people would be aware, the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) regulates
the majority of agricultural produce and food commodity exports from Australia. In addition, AQIS
also regulates the export of organic produce to ensure that it conforms to the National Standard for
Organic and Bio-dynamic Produce (national standard). The national standard defines the minimum
requirements for the preparation, production, transportation and labeling of organic produce.

Governing the certifying agencies

Apart from the national standard, approved certifying organisations must be able to demonstrate an
awareness of both the Export Control (Organic Produce Certification) Orders 1997 and importing
country requirements. This ensures that all consignments exported from Australia comply with
relevant importing country requirements.

AQIS achieves this co-regulatory approach by auditing approved certifying organisations and
selected certified members annually. In addition to this auditing process, approved certifying
organisations will regularly inspect their certified members to determine their compliance in relation
to the relevant standards for organic produce.

Once approved by AQIS, approved certifying organisations can provide government-to-government

certification (Organic Produce Certificate) for all export consignments of organic produce.
Exporters of organic produce must obtain an Organic Produce Certificate from an approved
certifying organisation before the export of any agricultural product or food commodity which has
on its label, or in its merchandise that it is organic, bio-dynamic, biological, ecological or any similar
word.

AQIS supports the organic certification program by randomly checking consignments to determine
their compliance to export legislation and importing country authority requirements.

Further information relating to the export of organic produce can be obtained by contacting the
Manager AQIS Food Programs ph: (02) 6272 4783, fax (02) 6272 3682, e-mail [email protected]
or please visit the AQIS Organic Home Page at http://www.aqis.gov.au/docs/approg/orgfront.htm

71
7. Economics
7.1 Economics stack up for organic farming
by Dr. Els Wynen, Eco Landuse Systems.

Evidence available from several studies implies that organic cereal-livestock farming can be
financially as rewarding as conventional farming, both for individual farmers and for the sector as a
whole.

This would be the case even if a considerable number of farmers move towards that type of
agriculture, although the situation may be less positive during the conversion period.
Individual farmers contemplating converting to organic methods would need to consider the
sustainability of their current systems, their ability to withstand possible diminished returns in the
conversion period and their preference to farm in a way that requires more attention to rotations and
a greater use of livestock.

Organic farmers are also more likely to be involved in the marketing of their products. While these
methods won't suit everyone, there is mounting evidence that more and more farmers find a switch to
organic methods worth contemplating.

Established organic agriculture

The only comprehensive survey of the financial and physical characteristics of broadacre organic
farmers was undertaken in 1985-86. Although dated, the results nonetheless provide useful insights
into the differences between organic and conventional cereal-livestock farming in Australia.

A survey of 13 organic farmers, located in the five mainland south-eastern states was undertaken. Of
those, eight were 'fully organic', and five 'semi-organic'. All had farmed under the new management
methods for at least five years. The results of the study presented here are mainly those of the eight
'fully' organic farmers. The exception is the data on farmers' opinions, for which all 13 farmers are
included.

Why organic farming

Given the low numbers of organic farmers, the question can be asked why farmers use that kind of
management anyway. About three quarters of the answers given by cereal-livestock farmers in the
survey related to issues of health (farmer, the farming family, soil, crops and livestock) and off-farm
environmental problems.

Of the rest, the largest part of the answers indicated a preference for that lifestyle (13 %). A
decrease in input prices and increase in output prices was mentioned in only 8% and 3% of the
answers, respectively. A total of 5% indicated conventional farming system was not working. In
short, the most important reasons for conventional farmers to move towards organic broadacre
farming were problems they experienced while applying conventional farm management methods.
Overseas studies showed similar reasons for conversion.

Comparisons
In comparing different production processes, it is often tempting to conclude that any apparent
difference in success may be due to more favourable climate, soils or perhaps managerial ability in
one group or another. To minimise the effect of these factors the organic farmers were each
compared with one neighbour who also was a broadacre cereal grower. To find an appropriate
comparison, local agriculture department officers were asked to nominate a conventional farmer
who, in their opinion, was at least as good a manager as the organic farmer. Other factors had to be
similar, such as soil type, local climate, and farm size.

72
Because the management skill of farmers is a major influence on farm profitability, it is important,
when comparing farm profitability, to find farmers with similar management skills. In the survey,
every pair of farmers was asked to grade themselves and their neighbour as managers. Of the group
of organic farmers, two of the 10 respondents thought that they were better managers than their
neighbour, six that they were similar, and two that they were worse managers.

Of the 11 conventional farmers, six considered themselves better managers than their neighbour, and
five similar to their neighbours. None thought they were worse. In other words, more conventional
farmers thought that they were better than, or similar to, their organic neighbours in management
skills than the other way round. For most pairs of farmers the grading was similar. The exception
was two pairs, where both farmers thought that the conventional farmer was a considerably better
manager.

Input costs
For years conventional farmers have talked about the cost-price squeeze, with rising input costs and
stagnant or falling output prices. Such talk is more likely to be heard in times of high inflation. In
such times farmers' attention is more directed towards methods to avoid these trends. It is tempting
to look at a system where less inputs are needed and premium prices exist, as is generally believed to
be the case in organic agriculture.

From the survey it is clear that input costs on Australian cereal-livestock farms are, on average,
indeed lower than on conventional farms. The first column in Table 1 shows the costs on organic
farms, the second those on conventional farms, and the third and fourth show the difference between
the two, in dollars per hectare and percentage respectively. The fifth column tells us whether that
difference is 'statistically significant'.

If the measure is significantly different (indicated by one or more asterisks we can be confident that,
if we were to survey all organic farmers we would come up with the same result. If there is no
statistical difference (indicated by 'n.s.') then we can't be sure that the difference found in this sample
is caused by a difference in farm system.

In Table 7.1.1 input costs are shown both for area cropped and for area operated. The reason for
showing both these measures is that the costs per hectare cropped show how the management of soil
fertility and pest problems compare under each management system. But that does not provide an
overall picture of the returns of the total farm. Some costs, such as interest and labour, are difficult
to apportion to parts of the farm, and are shown only on the basis of the total farm.

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Table 7.1.1: Input use on organic and conventional farms in south-eastern Australia

Input Organic Conventional Difference Stat. Diff.

($/ha) ($/ha) ($/ha) (%)
Per hectare cropped
Fertilisers 9 27 -18 33 **
Pesticies 1 18 -17 1 ***
Fuel 35 33 2 107 n.s
Machinery 89 101 -12 88 n.s
Per hectare operated
Fertilisers 3 19 -16 16 **
Pesticies 0 14 -14 0 ***
Interest 5 16 -11 31 n.s.
Fuel 12 21 -10 57 **
Mach. & 3 74 -42 42 *
Equipment
Labor 35 41 -6 85 n.s

Note: statistically significant difference calculated with the paired Wilcoxon test:
n.s. = not significant at 90 % confidence level
*** = significant at 99 % confidence level
** = significant at 95 % confidence level
* = significant at 90 % confidence level

The two measures give a different picture. Taking area cropped, only the expenditure on use in
nutrients (including materials allowed under organic management such as rock phosphate) and
pesticides are significantly lower on organic farms than on conventional farms. But per hectare
operated, all costs are lower on organic farms with the exception of interest and labour costs. Note
that, although labour costs is often thought to be relatively high on organic farms, this survey shows
that, in the cereal-livestock sector in Australia at least, that is not the case.

In an Australian study in 1995, Hassall and Associates (HA) reported that 70% of the 50 responses
to their survey of farmers classified as 'grain/cereal' farmers, mentioned that they estimated their
input costs to be lower than on conventional farms. One quarter of this group reported higher labour
costs, and 10% lower costs, with two-thirds similar costs.

The difference in costs per hectare cropped in nutrient and pest management (here taken as including
all forms of pests, such as insects, weeds, fungi, etc.) between the system will not surprise anybody.

Part of the way in which organic farmers cope with soil fertility and pests is by trying to avoid
problems in the first place, through a shift in management. For example, where conventional
farmers use herbicides, organic farmers may rotate their crops, or use livestock in smaller paddocks.
This may affect requirements for capital goods, such as machinery and equipment. Where under
conventional management the emphasis is on growing the most profitable crop as much as possible,
a shift in rotations under organic management to avoid fertility and pest problems means inclusion of
less profitable enterprises. This affects the mix of total production on the farm, and leads to lower
returns to farming. So in a sense, the decrease in some of the farm costs on organic farms is offset
by a decrease in returns.

Another aspect of input costs on organic farms is the price per unit of input. In general, prices per
unit of input in organic and conventional farming can differ greatly.

Those inputs which are not used by most conventional farmers, for example rock phosphate, may well
cost more per tonne than super phosphate. The higher costs are partly due to the low total volume

74
used in a particular area, which means that economies of scale in the production and marketing don't
apply. For example, transport of the input may be much more costly if backloading of the one truck
with the input is difficult to find. Of course, if and when more farmers use this input, opportunities
for cost saving, for example through sharing transport costs, occur.

This picture of lower input costs on organic farms also emerges overseas. In a publication in which
economic studies on organic farming from all over the world were combined, variable input costs are
reported to be typically 50-60% lower on organic farms with cereals and grain legumes. Fixed costs
(depreciation and fixed labour) on organic farms were generally similar to those on conventional
farms, with the exception of some studies from the United States. In a more recent study in
Denmark, input costs on 38 dairy farms (with extensive cash cropping) were found to be 17 % lower
than on average conventional farms.

Yield comparison
It is often assumed that yields (production per hectare) suffer under organic management as
compared with conventional farming. But the Australian survey did not show any difference in
wheat yields on organic and conventional farms in 1985-86, where they were on average 2.4 t/ha and
2.5 t/ha on organic and conventional farms respectively.

Overseas, the relative yields when farms changed to organic practices where found to directly relate
to the intensity of the conventional farming system. Switching from the intensive conventional
systems of Europe would lead to greater losses than in countries such as Canada, the United States
and Australia, were agriculture is less intensive. Furthermore, relative yields were not the same for
all crops. For example, differences in wheat yields were greater than in yields for crops such as oats
and field beans.

In Australia in particular, where droughts or dry conditions are not uncommon, yield variability
between years is of interest to farmers. In the survey, many of the organic farmers mentioned that in
dry years, their crop seemed to suffer less from lack of water than their neighbours'. Tests carried
out on the limited data available suggest that yields indeed tended to decrease less on organic farms
than on conventional farms in years with dry weather conditions.

In wet years (such as in 1992-93) this trend may well be reversed, as nutrient availability may then
become the limiting factor on organic farms. This was not necessarily the pattern overseas, where
droughts are less common.

Output prices
Many people think that organic produce always fetches a premium. But, in 1995, almost 25% of
organic farmers interviewed who sold grain, mentioned that they did not receive any premium for
their products at all. Less than half mentioned a premium of 10 - 20%, and just under one third
mentioned a premium of between 20 - 50%.

Marketing products as organic does incur costs. In order to be allowed to sell the produce as
'certified organic', a farmer has to pay for the cost of inspection of the farm and certification.
Inspection cost of up to $600 and a cost of 1% of the gross income of organic produce, is typical.

In addition, marketing of organic produce might be more costly as no established markets might be
available. Just over one third of respondents to the HA questionnaire reported higher marketing
costs as compared with conventional farms. Some (7%) mentioned lower costs, while almost 60 %
reported no change in costs.

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Returns to farming
The measures of returns to farming are different for the two management systems (see Table 2).
Organic farms could not be shown to be any more or less profitable than conventional farms in terms
of cash returns. Only the total cash cost can be shown to be statistically lower on organic farms.

But cash measures do not show where the farm is headed over time. A better measure is 'returns to
capital and management', which includes depreciation costs and family labour. At $37 per hectare
operated (3.0 % of capital) for organic farms and $21 (1.2 %) for conventional farms, no significant
difference could be shown. In other words net returns to farming could not be shown to differ
between the two systems.

Table 7.2.2: Financial aspects of organic and conventional farms in south-eastern Australia
($ per hectare operated), 1985-86

Item Organic Conventional Difference Stat. Diff.

Cash Returns and Costs

Total Cash Receipts 181 262 -81 n.s.
Total Cash Costs 76 128 -52 **
Farm Cash
Operating Surplus 105 134 -28 n.s.

Returns to Capital and Management

$ per ha operated 37 21 16 n.s.
% of cap. Invested 3.0 1.2 1.7 n.s.

Adjusted Returns to Capital and Management

$ per ha operated 42 37 5 n.s.
% of cap. Invested 3.4 2.2 1.2 n.s.

Adjusted Return to Capital and Management Assuming Conventional Wheat Prices

$ per ha operated 31 35 -4 n.s.
% of cap. Invested 2.5 2.2 0.3 n.s.

Note: statistically significant difference calculated with the paired Wilcoxon test:
n.s. = not significant at 90 % confidence level
*** = significant at 99 % confidence level
** = significant at 95 % confidence level
* = significant at 90 % confidence level

The return to capital and management, as reported above, includes interest costs and rent for the
farm. In order to be able to compare the financial aspects of farming itself, the cost of interest and
rent should be deducted from the total cost of farming, which gives the 'adjusted' returns. Also those
figures ($42 for organic and $37 for conventional) showed no difference between the groups of
organic and conventional farmers. Whichever way we looked at it, we are not able to conclude that
there is a difference between the two systems in terms of profitability.

Changing relative conventional prices

The production mix on organic farms is often different from that on conventional farms. The
relative profitability of organic and conventional is therefore influenced by relative crop and
livestock prices. For example, when grain prices increase relative to livestock prices as they have
done in the 1990s, organic farming will become less profitable as compared with conventional
farming as studied in the survey.

76
Changing relative prices will, of course, also change the enterprise mix on farms over the longer
term, as witnessed more recently when crop prices increased with low livestock and livestock
product prices. This rotation change is true for both farm types, although organic farms may be
somewhat more limited in their ability to change by their need to prevent pests through this tool.

The cost of conversion

Even if established organic farmers have similar returns to conventional farmers, that does not
necessarily mean that it is easy to get to that stage. There are quite a number of hurdles to overcome.
Work defining the transition period and its impact on cereal-livestock farming in Australia was done
in the early 1990s.

Costs identified as conversion costs can include:

! Gathering information about aspects of production and marketing:
! It may take some time before micro-organisms in the soil essential for organic management
are established. For example, fungi which break down straw may not be present in the first
years after conversion, causing the farmer problems with planting and germination of seed.
This may also be part of the cause of yield reductions in early years. In the survey
mentioned above, four of the 10 farmers did not notice a difference in yield levels in the
early years, compared with what they would have expected under conventional management.
Three farmers thought the yield levels had increased, and three believed they had decreased.
In the 1995 HA study, two thirds of farmers in the category of 'seed, grain and livestock'
reported decreases in yields in the early years (for an average of five years), and one quarter
mentioned an increase (for three years, on average).
! Increased capital outlay could include fencing material, for subdividing large paddocks,
separate farm storage space for organic produce and additional livestock.
! Generally, a farmer in the first two years of organic management can only be certified as
being in conversion. This means that premiums are less certain.

The above-mentioned factors affect returns to farming. In Australia, this has been estimated for a
400 hectare cereal-livestock farm in the Tatiara area in South Australia. The study was based on
assumptions regarding the actual changes in area farmed including crops grown; yields; use of
fertilisers, pesticides, machinery and labour.

In the example, with input and output prices (no premiums) for 1990-91, decreases in gross returns
to farming reached a maximum of $15,000 in year two and went down over the years to $6000 in
year 12. With premiums for organic products, the losses were much lower. A maximum loss in the
second year at $12,000, was changed into a profit after the fourth year. This reached a maximum in
year 12 of $7400. But the results are totally dependent on the assumptions for the particular farm.
As all farms are different, farm specific estimates are required if guidance is needed.

Respondents to the HA survey (1995) in the 'seed, grains and cereals' group were divided on the
issue of how their annual income changed. Just over half said it decreased and the rest mentioned an
increase during the conversion process.

77
7.2 Trial shows concerns at bottom line
by Chris Penfold, University of Adelaide

Organic and bio-dynamic farming in Australia has achieved an ever increasing level of awareness
and acceptance by producers over the last decade.

Some of the main reasons for the adoption of organic farming practices are the detrimental affects of
synthetic chemicals, declining soil fertility, changing consumer sentiment and the general decline in
terms of trade for agricultural production.

But research during the 1980’s did not keep pace with the level of interest in alternative farming
practices. A dearth of knowledge was evident with regard to soil fertility and weed management, the
economic viability and the ecological sustainability of organic farming.

The Roseworthy Trial

To help address this issue, the long-term Biological Farming Systems Comparative Trial was
established at the University of Adelaide’s Roseworthy Campus in 1989 to compare the
sustainability of organic, bio-dynamic, integrated and conventional farming systems.

The trial compliments other long -term programs established in the United States. In Australia, trials
investigating broadacre organic farming practices have also been established at Morowa, Western
Australia and the Rutherglen Research Institute, Victoria.

In the Roseworthy trial, only inputs allowed by the National Association for Sustainable Agriculture
Australia (NASAA) and the Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA) were used on the organic and
bio-dynamic sites. On the integrated site, a combination of minimum tillage/direct drilling was
carried out with municipal sludge used as the principal fertiliser.

Synthetic pesticides were used for weed, insect and disease control, but absolute control was not
essential. The conventional site used ‘best practice’ minimum tillage/direct drilling, synthetic
fertilisers and pesticides as required and rotations which included a pasture phase when necessary to
control herbicide resistant weeds.

Trial results
Under the conditions imposed in this trial, it was found that organic and bio-dynamic farming
produced sustainable productivity at a lower level of output and lower financial reward than the
integrated and conventional systems.

Soil fertility
Soil fertility declined on both the bio-dynamic and organic sites. On the bio-dynamic treatment both
nitrogen and phosphorus declined. Phosphorus levels were maintained under the organic regime but
nitrogen declined.

The non-conventional fertilizers are expensive sources of both nitrogen and phosphorus which made
farmers reluctant to apply them at replacement rates or higher.

Ideally, organic farming requires a ready source of composted manure to supply nutrients as required
by todays farming systems. The use of rock phosphate, as required by the certification standards, is
of limited use, particularly in alkaline soils. The availability of phosphorus is a major limitation to
organic farming productivity in southern Australia.

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Weed control
Weed control was the major constraint to production on the organic and bio-dynamic treatments.
The trial inherited a large seed (ryegrass, wild oats, three cornered jack, (capeweed) and bulb
(soursob) bank which created problems on all treatments.

Through minimal, well-timed tillage, delayed sowing, hay production and high seeding rates, most
weeds were contained at acceptable levels except soursob.
Seeding was delayed to gain some suppression of the weed, resulting in significant yield reductions.

Two major complimentary trials investigating non-chemical alternatives for weed management were
carried out over the past five years of the trial. The capacity for sheep to selectively graze weeds
from within crops was apparent as lupins, faba beans, coriander, chick pea and mustard were all
shown to be unpalatable.

Commercial weeders were also investigated for their capacity to control weeds in emerged crops.
Finger tine weeders were more aggressive than rotary hoe weeders, removing harder to kill weeds
but also causing more crop damage.

Given ideal conditions, which entail a dry soil surface, minimal surface residue and a crop
considerably more advanced and therefore better anchored than the newly emerging weeds, the
finger tine weeder performed very well. Such conditions occur only rarely, making these
implements more an option for summer rainfall districts.

Financial returns
Financial returns, as measured through long term gross margins analysis, were an important measure
of the systems sustainability. A major impediment to the productivity and financial viability of the
alternative systems was the low economic returns available to sheep grazing pastures over the period
of the trial.

Pastures therefore were only used in the early stages of the trial. If, through improved wool prices,
pastures could have become a major component of the rotation mix, it would have been possible to
sustain grain production levels experienced at the start of the trial. This would have only been
possible if soursob had been removed before the initiation of the trial. By using pastures, weeds
would have been more readily managed and soil nutrition would have been maintained through the
use of rock phosphate and biologically fixed nitrogen.

Other important findings were:

• Ryegrass on the conventional and integrated treatments was resistant to ‘fop’ and ‘dim’ group
herbicides after four years, but this was overcome with a change in herbicide group.
• Root colonization by the mycorrhizal fungus was considerably less on medic plants grown in soil
from the conventional treatment than the organic, bio-dynamic and integrated treatments when
measured in 1996. This phenomena is not unexpected, because mycorrhizal infection levels are
negatively influenced by increasing levels of soil phosphorus. The conventional treatment had
125 per cent more available phosphorus than the bio-dynamic treatment.
• The loss in tensile strength of burial cloth was one tool used to measure microbial activity. The
integrated treatment measured less decomposition, indicating less activity.
• The total microbial biomass is another indicator of soil health. This was shown to increase on the
organic treatment with the opening rains in the year following a green manure crop. The
integrated treatment had considerably less microbial carbon throughout the 1996 growing season,
possibly caused by poorer soil structure.
• The organic, bio-dynamic and conventional systems had more water stable soil aggregates than
the integrated system

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• Earthworm populations showed a trend to increase over the period of the trial on the integrated
treatment.

This research trial has shown the main difference in sustainability was the increased productivity and
profitability of the conventional system compared to the organic.
But the experience gained has provided insight into improving organic systems. Ley periods are
essential in organic farming systems, for both weed control and nitrogen fixation. But while the
premiums for organically produced meat and wool remain elusive, pastures can be a financial
liability.

To overcome this, it is suggested that green manures could take a much larger role in the rotation.
Where possible, a lucerne phase would be included in the rotation to improve the water use of the
whole farming system

Nutrient supply, particularly phosphorous, remains a concern for organic farming. The potential of
microbial activators now commercially available, to assist in increasing the availability of soil bound
phosphorus should be investigated.

Organic farming will never be adopted in Australia to the degree that is occurring overseas. There is
however considerable demand in Europe and Asia for organic grains, which is presently
undersupplied.

Concurrently, there are many farmers who still prefer to farm in a low input approach, who like
stock within their operation and who require additional information to improve their farming system.
Research into low input - organic farming systems should be expanded to cater for this substantial
sector of the levy paying farmer population.

Recommendations
While this research has shown that lower production levels and economic returns are to be obtained
from organic systems, it does not preclude organic farming as a legitimate farming system. There
will always be a small proportion of farmers who will prefer to operate without or with reduced
amounts of synthetic chemicals and fertilizers. These should be supported by research and
development in a proportionate amount to their high input neighbours.

The global market for organic foods is currently expanding at 25% per year, providing premiums for
certified product. Product quality is an issue in both organic and conventional systems and the best
pasta assessed in South Australia. in 1997 came from a conventional farmer who incorporates green
manures into his cropping system.

A concern arising from this trial is the adverse impacts on soil structure and microbial activity
evident on the integrated treatment. The reason for this has not yet been determined, but the use of
sewage sludge even at low rates is a possibility. With the use of this product now being advocated at
application rates up to 600% higher than used on this trial, possible deleterious effects of the product
should be properly investigated.

Industry implications
Importantly, this trial has shown well-managed conventional farming systems appear to have no
deleterious impact on the soil and have higher productivity and profitability than alternative organic
and bio-dynamic systems. But this analysis does not include the health risk to farmers associated
with the use of farm chemicals, off-site effects of spray drift or solute pollution of waterways that
may occur.

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The research supports the need for pasture or green manure leys to sustain low input farming
systems. Increased profitability from the livestock industries will greatly assist the farmers in this
category.

7.3 Conversion process under the spotlight

by Viv Burnett, Natural Resources and Environment

Since 1994 a broadacre demonstration site at the Rutherglen Research Institute has been farmed
according to organic standards. The primary aims of the site have been to show farmers how organic
principles can be incorporated into farming practice, and to monitor the production of both crop,
pasture and wool from the 9ha site.

The site is jointly managed by producers, researchers and industry representatives and has been
featured at Rutherglen Field Days, the most recent in 1999 when over 150 producers inspected the
pasture and cereal plots.

Site Management
The demonstration site has operated with a rotation of a cereal crop, followed by annual pasture, then
a green manure consisting of Balansa clover before the next cereal crop. This rotation which ran
from 1994-1997 provided for a cropping intensity of 30% or one crop every three years. Since 1998
the rotation has changed to incorporate a perennial pasture in one section (Table 7.3.1).

Soil fertility has been maintained through the addition of green manures either as Balansa clover or as
annual pasture consisting of ryegrass and subterranean clover. Organic fertiliser was either top-
dressed onto pasture or sown with the cereal crop. Cereal crops have been established using higher
seeding rates to compete with weed growth.

Crop stubbles were mulched to aid decomposition and an average stocking rate of 23 DSE/ha was
used. Weed management has included cultivation before cropping to kill weed growth along with
grazing and slashing in the pasture phase to prevent weed seed set.

Table 7.3.1: Rotation at organic Rutherglen site 1994 - 1999

Year Block A Block B Block C

1994 Annual pasture Balansa clover (GM) Wheat
1995 Annual pasture Balansa clover (GM) Wheat
1996 Balansa clover (GM) Wheat Annual pasture
1997 Wheat Annual pasture Balansa clover (GM)
1998 Perennial pasture Oats Triticale
1999 Perennial pasture Wheat, Oats, Barley Annual pasture (GM)

Results
After six years of organic crop and pasture management the results from this site are not conclusive.
The soil at the site is generally acidic with low organic matter levels, although there is a trend that
suggests organic matter is increasing with organic management (Table 7.3.2). There is some evidence
to suggest that soil phosphorus is being distributed more evenly through the top 20cm of the soil
profile and is not declining under organic management despite the reduced input of soluble
phosphorus (Table 7.3.2).

It has been shown that average cereal yields can be achieved with pre-sowing cultivation and higher
seeding rates. In 1999, when a direct drilling regime was used to establish the crop, yields were
shown to decline even with higher seeding rates (Table 7.3.3).

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A better than average stocking rate has been maintained on the site with an average of 23 DSE/ha.
Wool weights have also been maintained at conventional levels (Table 7.3.4). The number of
earthworms has been higher in the pasture and green manure phases than in the cropping phases of
the rotation (Table 7.3.5).

Table 7.3.2: Soil chemical data for organic 1995 - 1999.

Analysis pH (CaCl2) Avail. P (ppm) Organic Matter (%)

Block Depth 199 199 199 1995 1998 1999 199 199 1999
(cm) 5 8 9* * 5 8 *
A 0-10 4.5 4.7 4.4 14.4 11.0 15.7 2.0 3.6 3.2
10-20 4.1 4.5 4.0 4.0 7.0 13.0 1.6 2.0 2.3
B 0-10 4.4 5.0 4.2 14.4 11.0 15.8 1.5 4.5 3.5
10-20 4.2 4.3 4.2 4.8 11.2 11.6 0.6 3.0 2.6
C 0-10 4.4 4.6 4.1 10.4 11.7 16.8 3.4 3.9 3.5
10-20 4.2 4.2 3.8 1.0 10.6 11.0 1.4 3.3 1.8

* A = Pasture 95, Balansa 96, Wheat 97, Per.pasture 98

B = Balansa 95, Wheat 96, Pasture 97, Oats 98
C = Wheat 95, Pasture 96, Balansa 97, Triticale 98
*1999 Soil testing – post autumn break

Table 7.3.3: Grain production from the cereal phase of the rotation, 1995 - 1999.

Year Paddock Crop Yield Sowin

(t/ha) g Rate
(kg/ha
)
1995 Block A Wheat Katunga 5.3a 100
1996 Block B Wheat Katunga 1.2 150
1997 Block C Wheat Dollarbird 3.4 175
1998 Block C Triticale Maiden 0.3b 170
1999 Block B Oats Quoll 1.3 85
1999 Block B Oats Quoll 2.1 170
1999 Block B Barley Picola 1.0 85
1999 Block B Barley Picola 1.4 170
1999 Block B Wheat Rosella 0.5 85
1999 Block B Wheat Rosella 1.1 170
c
1999 Block B Wheat Silverstar 0.6 85
c
1999 Block B Wheat Silverstar 0.7 170
a
harvested as hay due to high ryegrass infestation (144 roles @110 kg/roll).
b
severely affected by frost.
C
affected by frost

Table 7.3.4: Wool weights and stocking rates

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 Wool component Weight (kg) Stocking rate (DSE/ha)
Belly 0.31 A 18
Pieces 0.21 B 26
Fleece 6.77 C 25
Total 7.29 Average: 23

Table 7.3.5: Earthworm numbers 1995 - 1999.

Year Block Rotation Earthworm Earthworm

Sequence Nos. Mass (fresh)
(#/m2) (g/m2)
1995 A Annual pasture 29 5.5
B Green manure 26 12.7
C Cereal crop 25 12.3
1996 A Green manure 200 44.0
B Cereal crop 19 4.6
C Annual pasture 52 18.2
1999 A Perennial 86 16.0
pasture

What it all means

The conversion phase has demonstrated both positive results and highlighted some of the difficulties
that producers may encounter in organic conversion.

The positive results from this site have been the sustainable production of wool with fleece yields
being maintained at conventional production levels. Production of cereal grain has been achieved in
three years of the six (1996, 1997, 1999). One year was lost to drought (1994) and the 1998 crop was
lost to frost damage. In 1995 the crop was cut for hay.

The cereal yield results achieved from the site demonstrate that the method of crop establishment can
be critical to achieving reasonable yields.

Where pre-sowing cultivation was used and there were not any other extenuating factors, for
example, frost or drought, average wheat yields were obtained (1996, 1997).

In 1999, when a direct drilling regime was implemented, cereal yields were below average due to
excessive weed competition (Table 7.3.3). These results suggest that management of weed
populations should commence at least one year before cropping. The process should include higher
seeding rates and cultivars that have early vigour so that the crop has a competitive advantage over
the weeds.

The soil results from the site suggest that phosphorus may be becoming more evenly distributed
through the soil profile (Table 7.3.2). There could be two reasons for this observation. The practice
of green manuring on the site can work to incorporate organic matter through the top 20cm of soil and
this could result in the presence of available phosphorus throughout the surface 20cm. In addition,
there is some evidence to suggest that the population of earthworms is increasing generally over the
site (Table 5). The incorporation of organic matter and nutrient cycling effect of earthworm activity
may contribute to this result.

A significant problem at the site has been the existence of large populations of redlegged earth mite.
Redlegged earth mite can extensively damage emerging pasture species such as subterranean clover
or oilseeds such as canola.

Organic management of earth mite must address the issue of mite population and this directly relates
to food source and habitat. Green manuring in the spring can reduce earth mite habitat and the food

83
source for the mites can be affected by growing unpalatable species like lupins or chickpeas.
Increasing seeding rates of susceptible species also reduces the amount of damage caused by earth
mites.

Farming organically is not just about stopping the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilisers and
starting to use organic replacements. It involves a much deeper appreciation by the land manager of
the way plant, animal and soil systems are inter-related and how change in one area can affect other
systems.

The organic conversion phase is a learning phase for producers and seeking out knowledge from
practising organic farmers and combining this with regular and close observation of soils, plants and
animals, should provide a sound basis for farming within organic systems.

Figure 7.3.1: Organic Steering Committee at AV Rutherglen (2/7/99),

from left, Brian Nugent (Vicmill), John Docker, Nick Taylor,
Tony Reeckman and Viv Burnett.

Figure 7.3.2: Early emergence of wheat (Rosella) sown by direct drilling

at the Organic Demonstration Site at AV Rutherglen (8/6/99).

84
 Figure 7.3.3: Rutherglen Field Day
(8/9/99) with Viv Burnett speaking to a group of interested producers at the Demonstration Site.

Figure 7.3.4: Spreading worm casts (3/6/99) on perennial pasture block

at the Organic Demonstration Site at AV Rutherglen

85
8. Appendices
8.1 Wholesalers and Retailers of Organic Produce
Australia
Cleavers Meats
Website: www.GoOrganic.com.au Shop 6
The Grove Arcade
The Green Line – Information, Marketing, 174 Military Rd
Online Ordering and Home Delivery NEUTRAL BAY NSW
Bio-Dynamic and Organic Ph: (02) 9953 2129
Rosemary Long
PO Box 1010 D & L Organics
HARTWELL VIC 3125 Megalong St
Ph: (03) 9889 2299 KATOOMBA NSW
Fax: (03) 9889 1399 Ph: (02) 4782 4184
Email: [email protected] Fax: (02) 4782 9168
Website: www.thegreenline.com.au
Dewford’s Alternative
New South Wales/ ACT 10A Loftus St
BOWRAL NSW 2576
Eco Farms Ph: (02) 4862 4848
Nick Maill Fax: (02) 4862 4868
PO Box 71
FLEMINGTON MARKET NSW 2129 Dynamic Organics of Mosman
Ph: (02) 9764 2833 Ph: (02) 9969 3332
Fax: (02) 9746 6174 Fax: (02) 9969 3352
Email: [email protected] Website: www.dynamicorganics.com

World Whole Foods Back To Eden

2/35-43 Essington St Josef Leescot
MITCHELL ACT 2911 Unit 2, 177 Arthur St
Ph: 1300 653 663 HOMEBUSH WEST NSW 2140
Fax: (02) 6242 4764 Ph: (02) 9746 0070
Email: [email protected] Fax: (02) 9746 0040
Website: www.worldwholefoods.com Mobile: 0428114707 or 0411 414707
Email: [email protected]
Annabel’s Natural Food Store
18 Willoughby Rd Prime Quality Meats and David Jones
CROWS NEST NSW 2065 Craig Cook
Ph: (02) 9906 6099 Suit 1 Level 1 Shaw House
Website: www.annabels.com.au 49-51 York Street
SYDNEY NSW 2000
Avalon Organics Ph: (02) 9299 7054
17 Avalon Parade Fax: (02) 9299 7048
AVALON NSW 2107
Ph: (02) 9918 3387 Mary’s Organic Home Delivery
Fax: (02) 9973 4499 (organic meat wholesaler)
Ken Taylor
Bountiful Harvest Organics 586 Darling St
Unit 4 ROZELLE NSW 2039
328 Windsor St Ph: (02) 9555 7078
RICHMOND NSW 2753 Fax: (02) 95557079
Ph: (02) 4588 5373 Email: [email protected]
Fax: (02) 4588 5377

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More Health Organics The Beach Butchery
Ph/Fax: (02) 9764 2805 Malcolm Hay
Email: [email protected] 14 Hall St
BONDI BEACH NSW 2026
Nourish Ph: (02) 9130 3236
Shop 3C Fax: (02) 9130 4683
45 Gladesville Rd
HUNTERS HILL NSW 2110 Earth Food Store
Ph/Fax: (02) 9879 3353 81 Gould St
BONDI BEACH NSW
One Earth Foods Ph: (02) 9365 5098
Shop 3, 47-49 Elanora Rd
ELANORA HEIGHTS NSW 2101 Eco – Nature
Ph: (02) 9970 6113 Shop 17A, 15-17 Havelock Ave
COOGEE NSW 2034
Organic Action Home Delivery Service Ph: (02) 9664 6085
Ph: (02) 9746 3105 Fax: (02) 9337 3369
Mobile: 0415 286116
Eves Garden Organic Delivery
Russell’s Natural Food Markets Ph: (02) 9349 3311
53-55 Glebe Point Rd Fax: (02) 9349 3411
GLEBE NSW 2037 Website: www.evesgarden.com.au
Ph: (02) 9552 4055
Fax: (02) 9552 4058 Lettuce Deliver Organics
Ph: (02) 9763 7337
Simply Organic Natural Health Foods Fax: (02) 9763 7338
Woolworths complex Email: [email protected]
58 President Ave
CARINGBAH NSW Macro Wholefoods
Ph/Fax: (02) 9524 0608 31-35 Oxford St
BONDI JUNCTION NSW
Summer Hill Organic Fruit Market Ph: (02) 9389 7611
Cnr Old Canterbury Rd and Carrington St Or
SUMMER HILL NSW 2130 170 King St
Ph/Fax: (02) 9799 3258 NEWTOWN NSW
Ph: (02) 9550 5422
The Health Emporium
263-265 Bondi Rd AC Butchery Pty Ltd
BONDI NSW 2026 Shop 174 Marion St
Ph: (02) 9365 6008 LEICHHARDT NSW 2040
Fax: (02) 9300 9330 Ph: (02) 9560 5278
Website: www.healthemporium.com.au Fax: (02) 9569 8687

Spiral Foods Riverina Organic Farmers Organisation

Jim Wilson Bob Congdon
PO Box 157 Woodstock
Annandale NSW 2038 BERRIGAN NSW 2712
Ph: (02) 9571 9611 Ph/Fax: (02) 6035 9425
Fax: (02) 9571 9208
Email: [email protected] Ron Ward – Bio-Dynamic Meat
‘Bellevue’
Melbourne Office: Olympic Way
Ph: (03) 9429 8655 COOTAMUNDRA NSW 2590
Fax: (03) 9427 9207 Ph: (02) 6942 3634

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Demeter Farm Mill Email: [email protected]
David Williams
‘Demeter’ Nutrisoy Organic Tofu and Tempeh
BREEZA NSW 2381 15 Hannon St
Ph: (02) 6744 5754 BOTANY NSW
Fax: (02) 6744 5780 Ph: (02) 9316 5171
Email: [email protected] Fax: (02) 9700 1121

Wholegrain Milling Co Pty Ltd Pioneer Organic Tea Tree Oil

PO Box 347 51 Ocean Dr
GUNNEDAH NSW 2380 EVANS HEAD NSW 2473
Ph/Fax: (02) 6742 3939 Ph: (02) 6682 4200
Fax: (02) 6682 5556
Wild Bean Coffee
Ph: (02) 9438 2761 So Natural Foods Australia
Fax: (02) 9438 4577 Ph: (02) 9526 2555
Email: [email protected] Fax: (02) 9525 5406
Website: www.sonatural.com.au
Santos Trading P/L
Howard Wilkinson Stassen Organic Tea
4 Ti-Tree Place Ph: (02) 9318 0824
BYRON BAY NSW 2481 Fax: (02) 9310 2746
Ph: (02) 6685 5685
Fax: (02) 6685 5686 The Young Roller Flour Mill Co.
Email: [email protected] 133 Lovell ST
YOUNG NSW 2594
Nature’s Fare (Lotus Organic) Ph: (02) 6382 1988
Neville Brown Fax: (02) 6382 3536
PO Box 170
MILPERRA NSW 2214 Tip Top Organic Plain and Self Raising
Ph: (02) 9792 7522 Flour
Fax: (02) 9792 7451 1 Braidwood St
Email: [email protected] ENFIELD NSW 2136
Ph: 1800 649 494
Heaven And Earth Systems Pty Ltd
Catriona Macmillan Total Package
PO Box 3335 Ph: (02) 9938 5166
TAMARAMA NSW 2026 Fax: (02) 9938 4786
Ph/Fax: (02) 9365 7668 Email: [email protected]
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.universalorganics.com.au Trade Winds Tea and Coffee Pty Ltd
3/23-25 Fitzpatrick St
Green Grove Organics REVESBY NSW 2212
PO Box 11 Ph: (02) 9792 1094
ARDLETHAN NSW 2665 Fax: (02) 9792 1086
Ph: (02) 6924 5374
Fax: (02) 6924 2999

Heavenly Organic
Ph/Fax: (02) 6681 6555
Email: [email protected]
Victoria
Liquid Organics Pty Ltd
Ph: (02) 9516 1534 Nature First Organic and Lotus Organic.
Fax: (02) 9516 1734 The latter is a health food stores only range.

88
Contact: Greg Barfoot. Ph: 1300 303 601
PO Box 139 Fax: 1300 303 602
134 Argus Street Email: [email protected]
CHELTENHAM VIC 3192
Ph: (03) 9584 2245 Melrose Health Supplies
Fax: (03) 9584 5821 (Specialises in oilseeds)
Email: [email protected] Geoff Steinicke
4 Redland Drive
Kadac Pty Ltd – MITCHAM VIC 3132
Distributing over 600 organic products since Ph: (03) 9874 7800
1973. Fax: (03) 9874 7366
Roger Pitt, Director E-mail: [email protected]
PO Box 139
134 Argus Street Biodynamic Marketing Co.
CHELTENHAM VIC 3192 C/o Post Office
Ph: (03) 9583 1522 POWELLTOWN VIC 3797
Fax: (03) 9584 5821 Ph: (03) 5966 7370
Email: [email protected] Fax: (03) 5966 7339

Hakea & Gippsland Organic Range Pureharvest

Ph: (03) 9484 7401 15 Ardena Court
EAST BENTLEIGH VIC 3165
Uncle Tobys Vita Brits Ph: (03) 9579 3422
Reply Paid 63943 Fax: (03) 9579 3312
Barkly St
WAHGUNYAH VIC 3687 Timboon Farmhouse Cheese
Ph: 1800 025 768 Ph: (03) 5598 3387
Website: www.uncletobys.com.au Fax: (03) 5598 3504
Email: [email protected]
Stoney Creek Oil Products Pty Ltd
PO Box 37 South Australia
TALBOT VIC 3371
Ph: (03) 5463 2340 The Organic Market
Fax: (03) 5463 2553 Shop 5
Email: [email protected] Druids Avenue
Website: www.stoneycreekoil.com.au STIRLING SA 5153
Ph/Fax: (08) 8339 4835
Organic Wholesalers Pty Ltd Email: [email protected]
John Williams
Stores 386-389 Chiquita Brands Adelaide Pty/ Ltd.
542 Footscray Road Shane Collard
FOOTSCRAY VIC 3011 Store 5
Ph: (03) 9687 6388 Adelaide Produce Market
Fax: (03) 9689 4742 Diagonal Rd
Email: [email protected] POORAKA SA 5095
Ph: (08) 8349 5044
Earth’s Best Baby Food Fax: (08) 8349 5274
Locked Bag 57 Email: [email protected]
MALVERN VIC 3144
Ph: 1800 633 333 Four Leaf
Ph: (08) 8528 5330
Organic Connection Australia Fax: (08) 8528 5385
Organic Exports and Marketing Email: [email protected]
PO Box 573
KEW VIC 3101 Queensland

89
 Tasmania
United Organics
Organic retailers Specialist BD & Organic Wholesalers
PO Box 117 Rick & Jo Eastern
BRISBANE MARKETS Queensland 4106 PO Box 12
Ph: (07) 3278 5997 SHEFFIELD TASMANIA 7306
Fax (07) 3278 5998 Ph/fax: (03) 6491 1439
Email: [email protected]
Anglo Paradise Gold Coffee Website: www.sheffield.tco.asn.au/bio/
6/ 8 Finsbury St
NEWMARKET QLD 4051
Ph: (07) 3356 6288 Further information about organic or bio-
Fax: (07) 3356 9199 dynamic retailers and wholesalers can be
obtained from the certifying agencies and
Mighty Bean Soyfoods Organic Soy contacts listed in Chapter 5 of this manual.
Tempeh
Ph: (07) 5446 7342
Fax: (07) 5472 7026
Email: [email protected]

Naked Foods (Aust) Pty Ltd

PO box 991
BEENLEIGH QLD 4207
PH: (07) 3805 4499
Fax: (07) 3805 4622

Soland Health Food

Ph: (07) 3353 3366
Fax: (07) 3353 3331
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.soland.com.au

90
9. References - Further reading
National Standard for Organic and Bio- South Australia:
Dynamic Produce OPAC 1998
(Second Ed). Can be bought through Chris Penfold
Australian Government Bookshops by University of Adelaide
quoting Ph: (08) 8303 7735
ISBN 0-646-35460-4. Fax: (08) 8303 7979
Email: [email protected]
IFOAM 1998. Basic Standards for Organic
Production and Processing. Contact the Tasmania:
Manager AQIS Food Programs ph: (02) 6272
4783, fax (02) 6272 3682, e-mail David O'Donnell
[email protected] or NASSA. DPIWE
Ph: (03) 6421 4047
Standards from the respective AQIS
accredited certification agencies. (See Victoria:
chapter 5)
Viv Burnett
Acres Australia, the national newspaper of DNRE,
sustainable agriculture. Ph: (02) 6030 4500
Fax: (02) 60304600
Hassall & Associates (1995), The Domestic Email [email protected]
Market for Australian Organic Produce. An
Update. Prepared for Rural Industries and Ross Clarke
Development Corporation. RIRDC ph(02) Ph: (03) 9210 9387
6272 4539 fax: (02) 6272 5877 email: Fax: (03) 9800 3521
[email protected] Website: Email [email protected]
www.rirdc.gov.au
Sue Titcumb
Government contacts NRE Ballarat
Ph: (03) 5333 6933
New South Wales:
Western Australia:
Robyn Neeson
Alternative Farming Systems Officer Garry Parlevliet
NSW Agriculture, Agriculture WA
Ph: (02) 6951 2735 Senior Development officer
Fax: (02) 969557580 Ph: (08) 9368 3219
Email: Fax (08) 9368 3946
[email protected] Email: [email protected]

Els Wynen
Ph: (02) 62583561
Fax: (02)62583812.
Email: [email protected]

Queensland:

Peter Deuter
Ph: (07) 5466 2222

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1