Alloys Steels & Cast Irons

Prof. Dr. Adel Abd El-Mageed

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Often a materials problem is really one of selecting the material that has the right
combination of characteristics for a specific application. Therefore, the people who are
involved in the decision making should have some knowledge of the available options.
The first portion of this chapter provides an abbreviated overview of some of the
commercial alloys and their general properties and limitations. Materials selection
decisions may also be influenced by the ease with which metal alloys may be formed or
manufactured into useful components. Alloy properties are altered by fabrication
processes, and, in addition, further property alterations may be induced by the
employment of appropriate heat treatments.
Types of Metal Alloys
Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes—ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous alloys,
those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steels and cast irons. These alloys and their characteristics are
the first topics of discussion of this section. The nonferrous ones—all alloys that are not iron based.

11.2 FERROUS ALLOYS

Ferrous alloys—those in which iron is the prime constituent—are produced in larger quantities than any other metal
type. They are especially important as engineering construction materials. Their widespread use is accounted for by
three factors: (1) iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the Earth’s crust; (2) iron and steel
alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques; and (3)
ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a wide range of mechanical and physical
properties. The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion.
This section discusses compositions, microstructures, and properties of a number of different classes of steels and cast
irons. A taxonomic classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys is presented in Figure 11.1.

Steels
Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying elements; there are
thousands of alloy steels that have different compositions and/ or heat treatments.
Figure 11.1 Classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys.
The mechanical properties are sensitive to the Carbon content, which is normally less than 1.0 wt%. Some of the
more common steels are classified according to carbon concentration into low-, medium-, and high-carbon types.
Subclasses also exist within each group according to the concentration of other alloying elements.

Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese. For
alloy steels, more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations.

Low-Carbon Steels
Of the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall within the low carbon classification. These
generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are unresponsive to heat treatments, therefore strengthening is
accomplished by cold work. Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents (see Iron-Iron Carbide Phase
Diagram).

As a consequence, these alloys are (a) relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in
addition, they are (b) machinable, (c) wieldable, and, of all steels, are (d) the least expensive to produce. Typical
applications include automobile body components, structural shapes (e.g., I-beams, channel and angle iron), and
sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans. Tables
11.1a and 11.1b present the compositions and mechanical properties of several plain low carbon steels. They typically
have a yield strength of 275 MPa, tensile strengths between 415 and 550 MPa, and a ductility of 25%EL.
Another group of low-carbon alloys are the high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels.

They contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in combined concentrations
as high as 10 wt%, and they possess higher strengths than the plain low-carbon steels.

Most may be strengthened by heat treatment, giving tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa; in addition, they are
ductile, formable, and machinable. Several are listed in Tables 11.1a and 11.1b.

In normal atmospheres, the HSLA steels are more resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon steels, which they have
replaced in many applications where structural strength is critical (e.g., bridges, towers, support columns in high-rise
buildings, pressure vessels).
Table 11.1a Compositions of Four Plain Low Carbon Steels and Three High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels
Table 11.1b Mechanical
Characteristics of Hot-Rolled Steel
and Typical Applications for Various
Plain Low Carbon and High Strength,
Low-Alloy Steels
Medium-Carbon Steels

The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%. These alloys may be
heat-treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties. They are
most often utilized in the tempered condition, having microstructures of tempered martensitic.

The plain medium-carbon steels have (a) low hardenability and can be successfully heat-treated only in very thin
sections and with very rapid quenching rates. (b) Additions of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the
capacity of these alloys to be heat-treated, giving rise to a variety of strength–ductility combinations. These heat-
treated alloys are stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility and toughness.

Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other machine parts and high-strength
structural components calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance, and toughness.
The compositions of several of these alloyed medium-carbon steels are presented in Table 11.2a. Some comment is in
order regarding the designation schemes that are also included. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), the
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) are responsible
for the classification and specification of steels as well as other alloys.

The AISI/SAE designation for these steels is a four-digit number: the first two digits indicate the alloy content; the
last two digits give the carbon concentration. For plain carbon steels, the first two digits are 1 and 0; alloy steels are
designated by other initial two digit combinations (e.g., 13, 41, 43). The third and fourth digits represent the weight
percent carbon multiplied by 100. For example, a 1060 steel is a plain carbon steel containing 0.60 wt% C. A unified
numbering system (UNS) is used for uniformly indexing both ferrous and nonferrous alloys. Each UNS number
consists of a single-letter prefix followed by a five-digit number. The letter is indicative of the family of metals to
which an alloy belongs. The UNS designation for these alloys begins with a G, followed by the AISI/SAE number;
the fifth digit is a zero. Table 11.2b contains the mechanical characteristics and typical applications of several of these
steels, which have been quenched and tempered.
Table 11.2a AISI/SAE and UNS
Designation Systems and Composition
Ranges for Plain Carbon Steel and
Various Low-Alloy Steels
High-Carbon Steels

The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%, are the (a) hardest, (b)
strongest, and yet (c) least ductile of the carbon steels. They are almost always used in a hardened and tempered
condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge. The tool and die
steels are high carbon alloys, usually containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum. These alloying
elements combine with carbon to form very hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds (e.g.,Cromium Carbide,
Cr3C6 , Vanidium Carbid, V4C3, and Tungetun Carbide, WC).

Some tool steel compositions and their applications are listed in Table 11.3. These steels are used as cutting tools
and dies for forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength
wire.
Stainless Steels
The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments, especially
the ambient atmosphere.

Stainless steel predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is

required. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions.

Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase constituent of the
microstructure, (a) martensitic, (b) ferritic, or (c) austenitic. Table 11.4 lists several stainless steels by
class, along with composition, typical mechanical properties, and applications. A wide range of
mechanical properties combined with excellent resistance to corrosion make stainless steels very
versatile in their applicability.

Martensitic stainless steels are capable of being heat-treated in such a way that martensite is the prime
micro constituent. Additions of alloying elements in significant concentrations produce dramatic
alterations in the iron–iron carbide phase diagram. For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite
phase field is extended to room temperature. Ferritic stainless steels are composed of the ferrite (BCC)
phase. Austenitic and ferritic stainless steels are hardened and strengthened by cold work because they
are not heat-treatable. The austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant because of the
high chromium contents and also the nickel additions; they are produced in the largest quantities. Both
martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; the austenitic stainless are not.
Some stainless steels are frequently used at elevated temperatures and in severe environments because they resist
oxidation and maintain their mechanical integrity under such conditions; the upper temperature limit in oxidizing
atmospheres is about 1000C.

Equipment employing these steels includes gas turbines, high-temperature steam boilers, heat-treating furnaces,
aircraft, missiles, and nuclear power generating units.

Cast Irons
Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%; in practice, however, most
cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and, in addition, other alloying elements. A reexamination of the iron–
iron carbide phase diagram reveals that alloys within this composition range become completely liquid at
temperatures between approximately 1150C and 1300C, which is considerably lower than for steels. Thus, they are
easily melted and amenable to casting. Furthermore, some cast irons are very brittle, and casting is the most
convenient fabrication technique.
Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound, and under some circumstances it can be made to dissociate or
decompose to form ferrite and graphite, according to the reaction
The tendency of cementite to form graphite is regulated by the composition and rate of cooling.

Graphite formation is promoted by the presence of silicon in concentrations greater than about 1 wt%. Also, slower
cooling rates during solidification favor graphitization (the formation of graphite). For most cast irons, the carbon
exists as graphite, and both microstructure and mechanical behavior depend on composition and heat treatment.
The most common cast iron types are gray, nodular, white, malleable, and compacted graphite.

Gray Cast Iron

The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%,
respectively. For most of these cast irons, the graphite exists in the form of flakes (similar to corn flakes), which
are normally surrounded by an ferrite or pearlite matrix; the microstructure of a typical gray iron is shown in
Figure 11.3a. Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured surface takes on a gray appearance, hence its name.
Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension as a consequence of its microstructure; the
tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and pointed and may serve as points of stress concentration when an external
tensile stress is applied. Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive loads. Typical mechanical
properties and compositions of several common gray cast irons are listed in Table11.5.
Gray cast irons have some desirable characteristics and are used extensively. They are very effective in damping
vibrational energy; this is represented in Figure 11.4, which compares the relative damping capacities of steel and
gray iron. Base structures for machines and heavy equipment that are exposed to vibrations are frequently
constructed of this material. In addition, gray cast irons exhibit a high resistance to wear.

Furthermore, in the molten state they have a high fluidity at casting temperature, which permits casting pieces that
have intricate shapes; also, casting shrinkage is low. Finally, and perhaps most important, gray cast irons are
among the least expensive of all metallic materials.

Gray cast irons having microstructures different from that shown in Figure 11.3a may be generated by adjusting
composition and/or using an appropriate treatment. For example, lowering the silicon content or increasing the
cooling rate may prevent the complete decomposition of cementite to form graphite (Equation 11.1). Under these
circumstances the microstructure consists of graphite flakes embedded in a pearlite matrix.
Figure 11.3 Optical photomicrographs of various cast irons. (a) Gray cast iron: the dark
graphite flakes are embedded in an ferrite matrix. 500 X. (b) Nodular (ductile) cast iron: the
dark graphite nodules are surrounded by an ferrite matrix. 200 X. (c) White cast iron: the
light cementite regions are surrounded by pearlite, which has the ferrite– cementite layered
structure. 400 X. (d) Malleable cast iron: dark graphite rosettes (tempercarbon) in an ferrite
matrix. 150 X.

Figure 11.4 Comparison of the relative

vibrational damping capacities of (a) steel
and (b) gray cast iron.
Ductile (or Nodular) Cast Iron
Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the gray iron before casting produces a distinctly
different microstructure and set of mechanical properties. Graphite still forms, but as nodules or sphere like
particles instead of flakes.

The resulting alloy is called ductile or nodular cast iron, and a typical microstructure is shown in Figure 11.3b.
Nodular cat iron is stronger and much more ductile than gray cast iron, as a comparison of their mechanical
properties in Table 11.5 shows. In fact, ductile iron has mechanical characteristics approaching those of steel. For
example, ferritic ductile irons have tensile strengths between 380 and 480 MPa and ductility from 10% to 20%,
percentage elongation. Typical applications for this material include valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and
other automotive and machine components.

White Cast Iron and Malleable Cast Iron

For low-silicon cast irons (containing less than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most of the carbon exists as
cementite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy has a white appearance, and thus it is termed white
cast iron.

An optical photomicrograph showing the microstructure of white iron is presented in Figure 11.3c. As a
consequence of large amounts of the cementite phase, white iron is extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point
of being virtually unmachinable.
Its use is limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant surface, without a high degree of
ductility, for example, as rollers in rolling mills.

Generally, white iron is used as an intermediary in the production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron.

Heating white cast iron at temperatures between 800C and 900C for a prolonged time period and in a neutral
atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite, which exists in the
form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix, depending on cooling rate.

A photomicrograph of a ferritic malleable iron is presented in Figure 11.3d. The microstructure is similar to that of
nodular iron (Figure 11.3b), which accounts for relatively high strength and appreciable ductility or malleability.
Some typical mechanical characteristics are also listed in Table 11.5.

Representative applications include connecting rods, transmission gears, and differential cases for the automotive
industry, and also flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts for railroad, marine, and other heavy-duty services. Gray
and ductile cast irons are produced in approximately the same amounts; however, white and malleable cast irons are
produced in smaller quantities.
Austenitic Stainless Steels
This group contains at least 16% chromium and 6% nickel (the basic grade 304 is referred to as 18/8) and range through to
the high alloy or "super austenitic" such as 904L and 6% molybdenum grades. Additional elements can be added such as
molybdenum, titanium or copper, to modify or improve their properties, making them suitable for many critical applications
involving high temperature as well as corrosion resistance. This group of steels is also suitable for cryogenic applications
because the effect of the nickel content in making the steel austenitic avoids the problems of brittleness at low
temperatures, which is a characteristic of other types of steel.

Ferritic Stainless Steels

These are plain chromium (10.5 to 18%) grades such as Grade 430 and 409. Their moderate corrosion resistance and poor
fabrication properties are improved in the higher alloyed grades such as Grades 434 and 444 and in the proprietary grade
3CR12.
ferritic stainless steels are the next most widely used type of stainless steel after austenitic stainless steel.
They contain very low levels of carbon, high amounts of chromium but little or no nickel, and they are known
for their ductility, corrosion-resistance and magnetic properties. They have a body-centred cubic grain
structure, and they cannot be hardened through heat treatment, but they can be cold worked and softened
through annealing.
Ferritic stainless steels are classified into the 400 series, which are further classified into five groups
depending on their composition and application.
Martensitic Stainless Steels
Martensitic stainless steels are also based on the addition of chromium as the major alloying element but with a higher
carbon and generally lower chromium content (e.g. 12% in Grade 410 and 416) than the ferritic types; Grade 431 has a
chromium content of about 16%, but the microstructure is still martensite despite this high chromium level because this
grade also contains 2% nickel.