Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals: Intended Learning Outcomes

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M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G
7
Chapter
Ferrous and Non- ferrous Metals

Intended Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Identify the different types of ferrous and non-ferrous metals

2. Describe the properties and application of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
3. Name and describe four forming operations that are used to shape metal alloys.
4. State the purposes of and describe procedures for the following heat treatments: process
annealing, stress relief annealing, normalizing, full annealing, and spheroidizing.
This chapter primarily presents the different types of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. This
chapter provides the overview of some of the commercial alloys and their general properties and
limitations. Materials selection decisions may also be influenced by the ease with which metal alloys
may be formed or manufactured into useful components. Alloy properties can be altered by fabrication
processes, and, in addition, further property alterations may be induced by the employment of
appropriate heat treatments. This chapter also discussed the details of some of these treatments,
including annealing procedures, the heat treating of steels, and precipitation hardening.
Metal
A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has

good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable, that is, they can be
hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking as well
as fusible (able to be fused or melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire).
Astrophysicists use the term "metal" to collectively describe all elements other
than hydrogen and helium. Thus, the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made
up of chemical elements other than hydrogen and helium.
Types of Metal Alloys
Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes: ferrous and
nonferrous. Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steels and cast
irons while the nonferrous are alloys that are not iron based.
Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 1

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FERROUS ALLOYS
Ferrous alloys are those of which iron is the prime constituent. They are produced in larger
quantities than any other metal type. They are especially important as engineering construction
materials. Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:
(1) iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earth’s crust;
(2) metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction,
refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques; and
(3) ferrous alloys are extremely versatile; in that they may be tailored to have a wide range
of mechanical and physical properties.
The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion. A
taxonomic classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys

(Callister, 2014)
Steels
Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other
alloying elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat
treatments. The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally
less than 1.0 wt.%. Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon

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concentration namely: low, medium, and high-carbon types. Subclasses also exist within each
group according to the concentration of other alloying elements. Plain carbon steels contain only
residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese. For alloy steels,
more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations.
Low-carbon steels
Low-carbon steels contain less than 0.25%C. it is not very responsive to heat treatments
and strengthening is accomplished by cold work. It is soft, weak, tough, ductile, machinable,
weldable and not expensive. They typically have a yield strength of 275 MPa (40,000 psi), tensile
strengths between 415 and 550 MPa (60,000 and 80,000 psi), and a ductility of 25%EL.Typical
applications include automobile body components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle
iron), and sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.
The composition of low carbon steels can be seen in Table 1.0. It can also be seen that the
composition of steel is mainly carbon ang manganese.
Table 1.0
Composition of Five Plain Low-carbon steels and Three High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels
Source: Callister (2014)
In Table 2.0 shows the mechanical properties of hot-rolled material and typical
applications for various plain low-carbon and high strength low alloy steels. The mechanical
properties include the tensile strength, yield strength and ductility.

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Table 2.0
Mechanical Characteristics of Hot-Rolled Material and Typical Applications for Various
Plain Low-Carbon and High-Strength, Low-Alloys Steels
Source: Callister (2014)
High-strength, Low-alloy (HSLA) steels
It contains alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in

combined concentrations of >10 wt%. It is stronger than plain low-C steels. Most may be
strengthened by heat treatment, giving tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa (70,000 psi). They
are ductile, formable and machinable. In normal atmospheres, the HSLA steels are more resistant
to corrosion than the plain carbon steels
Medium-Carbon Steels
Medium-carbon steels contain 0.25-0.60 wt.% of carbon. It is stronger than low-carbon

steels but less ductile and less tough. These alloys may be heat-treated by austenitizing,
quenching, and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties. It can only be heat treated
in very thin sections and with very rapid quenching rates but with the addition of chromium, nickel,
and molybdenum improve the capacity of these alloys to be heat-treated. Applications include
railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other machine parts and high-strength
structural components calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance, and toughness.
High-Carbon Steels
The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%. It is
the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They are almost always used in
a hardened and tempered condition, wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge.
The tool and die steels are high-carbon alloys, usually containing chromium, vanadium,
tungsten, and molybdenum. These alloying elements combine with carbon to form very hard and
wear-resistant carbide compounds (e.g., Cr23C6, V4C3, and WC). These steels are used as

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cutting tools and dies for forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw
blades, springs, and high-strength wire. Some tool steel compositions and their applications are
listed in Table 3.0
Table 3.0
Designation, Composition, and Application of Six Tool Steels
Source: Callister, 2014
Stainless steels
The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments,
especially the ambient atmosphere. Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a
concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by
nickel and molybdenum additions.
Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase
constituent of the microstructure—martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic.
1. Martensitic stainless steels are capable of being heat treated in such a way that martensite
is the prime microconstituent. Additions of alloying elements in significant concentrations produce
dramatic alterations in the iron–iron carbide phase diagram.
2. For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite (or ɣ) phase field is extended to room
temperature. The austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant because of the high
chromium contents and also the nickel additions; and they are produced in the largest quantities.
3. Ferritic stainless steels are composed of the α-ferrite (BCC) phase. Austenitic and ferritic
stainless steels are hardened and strengthened by cold work because they are not heat treatable.
Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; the austenitic stainlesses are not.
Equipment employing these steels includes gas turbines, high-temperature steam boilers,
heat-treating furnaces, aircraft, missiles, and nuclear power generating units. Several stainless
steels by class, along with composition, typical mechanical properties, and applications can be
seen in Table 4.0

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Table 4.0
Designation, Composition, Mechanical Properties, and Typical Application for Austenitic,
Ferritic, Martensitic, and Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels
Cast Irons
Theoretically, it contains > 2.14 wt.% of carbon. Usually contains between 3.0-4.5 wt.% C,
hence it is very brittle. They become liquid easily between 1150 0C and 1300 0C. They are easily
melted and amenable to casting. It is Inexpensive, machinable and wear resistant. The most
common cast iron types are gray, nodular, white, malleable, and compacted graphite
Gray Iron
The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0
and 3.0 wt%, respectively. Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak and brittle in tension.
Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive loads. They are very effective in
damping vibrational energy. In addition, gray irons exhibit a high resistance to wear and the
least expensive of all metallic materials
Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the gray iron before casting
produces a distinctly different microstructure and set of mechanical properties. Graphite still
forms, but as nodules or sphere-like particles instead of flakes. Castings are stronger and much
more ductile than gray iron. It has mechanical characteristics approaching those of steel.

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Typical applications for this material include valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and
other automotive and machine components
White Iron
For low-silicon cast irons (containing less than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates, most
of the carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy has a white
appearance, and thus it is termed white cast iron.Thick sections may have only a surface layer
of white iron that was “chilled” during the casting process; gray iron forms at interior regions,
which cool more slowly. As a consequence of large amounts of the cementite phase, white iron
is extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point of being virtually unmachinable. Its use is
limited to applications that necessitate a very hard and wear-resistant surface, without a high
degree of ductility—for example, as rollers in rolling mills
Malleable Iron
Heating white iron at temperatures between 800 and 900 oC for a prolonged time period
and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition of the cementite,
forming graphite, which exists in the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or
pearlite matrix, depending on cooling rate. The microstructure is similar to that for nodular iron
which accounts for relatively high strength and appreciable ductility or malleability.
Representative applications include connecting rods, transmission gears, and differential cases
for the automotive industry, and also flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts for railroad, marine,
and other heavy-duty services.
Compacted Graphite Iron
A relatively recent addition to the family of cast irons. As with gray, ductile, and malleable
irons, carbon exists as graphite, which formation is promoted by the presence of silicon. Silicon
content ranges between 1.7 and 3.0 wt%, whereas carbon concentration is normally between
3.1 and 4.0 wt%. Microstructurally, the graphite in CGI alloys has a worm-like (or vermicular)
shape. Magnesium and/or cerium is also added, but concentrations are lower than for ductile
iron. An increase in degree of nodularity of the graphite particles leads to enhancements of both
strength and ductility. Tensile and yield strengths for compacted graphite irons are comparable
to values for ductile and malleable irons, yet are greater than those observed for the higher
strength gray irons. In addition, ductilities for CGIs are intermediate between values for gray
and ductile irons; also, moduli of elasticity range between 140 and 165 GPa ( and psi).
Compared to the other cast iron types, desirable characteristics of CGIs include the
following: higher thermal conductivity, better resistance to thermal shock (i.e., fracture resulting
from rapid temperature changes) and lower oxidation at elevated temperatures. Compacted
graphite irons are now being used in a number of important applications—these include: diesel
engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox housings, brake discs for high-speed trains, and
flywheels.
NONFERROUS ALLOYS
Non-ferrous alloys are metals that do not have any iron in them at all. It is not attracted to
the magnet and do not rust easily when exposed to moisture.

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Copper and Its Alloys

It is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient
atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals. Most copper alloys cannot be hardened
or strengthened by heat-treating procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid-solution
alloying must be utilized to improve these mechanical properties. The most common copper alloys
are the brasses for which zinc, as a substitutional impurity, is the predominant alloying element.
The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin, aluminum, silicon,
and nickel. The most common heat-treatable copper alloys are the beryllium coppers. They
possess a remarkable combination of properties: tensile strengths as high as 1400 MPa (200,000
psi), excellent electrical and corrosion properties, and wear resistance when properly lubricated;
they may be cast, hot worked, or cold worked. Applications include jet aircraft landing gear
bearings and bushings, springs, and surgical and dental instruments. Table 5.0 shows the
composition, mechanical properties and typical application of some copper alloys.
Table 5.0
Composition, Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of Eight Copper Alloys

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Aluminum and Its Alloys
Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm3 as
compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance to
corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. Many of these
alloys are easily formed by virtue of high ductility; this is evidenced by the thin aluminum foil sheet
into which the relatively pure material may be rolled. The chief limitation of aluminum is its low
melting temperature 660 oC. Principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and zinc. Generally, aluminum alloys are classified as either cast or wrought. Some
of the more common applications of aluminum alloys include aircraft structural parts, beverage
cans, bus bodies, and automotive parts (engine blocks, pistons, and manifolds).
Magnesium and Its Alloys
The most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7 g/cm3, which is the
lowest of all the structural metals. Magnesium has an HCP crystal structure, is relatively soft, and
has a low elastic modulus: 45 GPa. Consequently, most fabrication is by casting or hot working
at temperatures between 200 and 350 oC. It h has a moderately low melting temperature 651 oC.
Chemically, magnesium alloys are relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in
marine environments. Fine magnesium powder ignites easily when heated in air; consequently,
care should be exercised when handling it in this state. These alloys are used in aircraft and
missile applications, as well as in luggage. For many applications, magnesium alloys have
replaced engineering plastics that have comparable densities in as much as the magnesium
materials are stiffer, more recyclable, and less costly to produce.
Titanium and Its Alloys
Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering materials that possess an
extraordinary combination of properties. The pure metal has a relatively low density (4.5 g/cm3),
a high melting point [1668 oC ], and an elastic modulus of 107 GPa ( psi). Titanium alloys are
extremely strong; room temperature tensile strengths as high as 1400 MPa (200,000 psi) are
attainable, yielding remarkable specific strengths. The major limitation of titanium is its chemical
reactivity with other materials at elevated temperatures and quite expensive. In spite of this high
temperature reactivity, the corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is
unusually high; they are virtually immune to air, marine, and a variety of industrial environments.
They are commonly utilized in airplane structures, space vehicles, surgical implants, and in the
petroleum and chemical industries.
The Refractory Metals

Metals that have extremely high melting temperatures are classified as the refractory
metals. Included in this group are niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and tantalum
(Ta). Melting temperatures range between 2468 0C for niobium and 3410 0C for tungsten.
Tantalum and molybdenum are alloyed with stainless steel to improve its corrosion resistance.
Molybdenum alloys are utilized for extrusion dies and structural parts in space vehicles;
incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes, and welding electrodes employ tungsten
alloys.Tantalum is immune to chemical attack by virtually all environments at temperatures below
150 oC and is frequently used in applications requiring such a corrosion-resistant material.

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The Superalloys
The superalloys have superlative combinations of properties. Most are used in aircraft
turbine components, which must withstand exposure to severely oxidizing environments and high
temperatures for reasonable time periods. These materials are classified according to the
predominant metal(s) in the alloy, of which there are three groups—iron–nickel, nickel, and cobalt.
Other alloying elements include the refractory metals (Nb, Mo, W, Ta), chromium, and titanium.
The several compositions of superalloys can be seen in Table 6.0
Table 6.0
Composition of Several Superalloys
The Noble Metals
The noble or precious metals are a group of eight elements that have some physical
characteristics in common. They are expensive (precious) and are superior or notable (noble) in
properties, that is, characteristically soft, ductile, and oxidation resistant. The noble metals are
silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium; the first three are most
common and are used extensively in jewelry.
Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys
Nickel and its alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in many environments, especially
those that are basic (alkaline). It is one of the principal alloying elements in stainless steels and
one of the major constituents in the superalloys.
Lead, tin, and their alloys find some use as engineering materials. Both lead and tin are
mechanically soft and weak, have low melting temperatures, are quite resistant to many corrosion
environments, and have recrystallization temperatures below room temperature.

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Unalloyed zinc also is a relatively soft metal having a low melting temperature and a
subambient recrystallization temperature. Chemically, it is reactive in a number of common
environments and, therefore, susceptible to corrosion.
Zirconium and its alloys are ductile and have other mechanical characteristics that are
comparable to those of titanium alloys and the austenitic stainless steels. However, the primary
asset of these alloys is their resistance to corrosion in a host of corrosive media, including
superheated water.
Fabrication of Metals
Metal fabrication techniques are normally preceded by refining, alloying, and often heat-
treating processes that produce alloys with the desired characteristics. The classifications of
fabrication techniques include various metal-forming methods, casting, powder metallurgy,
welding, and machining; often two or more of them must be used before a piece is finished. The
methods chosen depend on several factors; the most important are the properties of the metal,
the size and shape of the finished piece, and, of course, cost.
Figure 2. Classifications scheme of metal fabrication techniques

FORMING OPERATIONS
Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by plastic
deformation; for example, forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing are common forming
techniques.
Forging
Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a normally hot metal; this
may be accomplished by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing.
Forgings are classified as:
1. closed die - a force is brought to bear on two or more die halves having the finished shape
such that the metal is deformed in the cavity between them
2. open die -two dies having simple geometric shapes (e.g., parallel flat, semicircular) are
employed, normally on large workpieces.

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Figure 3. shows the example illustration of an open and closed-die forging.
Figure 3. Open and Closed die forging

Source: Canton Drop Forge
Rolling
Rolling is the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal
between two rolls; a reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted by the rolls.
Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil with high quality surface finish.
Circular shapes as well as I-beams and railroad rails are fabricated using grooved rolls.
Figure 4 Rolling
Extrusion
For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is
applied to a ram; the extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-
sectional area. Extrusion products include rods and tubing that have rather complicated cross-
sectional geometries; seamless tubing may also be extruded.
Figure 5 Extrusion

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Drawing
Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a
tensile force that is applied on the exit side. A reduction in cross section results, with a
corresponding increase in length. Rod, wire, and tubing products are commonly fabricated in this
way.
Figure 6 Rolling
CASTING
Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is poured into a mold cavity
having the desired shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but
experiences some shrinkage. Casting techniques are employed when:
(1) the finished shape is so large or complicated that any other method would be
impractical
(2) a particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold working would
be difficult, and
(3) in comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical.
A number of different casting techniques are commonly employed, including sand, die,
investment, lost foam, and continuous casting.
Sand Casting
With sand casting, probably the most common method, ordinary sand is used as the mold
material. A two-piece mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern that has the shape of the
intended casting. Furthermore, a gating system is usually incorporated into the mold to expedite
the flow of molten metal into the cavity and to minimize internal casting defects. Sand-cast parts
include automotive cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and large pipe fittings.
Figure 7 shows the step by step procedure of sand casting from the pattern making up to
the sand cast metal.

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Figure 7. Step of Sand Casting

Source: https://materialrulz.weebly.com/uploads/7/9/5/1/795167/binder_mcm_02.pdf
Die Casting
In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a relatively high
velocity, and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained. A two-piece permanent steel mold
or die is employed; when clamped together, the two pieces form the desired shape. When
complete solidification has been achieved, the die pieces are opened and the cast piece is
ejected. However, this technique lends itself only to relatively small pieces and to alloys of zinc,
aluminum, and magnesium, which have low melting temperatures. Figure 8 shows the sample of
die casting process.
Figure 8. Die casting

Source: www. substech.com
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Investment Casting
For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is made from a wax or
plastic that has a low melting temperature. Around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry, which sets
up to form a solid mold or investment; plaster of paris is usually used. The mold is then heated,
such that the pattern melts and is burned out, leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired
shape. This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy, reproduction of fine detail,
and an excellent finish are require, for example, in jewelry and dental crowns and inlays. Also,
blades for gas turbines and jet engine impellers are investment cast. The procedure of investment
casting can be seen in Figure 9
Figure 9. Schematic Illustration of Investment Casting

Source: Kalpakjian & Schmid
Lost Foam Casting
A variation of investment casting is lost foam (or expendable pattern) casting. Here the
expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing polystyrene beads into the
desired shape and then bonding them together by heating. Alternatively, pattern shapes can be
cut from sheets and assembled with glue. Sand is then packed around the pattern to form the
mold. As the molten metal is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern which vaporizes. The
compacted sand remains in place, and, upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the
mold. Metal alloys that most commonly use this technique are cast irons and aluminum alloys;
furthermore, applications include automobile engine blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine
engine blocks, and electric motor frames.
Figure 10. Lost-foam Casting

Source: Tibba, 2014

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Continuous Casting
At the conclusion of extraction processes, many molten metals are solidified by casting
into large ingot molds. The ingots are normally subjected to a primary hot-rolling operation, the
product of which is a flat sheet or slab; these are more convenient shapes as starting points for
subsequent secondary metal-forming operations (i.e., forging, extrusion, drawing). Using this
technique, the refined and molten metal is cast directly into a continuous strand that may have
either a rectangular or circular cross section; solidification occurs in a water-cooled die having the
desired cross-sectional geometry. Furthermore, continuous casting is highly automated and more
efficient. Figure 11 shows the schematic illustration of continuous casting
.
Figure 11. Continuous Casting

Source: CALMET, 2017
Miscellaneous Techniques
Powder Metallurgy
Another fabrication technique involves the compaction of powdered metal, followed by a

heat treatment to produce a denser piece. This method is especially suitable for metals having
low ductilities, since only small plastic deformation of the powder particles need occur. Metals
having high melting temperatures are difficult to melt and cast, and fabrication is expedited using
P/M. Furthermore, parts that require very close dimensional tolerances (e.g., bushings and gears)
may be economically produced using this technique.
Welding
In a sense, welding may be considered to be a fabrication technique. In welding, two or

more metal parts are joined to form a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or
inconvenient. Both similar and dissimilar metals may be welded. The joining bond is metallurgical

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(involving some diffusion) rather than just mechanical, as with riveting and bolting. A variety of
welding methods exist, including arc and gas welding, as well as brazing and soldering.
Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can also
be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machining, improve
formability, restore ductility after a cold working operation. Thus it is a very enabling manufacturing
process that can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve product
performance by increasing strength or other desirable characteristics.
Heat Treatment Methods
Annealing
Annealing is a heat treatment process in which a material is exposed to an elevated

temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled. Typically, annealing is carried
out to relieve stresses; to increase softness, ductility, and toughness; and/or to produce a specific
microstructure. Annealing process consists of three stages:
(1) heating to the desired temperature,
(2) holding or “soaking” at that temperature, and
(3) cooling, usually to room temperature.
Normalizing
Normalizing is a heat treatment process used to refine the grains and produce a more uniform
and desirable size distribution. It is accomplished by heating at least 55 0C (100 0F) above the upper critical
temperature. for making material softer but does not produce the uniform material properties of
annealing.
Hardening
Hardening is the process for making material harder. In this process, the metal is heated to a
specific temperature and rapidly cooled (quenched) in a bath of water, brine, oil, or air to increase
its hardness.
Ageing or Precipitation Hardening
Ageing or precipitation hardening is a heat treatment method mostly used to increase the yield
strength of malleable metals. The process produces uniformly dispersed particles within a metal’s grain
structure which bring about changes in properties. It is usually comes after another heat treatment
process that reaches higher temperatures. Ageing, however, only elevates the temperature to medium
levels and brings it down quickly again.
Stress Relieving
Stress relieving is especially common for boiler parts, air bottles, accumulators, etc. This
method takes the metal to a temperature just below its lower critical border. The cooling process is

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slow and therefore uniform. This is done to relieve stresses that have built in up in the parts due to
earlier processes such as forming, machining, rolling or straightening.
Tempering
Tempering carried out by preheating previously quenched or normalized steel to a

temperature below the lower critical temperature (often from 205 to 595 ˚C), holding, and then
cooling to obtain the desired mechanical properties. is used to reduce the brittleness of quenched
steel.The temperature chosen for the tempering process directly impacts the hardness of the work
piece. The higher the temperature in the tempering process, the lower the hardness.
Case hardening
Case hardening or Surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of steel while
leaving the interior unchanged. It improves the wear resistance of machine parts without affecting
the tough interior of the parts. Many processes are available for surface hardening. This type of
process is normally used on a steel with a low carbon content, usually less than 0.2%
The principal forms of casehardening are :
Carburizing
It is process of increasing the carbon content on the surface of steel. It is a heat
treatment process in which iron or steel is heated in the presence of another material (in the
range of 900 to 950 °C ) which liberates carbon as it decomposes
Cyaniding
It is a process of producing hard surfaces by immersing low carbon steel in cyanide
bath maintained at 800°C – 850°C. The parts are then quenched in water or oil. This
process helps to maintain bright finish of the parts. It requires much care and attention in
handling the salt because of its poisonous nature.
Nitriding
It is a process of diffusing the nitrogen in to the surface of steel. The process is
carried out by heating of steel in the presence of dissociated ammonia at a temperature
460°C – 570°C. The diffused nitrogen combines with iron & certain alloying elements
present in steel and form respective nitrides.

CERAMICS
CERAMICS
An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or semi-metal) and one or more nonmetals.
● Important examples:
○ Silica - silicon dioxide (SiO2), the main ingredient in most glass products.
○ Alumina - aluminum oxide (Al2O3), used in various applications from abrasives to

artificial bones.
○ More complex compounds such as hydrous aluminum silicate (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the

main ingredient in most clay products.
PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
● High hardness, electrical and thermal insulating, chemical stability, and high melting
temperatures.
● Brittle, virtually no ductility - can cause problems in both processing and performance of
ceramic products.
● Some ceramics are translucent, window glass (based on silica) being the clearest example
CERAMIC PRODUCTS
● Clay construction products - bricks, clay pipe, and building tile.
● Refractory ceramics - ceramics capable of high temperature applications such as furnace

walls, crucibles, and molds.
● Cement used in concrete - used for construction and roads.
● Whiteware products - pottery, stoneware, fine china, porcelain, and other tableware,
based on mixtures of clay and other minerals.
● Glass - bottles, glasses, lenses, window pane, and light bulbs.
● Glass fibers - thermal insulating wool, reinforced plastics (fiberglass), and fiber optics
communications lines
CERAMIC PRODUCTS
● Abrasives - aluminum oxide and silicon carbide.
● Cutting tool materials - tungsten carbide, aluminum oxide, and cubic boron nitride.
● Ceramic insulators - applications include electrical transmission components, spark plugs,

and microelectronic chip substrates.
● Magnetic ceramics – example: computer memories
● Nuclear fuels based on uranium oxide (UO2)
● Bioceramics - artificial teeth and bones

THREE BASIC CATEGORIES OF CERAMIC
1. Traditional ceramics - clay products such as pottery and bricks, common abrasives, and
cement.
2. New ceramics - more recently developed ceramics based on oxides, carbides, etc., and
generally possessing mechanical or physical properties superior or unique compared to
traditional ceramics.
3. Glasses - based primarily on silica and distinguished by their noncrystalline structure.

○ In addition, glass ceramics - glasses transformed into a largely crystalline structure by
heat treatment
Traditional Ceramics
Based on mineral silicates, silica, and mineral oxides found in nature.
● Primary products are fired clay (pottery, tableware, brick, and tile), cement, and natural
abrasives such as alumina.
● Products and the processes to make them date back thousands of years.
● Glass is also a silicate ceramic material and is sometimes included among traditional
ceramics.
Raw Materials for Traditional Ceramics
● Mineral silicates, such as clays of various compositions, and silica, such as quartz, are
among the most abundant substances in nature and constitute the principal raw materials
for traditional ceramics.
● Another important raw material for traditional ceramics is alumina.
● These solid crystalline compounds have been formed and mixed in the earth’s crust over
billions of years by complex geological processes.
Clay as a Ceramic Raw Material
● Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicate.

○ Most common clays are based on the mineral kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
● When mixed with water, clay becomes a plastic substance that is formable and moldable.
●
● When heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature (firing ), clay fuses into a dense,
strong material.
○ Thus, clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and then fired to obtain the final hard
product.
Silica as a Ceramic Raw Material
● Available naturally in various forms, most important is quartz.

○ The main source of quartz is sandstone
● Low in cost; also hard and chemically stable.
● Principal component in glass, and an important ingredient in other ceramic products

including whiteware, refractories, and abrasives.
Alumina as a Ceramic Raw Material
● Bauxite - most alumina is processed from this mineral, which is an impure mixture of
hydrous aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide plus similar compounds of iron or
manganese.
○ Bauxite is also the principal source of metallic aluminum.
● Corundum - a more pure but less common form of Al2O3, which contains alumina in
massive amounts.
● Alumina ceramic is used as an abrasive in grinding wheels and as a refractory brick in

furnaces.
New Ceramics
Ceramic materials developed synthetically over the last several decades.
● The term also refers to improvements in processing techniques that provide greater
control over structures and properties of ceramic materials.
● In general, new ceramics are based on compounds other than variations of aluminum
silicate, which form most of the traditional ceramic materials.
● New ceramics are usually simpler chemically than traditional ceramics; for example,
oxides, carbides, nitrides, and borides.
GLASS
● A state of matter as well as a type of ceramic.
● As a state of matter, the term refers to an amorphous (noncrystalline) structure of a solid

material.
○ The glassy state occurs in a material when insufficient time is allowed during cooling
from the molten state for the crystalline structure to form.
● As a type of ceramic, glass is an inorganic, nonmetallic compound (or mixture of

compounds) that cools to a rigid condition without crystallizing.
GLASS
● A state of matter as well as a type of ceramic.
● As a state of matter, the term refers to an amorphous (noncrystalline) structure of a solid

material.
○ The glassy state occurs in a material when insufficient time is allowed during cooling
from the molten state for the crystalline structure to form.
● As a type of ceramic, glass is an inorganic, nonmetallic compound (or mixture of

compounds) that cools to a rigid condition without crystallizing.
POLYMERS
POLYMERS
Naturally occurring polymers—those derived from plants and animals—have been used for many
centuries; these materials include wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather, and silk.
Modern scientific research tools have made possible the determination of the molecular
structures of this group of materials and the development of numerous polymers that are
synthesized from small organic molecules. Many of our useful plastics, rubbers, and fiber
materials are synthetic polymers.
POLYMER MOLECULES - The molecules in polymers are gigantic in comparison to the

hydrocarbon molecules ; because of their size they are often referred to as macromolecules.
Within each molecule, the atoms are bound together by covalent interatomic bonds.
TYPES OF POLYMERS
THERMOPLASTIC AND THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
Thermoplastics (or thermoplastic polymers) soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and
harden when cooled— processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated.
Examples of common thermoplastic polymers include polyethylene, polystyrene, poly(ethylene

terephthalate), and poly(vinyl chloride).
Thermosetting polymers or thermosets are network polymers. They become permanently

hard during their formation and do not soften upon heating. Network polymers have covalent
crosslinks between adjacent molecular chains.
Most of the crosslinked and network polymers, which include vulcanized rubbers, epoxies,
phenolics, and some polyester resins, are thermosetting.
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
Coatings
Coatings are frequently applied to the surface of materials to serve one or more of the following
functions: (1) to protect the item from the environment, which may produce corrosive or
deteriorative reactions; (2) to improve the item’s appearance; and (3) to provide electrical
insulation. Many of the ingredients in coating materials are polymers, most of which are organic
in origin. These organic coatings fall into several different classifications: paint, varnish, enamel,
lacquer, and shellac.
Many common coatings are latexes. A latex is a stable suspension of small, insoluble polymer
particles dispersed in water. These materials have become increasingly popular because they do
not contain large quantities of organic solvents that are emitted into the environment—that is,
they have low volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions.
Adhesives
An adhesive is a substance used to bond together the surfaces of two solid materials (termed
adherends).
Films
Polymeric materials have found widespread use in the form of thin films. Films having
thicknesses between 0.025 and 0.125 mm (0.001 and 0.005 in.) are fabricated and used
extensively as bags for packaging food products and other merchandise, as textile products,
and in a host of other uses. Important characteristics of the materials produced and used as
films include low density, a high degree of flexibility, high tensile and tear strengths, resistance
to attack by moisture and other chemicals, and low permeability to some gases, especially
water vapor.
Foams
Foams are plastic materials that contain a relatively high volume percentage of small pores and
trapped gas bubbles. Both thermoplastic and thermosetting materials are used as foams; these
include polyurethane, rubber, polystyrene, and poly(vinyl chloride). Foams are commonly used
as cushions in automobiles and furniture, as well as in packaging and thermal insulation. The
foaming process is often carried out by incorporating into the batch of material a blowing
agent that, upon heating, decomposes with the liberation of a gas.
ADVANCED POLYMERIC MATERIALS
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is a linear polyethylene that has an

extremely high molecular weight. Its typical Mw is approximately 4 x 106 g/mol, which is an
order of magnitude greater than that of high-density polyethylene. In fiber form, UHMWPE is
highly aligned and has the trade name Spectra. Some of the extraordinary characteristics of
this material are as follows:
1. An extremely high impact resistance

2. Outstanding resistance to wear and abrasion
3. A very low coefficient of friction
4. A self-lubricating and nonstick surface
5. Very good chemical resistance to normally encountered solvents
6. Excellent low-temperature properties
7. Outstanding sound damping and energy absorption characteristics
8. Electrically insulating and excellent dielectric properties
COMPOSITES
COMPOSITE
Definition
Material property combinations and ranges have been, and are yet being, extended by the
development of composite materials. Generally speaking, a composite is considered to be any multiphase
material that exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of both constituent phases such that a better
combination of properties is realized.
In designing composite materials, scientists and engineers have ingeniously combined various metals,
ceramics, and polymers to produce a new generation of extraordinary materials. Most composites have been
created to improve combinations of mechanical characteristics such as stiffness, toughness, and ambient and
high-temperature strength.
Many composite materials are composed of just two phases; one is termed the matrix, which is
continuous and surrounds the other phase, often called the dispersed phase.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE
1 Large-particle Composites
The term “large” is used to indicate that particle–matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular
level; rather, continuum mechanics is used. For most of these composites, the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than
the matrix. These reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each particle. In
essence, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the load. The degree of
reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on strong bonding at the matrix–particle interface.
2 Dispersion-strengthened Composites
For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller, with diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 m (10 and 100
nm).
Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened and hardened by the uniform dispersion ofseveral volume percent of fine particles of a
very hard and inert material. The dispersed phase may be metallic or non-metallic; oxide materials are often used.
The dispersion strengthening effect is not as pronounced as with precipitation hardening; however, the strengthening is retained at
elevated temperatures and for extended time periods because the dispersed particles are chosen to be unreactive with the matrix phase
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES
The most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is in the form of a fiber. Design
goals of fiber-reinforced composites often include high strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis. These
characteristics are expressed in terms of specific strength and specific modulus parameters, which
correspond, respectively, to the ratios of tensile strength to specific gravity and modulus of elasticity to
specific gravity. Fiber-reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific strengths and moduli have
been produced that use low-density fiber and matrix materials.
Fiber-reinforced composites are subclassified by fiber length: continuous and discontinuous. Moreover, as
fiber length(l) increases, the fiber reinforcement becomes more effective. Fibers for which its length is
greater than the critical length (lc) (normally l > 15 lc) are termed continuous; discontinuous or short fibers
have lengths shorter than this.
For discontinuous fibers of lengths significantly less than the matrix deforms around the fiber such that
there is virtually no stress transference and little reinforcement by the fiber. To affect a significant
improvement in strength of the composite, the fibers must be continuous.
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
1 LAMINAR COMPOSITES
A laminar composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels that have a preferred high-strength
direction such as is found in wood and continuous and aligned fiber reinforced plastics. The layers are stacked and
subsequently cemented together such that the orientation of the high-strength direction varies with each
successive.
2 SANDWICH PANELS
Sandwich panels, considered to be a class of structural composites, are designed to be light-weight beams or
panels having relatively high stiffness and strengths. A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets, or faces, that
are separated by and adhesively bonded to a thicker core. The outer sheets are made of a relatively stiff and
strong material, typically aluminum alloys, steel and stainless steel, fiber-reinforced plastics, and plywood; they
carry bending loads that are applied to the panel. The core material is lightweight and normally has a low
modulus of elasticity.
NANOCOMPOSITES
Nanocomposites are composed of nanosized particles (or Applications of Nanocomposites

nanoparticles) that are embedded in a matrix material. They can
be designed to have mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, 1. Gas-barrier coatings
thermal, biological, and transport properties that are superior to 2. Energy storage
conventional filler materials; furthermore, these properties can be 3. Flame-barrier coatings
tailored for use in specific applications. 4. Dental restorations
5. Mechanical strength enhancements
Nanocomposite matrix materials may be metals, ceramics and 6. Electrostatic dissipation
polymers but most commonly used are polymers. For these
polymer nanocomposites, a large number of thermoplastic,
thermosetting, and elastomeric matrices are used, including epoxy
resins, polyurethanes, polypropylene, polycarbonate,
poly(ethylene terephthalate), silicone resins, poly(methyl
methacrylate), polyamides (nylons), poly(vinylidene chloride),
ethylene vinyl alcohol, butyl rubber, and natural rubber.
E N G G 4 1 2 :
Chapter
11
Nano and Biomaterials
1. Determine the various type of biomaterials, its properties and applications

2. Determine the materials to be used as a nanomaterial
3. Cite the other application for nanomaterials
4. Differentiate the method used in producing nanomaterial
This chapter is divided into two topics, the biomaterial and nanomaterials. The first part of this
chapter will discuss all about the biomaterials, the materials to be used in biomedical application, their
properties that make use as biomaterial and its applications. The second part is all about the
nanomaterials. The different types of nanomaterials will be discussed, its properties and application.
The synthesis of the material also included in the last part of the chapter.
Biomaterials
Biomaterials is a material intended to interface with biological systems to evaluate, treat,

augment, or replace any tissue, organ, or function of the body. They employed in components
implanted into the human body for replacement of diseased or damaged body parts. These materials
must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause
adverse biological reactions). Metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors—may be
used as biomaterials. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry,
tissue engineering and materials science.
Metallic Biomaterials
Metals are extensively used as materials for biomedical implants, devices, and surgical tools.
Some of the implants made from metals are shown in Figure 1. For example, metals are used for
orthopedic reconstructions (implants for artificial hip, knee, shoulder, and elbow joints), fracture fixation
(plates, pins, screws, rods, and nails), oral and maxillofacial reconstructions (dental implants and
miniplates), and cardiovascular interventions (stents, heart valves, and pacemakers). In general,
metals used for biomedical applications should exhibit the following properties:
• high corrosion resistance,
• biocompatibility,
• high wear resistance,
Module No. 11 – Nano and Biomaterials 1
E N G G 4 1 2 :
• excellent mechanical properties.
Figure 1. Examples of metallic implants showing (left to right) a femoral hip prostheses, an
acetabular component of a hip joint, and a fracture fixation plate
Source: Agrawal,2014
Most metallic biomaterials have a stable surface oxide layer that enhances their corrosion
resistance properties. The mechanical properties of the metal are important and should satisfy the
requirements of the specific application in the body. For instance, when a metal is used to augment a
bone, the elastic modulus of the metal should be ideally equivalent to that of the bone. If the elastic
modulus of the metal is greater than that of bone, then the load experienced by the bone is reduced
due to a phenomenon known as stress shielding. This can cause the bone to remodel to adjust to the
lower load and eventually result in the loss of bone quality.
In table 1.0 shows the list of metallic biomaterials, their properties and applications
Table 1.0
Mettalic Biomaterials
Metals Properties Applications

Titanium and its alloys • light weight, excellent • total joint replacements maxillofacial
• Pure Ti (cp-Ti) corrosion resistance, and • craniofacial and dental implants
Titanium– enhanced biocompatibility • pacemaker case
6Aluminum– • housings for ventricular assist
4Vanadium devices
Stainless steel • good radial strength (due • martensitic stainless steel:

to its high elastic modulus surgical and dental instruments
of ~190 GPa) such as forceps, pliers, scalpels,
• low recoil curettes, dental burs, explorers,
• good expandability and root elevators.
sufficient flexibility • ferritic stainless steel: handles for
• Austenitic stainless steels instruments and medical guide pins
possess excellent • austenitic stainless steel
cryogenic properties, high- medical implants and devices. For
temperature strength, example, 316L stainless steel is the
oxidation resistance, and most commonly used austenitic
formability. stainless steel for implants and
devices.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Cobalt–chromium • These alloys possess • making various orthopedic, dental,

alloys superior mechanical and cardiovascular implants and
1. ASTM F75 (Co– properties with high devices
28Cr–6Mo casting resistance to corrosion,
alloy) wear, and fatigue
2. ASTM F799 (Co– • The biocompatibility and
28Cr–6Mo blood compatibility of these
thermodynamically alloys have also been well
processed alloy) demonstrated
3. ASTM F90 (Co– • excellent corrosion
20Cr–15W–10Ni resistance even in chloride
wrought alloy) environments
4. ASTM F562 (Co– • yield and tensile strengths
35Ni–20Cr–10Mo of ASTM F799 alloys are
wrought alloy) twice as high as those for
as-cast ASTM F75 alloys
• excellent strength, high
ductility, and corrosion
resistance, ASTM F562
has a tensile strength of
1795 MPa, which is among
the highest among the
metals used for biomedical
implants
Nitinol (Ni–Ti) • plastically deformed at a • self-expanding vascular stents,
low temperature but return medical staples, blood clot filters, and
back to their original pre- orthodontic wires
deformed shape when
exposed to a high
temperature
Tantalum • excellent corrosion • coronary stents,
resistance and • vascular clips,
biocompatibility because of • cerebral covering for cranial defects,
a stable surface oxide layer • fracture fixation, and
• dental implants
Magnesium and its • light weight and • orthopedic applications
Alloys biodegradability • making biodegradable coronary
stents
Polymers
The polymer most extensively used in total joint prostheses is ultrahigh molecular weight
polyethylene – chemically identical to the material used for plastic bags, although having a much
higher molecular weight. The same is true for bone cement which is used in conjunction with bone
surgery and Plexiglass®, which is used for window panes. Both of these materials are
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). Of course, any polymer that is used as an implant has to meet
strict safety standards as required by governmental and other regulatory agencies and has to be
virtually contaminant free.
Thus, polymer-based implants are relatively inexpensive to manufacture. Polymers can
also be made reactive so that different chemical molecules can be attached to the surface of

E N G G 4 1 2 :
implants in order to make them more compatible with the surrounding environment in the body.
Some polymers are biodegradable in the body. If used to make implants for temporary needs,
these polymers offer the advantage that the implant can gradually biodegrade within the body
after it has served its function, thus mitigating the potential for any long-term complications. If a
biodegradable polymer is used as an implant, it can potentially also be designed to release
therapeutic drugs or growth factors during the degradation process. On the other hand, despite
these favorable properties, polymers are usually not as strong or stiff as metals or ceramics and
therefore may not be the correct choice when an implant is required to carry large loads in its
function. The use of polymers as biomaterials has increased significantly over the past 75 years
as advances in polymer science have yielded a variety of polymers
In table 2.0 shows the list of common polymeric biomaterials, properties and its application
Table 2.0
Common Polymeric Materials
Polymeric Biomaterials Properties Application

Polyethylene • superior wear properties • used extensively in
• ultrahigh molecular compared to other orthopedic total joint
weight polyethylene polymers, tough and implants such as the
(UHMWPE) ductile bearing material in total
hip, knee, and shoulder
prostheses
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) • Lightweight, easier to • used as bone cement in
handle, process, and the field of orthopedics to
less expensive than stabilize total joint
polycarbonate prostheses as well as a
• It has great mechanical bone substitute in
properties and low pathologic vertebral and
toxicity other fractures
• slow degradation • It is used to remove
wrinkles and scars on
skin tissue permanently.
• In dental implants,
polymer material PMMA
is substituted for missing
dental roots.
Polylactic acid (PLA) and • biodegradable • used extensively as
polyglycolic acid (PGA) biomaterials for implants
in a variety of medical
applications
• used extensively in the
field of orthopedics as
fixation devices for bone
and soft tissue in the
form of biodegradable
plates, screws, and
anchors
• used for a variety of
dental and controlled
drug-delivery
applications

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Polycaprolactone (PCL) • biodegradable • often used for tissue

engineering applications
as well as for drug
delivery devices
Polyanhydrides • possess high hydrolytic • used primarily for drug
instability delivery
• highly reactive materials
which degrade by
surface erosion
Polyurethanes • good mechanical • used for a number of
properties and blood biomedical applications
biocompatibility including leads for
pacemakers, catheters,
heart valves, and
ligament reconstruction
Silicones • have good blood • used for many
biocompatibility cardiovascular
applications including
catheters
• used for prostheses to
replace finger joints,
carpal bones, and toes
• large-scale use in breast
reconstruction and
augmentation
• used as for jaw
augmentation, chin
augmentation, and nasal
supports
Hydrogels • they provide comfort for • used extensively for soft
the user and also have contact lenses
better oxygen • used for drug delivery
permeability in based on a variety of
comparison to the hard delivery platforms
lenses made from • used in the field of tissue
PMMA engineering where cells
can be imbedded within
the gels and implanted in
the body
• wound healing
Nanopolymers • particles are small • being studied
enough to pass through extensively as drug
the leaky vasculature delivery vehicles,
found in many tumors especially in the area of
and penetrate the walls cancer therapy
of malignant cells where
they can deliver their
payload of drug in a very
efficient manner leading
to a high efficacy

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Ceramics
Bioceramics is given to ceramics that are used in medical applications. Today, a wide
range of ceramic and glass materials are used for biomedical applications, ranging from bone
implants to biomedical pumps. These ceramics are used in structural functions as joints or tissue
replacements as well as being used as coatings to improve the biocompatibility of metal implants.
These ceramics also provide temporary structures or scaffolds for tissue regeneration. Ceramics
have also been used as carriers for growth factors, antibiotics, and drugs.
Important characteristics of bioceramics include their mechanical integrity and their
physical and chemical compatibility in the presence of host or biological environments.
Implantable bioceramics should have the following properties: non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, do
not induce allergic reactions, do not induce inflammatory response, induce tissue regeneration
if needed, and induce tissue integration if needed. Some of the bioceramics that are commonly
used today in medicine and dentistry are shown in table 3.0.
Table 3.0
List of Commonly Used Bioceramics
Bioceramics Properties Application

Alumina (Al2O3) • inertness, • commonly used in
biocompatibility and orthopedics and
excellent wear dentistry
resistance • used in hip and knee
prostheses
• aluminous porcelain is a
major ingredient in the
fabrication of crowns
Carbon • excellent strength, wear • widely used for implant
resistance and fabrication and surface
durability, and coatings
thromboresistance • fabrication of small joint
implants such as fingers
and spinal inserts
Calcium phosphates (CaP) • Can be found in human • fabrication of medical
body devices
• And an be synthetically
produced in laboratory
• very brittle but is strong
• Hydroxyapatite (HA) in compression, its
solubility is also
dependent on the
biological environment,
such as the pH and the
ionic concentration of
the solutions, as well as
the protonation state of
the phosphate ions
when immersed in a
solution
• slows the degradation of
the structure

E N G G 4 1 2 :
• Tricalcium phosphate • healing tissue and acts

(TCP) as a template for the
cells to use and grow
Calcium sulfate • complete and rapid • bone regeneration
(CaSO4·H2O) resorption, and
(Plaster of Paris) biocompatibility.
Bioactive glass • These glasses bond to • used in dentistry
the tissue and are
biocompatible
Nanoceramics • greater surface area, • applications in imaging
greater surface area to and diagnoses,
volume ratio, increase in implantology, anti-
grain boundaries, cancer therapy, drug
greater porosity, delivery, and gene
increased surface therapy
roughness, increased
hydrophilicity, and
increased surface
reactivity
Natural biomaterials
Utilization of such materials thus allows these materials to perform a combination of

diverse functions such as intracellular communications and storage. In general, the properties of
natural materials are dependent on their composition. For example, the physical–chemical
properties of monomers and their sequences determine the properties of polymeric natural
biomaterials. Like synthetic materials used for biomedical applications, it is expected that the
natural biomaterials should satisfy requirements such as:
• being non-toxic,
• being non-inflammatory,
• being non-allergenic,
• having satisfactory mechanical properties,
• being capable of inducing cell attachment and differentiation if needed, and
• having low cost.
Natural biomaterials possess most of the above properties because they are found in
biological systems and work well within their respective environments. Favorable characteristics
of natural materials include facilitating cell attachment, enhancing the mechanical properties of
synthetic biomaterials, and their ability to bind and deliver macromolecules. These desirable
characteristics allow natural materials to be used in various biomedical applications including
tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In table 4.0 shows some of the natural biomaterials
that are commonly used today in the fabrication of medical devices.
Table 4.0
List of Commonly Used Natural Biomaterials
Natural Biomaterials Properties Application

Collagen • offers unique structural • It can potentially direct
properties and has the the migration, growth,
advantage of mimicking and organization of cells
during tissue

E N G G 4 1 2 :
many features of regeneration and wound

extracellular matrix healing. Additionally,
• it can be resorbed into collagen also offers the
the body, it is non-toxic, potential for stabilizing
and it produces minimal encapsulated and
immune response, even transplanted cells.
between different
species
Elastin • ability to stretch and • used in several medical
relax, and high stability applications such as
with a half-life of 70 vascular stents, and for
years. repairing skin, bladder,
intestine, fallopian tubes,
esophagus, stomach,
lung, colon, and the
heart. They have also
been used for cosmetic
implantation as in breast
implants.
Silk • biocompatibility, slow • fabrication of medical
degradability, and and non-medical
excellent mechanical products
properties • Long used as a
biomaterial for medical
sutures
Chitosan • elicits minimal foreign • repair focal cartilage
body reaction, can be lesions resulting from
dissolved in water, trauma
depending on pH • wound dressing to
possesses available control blood loss and
side groups for stop bleeding
attachment of molecules • tissue engineering
such as growth factors,
and mechanical and
biodegradation
properties are
controllable through
polymer length or
porosity
Cellulose • insoluble in water • used in pharmaceutical
• properties of cellulose formulations for various
are dependent on its purposes
chain length, other • employed as tablet
general properties of binders in the matrix
cellulose are tasteless, formulations for
odorless, and immediate drug release
hydrophilic • use as artificial skin in
possess exceptional strength burn therapy and ulcers
Alginate • fairly non-toxic, non- • Used in dental prosthetic

inflammatory, easily applications
processed in water, • used in bandages,
ability to absorb water particularly for large
quickly, biodegradable, wounds and burns

E N G G 4 1 2 :
controllable porosity, • wound dressings

can be linked to applications
biologically active
molecules, and a good
mucoadhesive agent as
a result of the presence
of carboxyl end groups
Hyaluronan • ability to swell in the • plays a major role in
presence of water tissue regeneration,
• its solution is highly embryonic development,
viscoelastic. As a wound healing, and
polymer, hyaluronan is extracellular matrix
highly hydrophilic. In the hemostasis.
presence of water, • used widely in various
hyaluronan molecules applications such as
swell in volume. orthopedic,
cardiovascular, and
dermatology
Chondroitin sulfate • ability to bind and • polymer for tissue
modulate growth factors engineering applications
and cytokines, inhibition • used as a surgical aid to
of proteases, protect the corneal
involvement in cell endothelium during
adhesion, migration, anterior segment
proliferation, and procedures such as
differentiation, non- cataract extraction and
immunogenic, and intraocular lens
degrade to non-toxic implantation
oligosaccharides
Coral • Natural coral is • clinically used for more
biocompatible and than 10 years as a filling
osteoconductive. The for defects or an onlay
mechanical properties of graft in orthopedics and
coral are comparable to traumatology, in
those of cancellous craniofacial, dental and
bone. neurosurgery, and in
spinal fusion
Example of Biomaterials
Intraocular Lenses
By age 75 more than 50% of population suffers from cataracts. It is made of PMM, silicone
elastomer, and other materials. Good vision is generally restored almost immediately after lens is
inserted.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Figure 2. Intraocular Lenses

Source: Khandelwal, 2013
Heart Valve
It is fabricated from carbons, metals, elastomers, fabrics, and natural valves. It must not
react with chemicals in body. It is attached by polyester mesh. The tissue growth facilitated by
Polar Oxygen-Containing Groups. Almost as soon as valve implanted cardiac function is restored
to near normal. Bileaflet tilting disk heart valve used most widely.
Figure 3. Heart Valve

Dental Implants
Small titanium fixture that serves as the replacement for the root portion of a missing
natural tooth. Implant is placed in the bone of the upper or lower jaw and allowed to bond with the
bone. Most dental implants are: pure titanium screw-shaped cylinders that act as roots for
crowns and bridges, or as supports for dentures. It should be bio-inert, there is no reaction in
tissue and no rejection or allergic reactions.
Figure 4. Dental Implants


E N G G 4 1 2 :
Vascular Grafts
It must be flexible, good structure retention, adequate burst strength, high fatigue
resistance, good handling properties and biostable. It is designed with open porous structure. It
is made of Poly (ethylene terephthalate)—PET or Dacron
Figure 5. Vascular Grafts

Hip-Replacements
Most common medical practice using Biomaterials. It is made of corrosion resistant high-
strength metal alloys or very high molecular weight polymers.
Figure 6. Hip Replacements

Knee Implants
This piece replaces the joint (sometimes also the ligaments), it allowing the movement of
the knee and the mobility of the leg. The materials used are plastic and metal, as they help in the
performance of the prosthesis. You can also join the prosthesis with bone using cement to the
knee, to improve efficiency
Figure 7. Knee Implants

https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002974.htm

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Kidney Implants
Artificial kidney is a device works like a normal kidney. This unit is divided into several
parts, where it enters the blood is filtered after absorbing nutrients and discarding waste
susbtancies. Due to this piece people don’t have to worry about the problems of making a kidney
implant because this device is designed to prevent rejection and to do the function like a normal
kidney.
Figure 8. Artificial Kidney

Source: Singularityhub.com
Artificial Heart
Artificial hearts are mechanical device. they are typically used in order to bridge the time
to heart transplantation, or to permanently replace the heart in case transplantation is impossible.
The heart is conceptually simple, it’s formed by synthetic materials and power supplies. A possible
consequence it could be the body rejection. These complications limited the lifespan of early
human recipients to hours or days
Figure 9. Artificial heart

Source: https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/everyday-innovations/artificial-heart.htm
PACEMAKER
It is a medical device which uses electrical impulses delivered by electrodes contacting
the heart muscles. It consists of a pager-sized housing device that contains a battery and the
electronic circuitry that runs the device, along with one or wo long thin electrical wires that travel
from the pacemaker housing device to the heart, its implanted below the skin in the shoulder area.
Figure 10. Pacemaker

Source: https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/pacemaker/about/pac-20384689

E N G G 4 1 2 :
CONTACT LENS
It is a corrective lens placed on the cornea of the eye. Designed to improve vision because
some people have a mismatch between the refractive power of the eye and the length of the eye
leading to a refraction error. A contact lens neutralizes this mismatch and allows for correct
focusing of light to the retina. It is made of pliable hydrophilic plastics called hydrogels that absorb
significant amount of water to keep the lenses soft and supple.
Figure 11. Contact lense

Source: Healthline.com
Artificial Tissue
It should be biodegradable. It is the polymer result of condensation of lactic acid and
glycolyic acid.
Figure 12. Artificial Tissue

Source: Hussain, 2014
Bone Cement
Used very successfully to anchor artificial joints (hip joints, knee joints, shoulder and elbow
joints)
Figure 13. Total Hip Replacement

Source: Almurshidimed.com

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Nanomaterial
There are two definitions of nanomaterials. The first – and broadest – definition states that
nanomaterials are materials where the sizes of the individual building blocks are less than 100
nm, at least in one dimension. This definition is well suited for many research proposals, where
nanomaterials often have a high priority. The second definition is much more restrictive and states
that nanomaterials have properties that depend inherently on the small grain size; as
nanomaterials are usually quite expensive, such a restrictive definition makes more sense.
Nanomaterials may be zero-dimensional (e.g., nanoparticles), one-dimensional (e.g.,

nanorods or nanotubes), or two-dimensional (usually realized as thin films or stacks of thin films).
Figure 1. Examples of Nanomaterials

Source: Alagarasi, 2011
Types of NanoMaterials
1. Carbon Based Materials

These nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon, most commonly taking the form of
a hollow spheres, ellipsoids, or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon nanomaterials are referred
to as fullerenes, while cylindrical ones are called nanotubes. These particles have many potential
applications, including improved films and coatings, stronger and lighter materials, and
applications in electronics.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Figure 2. Examples of Carbon-based Material

Source: George, 2013
2. Metal Based Materials

These nanomaterials include quantum dots, nanogold, nanosilver and metal oxides, such
as titanium dioxide. A quantum dot is a closely packed semiconductor crystal comprised of
hundreds or thousands of atoms, and whose size is on the order of a few nanometers to a few
hundred nanometers. Changing the size of quantum dots changes their optical properties.
Figure 3. Metal Based Nanomaterials

Source: Richards, 2017
3. Dendrimers
These nanomaterials are nanosized polymers built from branched units. The surface of a
dendrimer has numerous chain ends, which can be tailored to perform specific chemical functions.
This property could also be useful for catalysis. Also, because three-dimensional dendrimers
contain interior cavities into which other molecules could be placed, they may be useful for drug
delivery.
4. Composites
Composites combine nanoparticles with other nanoparticles or with larger, bulk-type
materials. Nanoparticles, such as nanosized clays, are already being added to products ranging

E N G G 4 1 2 :
from auto parts to packaging materials, to enhance mechanical, thermal, barrier, and flame-
retardant properties. They are three basic types of Nanocomposite:
• Zero-dimensional particles in a matrix, ideally the individual particles do not touch
each other (Fig. 4a)
• One-dimensional nanocomposites consisting of nanotubes or nanorods
distributed in a matrix (Fig 4b)
• Two-dimensional nanocomposites built from stacks of thin films made of two or
more different materials
Figure 4. shows the three basic types of nanocomposites (a) Zero-dimensional particles
in a matrix, (b) One-dimensional nanocomposites and (c) Two-dimensional nanocomposites
Figure 4. Basic Types of Nanocomposites

Source: Vollath, 2013
Properties of Nanomaterials
Optical properties
One of the most fascinating and useful aspects of nanomaterials is their optical properties.
Applications based on optical properties of nanomaterials include optical detector, laser, sensor,
imaging, phosphor, display, solar cell, photocatalysis, photoelectrochemistry and biomedicine.
The optical properties of nanomaterials depend on parameters such as feature size, shape,
surface characteristics, and other variables including doping and interaction with the surrounding
environment or other nanostructures.
Figure 5. Fluorescence emission of (CdSe) ZnS Quantum dots of various sizes and absorption
spectra of various sizes and shapes of gold nanoparticles
Source: Chem. Soc. Rev., 2006, 35, 209–217

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Electrical properties
Electrical Properties of Nanoparticles” discuss about fundamentals of electrical

conductivity in nanotubes and nanorods, carbon nanotubes, photoconductivity of nanorods,
electrical conductivity of nanocomposites. One interesting method which can be used to
demonstrate the steps in conductance is the mechanical thinning of a nanowire and measurement
of the electrical current at a constant applied voltage. The important point here is that, with
decreasing diameter of the wire, the number of electron wave modes contributing to the electrical
conductivity is becoming increasingly smaller by well-defined quantized steps.
Figure 6. Electrical Behavior of nanotubes

Source: P. G. Collins and Ph. Avouris, Scientific American, 62, 2000, 283
Mechanical properties
“Mechanical Properties of Nanoparticles” deals with bulk metallic and ceramic materials,
influence of porosity, influence of grain size, superplasticity, filled polymer composites, particle-
filled polymers, polymer-based nanocomposites filled with platelets, carbon nanotube-based
composites. However, two materials, neither of which is produced by pressing and sintering, have
attracted much greater interest as they will undoubtedly achieve industrial importance. These
materials are polymers which contain nanoparticles or nanotubes to improve their mechanical
behaviors, and severely plastic-deformed metals, which exhibit astonishing properties. However,
because of their larger grain size, the latter are generally not accepted as nanomaterials.
Magnetic properties
Bulk gold and Pt are non-magnetic, but at the nano size they are magnetic. Surface atoms
are not only different to bulk atoms, but they can also be modified by interaction with other
chemical species, that is, by capping the nanoparticles. This phenomenon opens the possibility
to modify the physical properties of the nanoparticles by capping them with appropriate molecules.
Actually, it should be possible that non-ferromagnetic bulk materials exhibit ferromagnetic-like
behavior when prepared in nano range.
Selected Application of nanomaterials
Fuel cells
Carbon nanotubes - Microbial fuel cell

Microbial fuel cell is a device in which bacteria consume water-soluble waste such as
sugar, starch and alcohols and produces electricity plus clean water. This technology will make it
possible to generate electricity while treating domestic or industrial wastewater.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Figure 7. Microbial Fuel Cell

Source: Alagarasi, 2011
Catalysis
Higher surface area available with the nanomaterial counterparts, nano-catalysts tend to
have exceptional surface activity. For example, reaction rate at nano-aluminum can go so high,
that it is utilized as a solid-fuel in rocket propulsion, whereas the bulk aluminum is widely used in
utensils. Nano-aluminum becomes highly reactive and supplies the required thrust to send off pay
loads in space. Similarly, catalysts assisting or retarding the reaction rates are dependent on the
surface activity, and can very well be utilized in manipulating the rate-controlling step.
Phosphors for High-Definition TV

The resolution of a television, or a monitor, depends greatly on the size of the pixel. These
pixels are essentially made of materials called "phosphors," which glow when struck by a stream
of electrons inside the cathode ray tube (CRT). The resolution improves with a reduction in the
size of the pixel, or the phosphors. Nanocrystalline zinc selenide, zinc sulfide, cadmium sulfide,
and lead telluride synthesized by the sol-gel techniques are candidates for improving the
resolution of monitors.
Next-Generation Computer Chips

Nanomaterials help the industry break these barriers down by providing the manufacturers
with nanocrystalline starting materials, ultra-high purity materials, materials with better thermal
conductivity, and longer-lasting, durable interconnections (connections between various
components in the microprocessors) The example application is the nanowires for junctionless
transistors.
Elimination of Pollutants
Nanomaterials possess extremely large grain boundaries relative to their grain size.
Hence, they are very active in terms of their chemical, physical, and mechanical properties. Due
to their enhanced chemical activity, nanomaterials can be used as catalysts to react with such
noxious and toxic gases as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide in automobile catalytic
converters and power generation equipment to prevent environmental pollution arising from
burning gasoline and coal.
Sun-screen lotion

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Sun-screen lotions containing nano-TiO2 provide enhanced sun protection factor (SPF)
while eliminating stickiness. The added advantage of nano skin blocks (ZnO and TiO2) arises as
they protect the skin by sitting onto it rather than penetrating into the skin. Thus they block UV
radiation effectively for prolonged duration. Additionally, they are transparent, thus retain natural
skin color while working better than conventional skin-lotions.
Sensors
Sensors rely on the highly active surface to initiate a response with minute change in the
concentration of the species to be detected. Engineered monolayers (few Angstroms thick) on
the sensor surface are exposed to the environment and the peculiar functionality (such as change
in potential as the CO/anthrax level is detected) is utilized in sensing
Disadvantages of Nanomaterials
• Instability of the particles
• Fine metal particles act as strong explosives owing to their high surface area coming in
direct contact with oxygen
• Impurity
• Biologically harmful
• Difficulty in synthesis, isolation and application
• Recycling and disposal

E N G G 4 1 2 :
12
Chapter
Economic, Environmental and

Societal Issues in Material
Science and Engineering

1. Identify recyclability issues relative to different types of materials.
2. Determine the factors over which an engineer an engineer has control that affect the cost of a
product.
3. Draw the total materials cycle and briefly discuss relevant issues that pertain to each stage of
this cycle.
This chapter primarily deals with a variety of materials science and materials engineering issues
that are considered in the material selection process. In engineering practice, other important criteria
are considered in the development of a marketable product. One of these are the economic
considerations which involve scientific principles used to design components and systems that perform
reliably and satisfactorily. Other criteria that should be addressed involve environmental and societal
issues such as pollution, disposal, recycling, toxicity, and energy which are equally important in
engineering practice.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION
There are three factors over which the materials engineer has control and that affect the cost of
a product; they are:
1. component design,
2. the material(s) used, and
3. the manufacturing technique(s) that are employed.
These factors are interrelated in that component design may affect which material is used, and
both component design and the material used will influence the choice of manufacturing
technique(s).
Module No. 12 – Economic, Environmental and Societal Issues 1

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Component Design
• Some fraction of the cost of a component is associated with its design. In this context,
component design is the specification of size, shape, and configuration, which will affect
in-service component performance.
• Component design is a highly iterative process that involves many compromises and
trade-off. The engineer should keep in mind that an optimal component design may not
be possible due to system constraints.
Materials
• Once a family of materials has been selected that satisfy the design constraints, cost
comparisons of the various candidate materials may be made on the basis of cost per
part. Material price is usually quoted per unit mass. The part volume may be determined
from its dimensions and geometry, which is then converted into mass using the density of
the material.
• In addition, during manufacturing there ordinarily is some unavoidable material waste,

which should also be taken into account in these computations.
Manufacturing Techniques
• The entire manufacturing process will normally consist of primary and secondary
operations. Primary operations are those that convert the raw material into a recognizable
part (i.e., casting, plastic forming, powder compaction, molding, etc.), whereas secondary
ones are those subsequently employed to produce the finished part (i.e., heat treatments,
welding, grinding, drilling, painting, decorating).
• The major cost considerations for these processes include capital equipment, tooling,
labor, repairs, machine downtime, and waste.
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

Important stages in the materials cycle where materials science and engineering play a
significant role are recycling and disposal. The issues of recyclability and disposability are
important when new materials are being designed and synthesized. Furthermore, during the
materials selection process, the ultimate disposition of the materials employed should be an
important criterion.
Another of the problems of recycling involves separation of various alloys types (i.e.,
aluminum from ferrous alloys) after dismantling and shredding; in this regard, some rather
ingenious separation techniques have been devised (i.e., magnetic and gravity). Joining of
dissimilar alloys presents contamination problems; for example, if two similar alloys are to be
joined, welding is preferred over bolting or riveting. Coatings (paints, anodized layers, claddings,
etc.) may also act as contaminants, and render the material non-recyclable.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
What is recycling?
• Recycling is a process in which waste materials are treated in a way that they can be used
again.
• Recycling is a key component of modern waste management and is the third component
of the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" waste hierarchy.
• Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles,
and electronics.
• Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection center or picked up from the
curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials bound for
manufacturing.
Where to Recycle?
Curbside Collections
Reverse Bending Machines

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Drop – Off Centers
Deposits
Pick-Up by Volunteers

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Process of Recycling
• Collection
The first step required for recycling is collecting recyclable materials from
communities. Families who recycle items such as paper, bottles and cans, place the items
in recycling collection bins. These bins usually have the recycling symbol on them.
• Processing
The second step involves processing the recyclable materials. This includes sorting the
materials into groups, cleaning them and getting them ready to be sold to manufacturers who
will turn the materials into new products

E N G G 4 1 2 :
• Manufacturing
Manufacturing is the third step in the recycling process.

Many items you may see every day are made from
recycled materials. Newspapers, paper towels, office paper,
plastic bottles and aluminum cans are not only made of
recycled materials, but they can also be recycled again.
• Purchasing
The last step, but certainly not the least, involves the purchasing of recycled products. When
consumers purchase products that have been made with post consumer material the
recycling process has been completed and can then
be repeated. If you have the choice to purchase a
product made from recycled materials, instead of one that
was not, what do you think you should do? It takes
education andawareness to remember to
recycle and purchase recycled products.
Products that are Usually Recycled
1. timber products (e.g. furniture)

2. metal products
3. Aluminum products (like soda, milk and tomato cans),
4. Plastics (grocery shopping bags, plastic bottles),
5. Glass products (like wine and beer bottles, broken glass),
6. Paper products (used envelopes, newspapers and magazines, cardboard boxes)

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Metals
• Recycling steel and tin cans saves 74 percent of the

energy used to make them. Metal is pretty cool
(no pun intended).
• Metal is the easiest “element” to recycle and it is used
in everything. From tin cans to car parts, you can find
metal that is recycled from something or another.
• Over 80 tons of metal are scrapped each year and they all
go into the recycling yards.
• Basically, metal is melted down and poured into molds. Now that is cool. You can’t argue
with how cool that is because you’re essentially taking a solid object, making it liquid, then
shaping it back up. Recycling at its best.
How is it recycled?
• Through Metal-Eco.Net, we buy old or no longer used metal products from factories or
offices.
• Metal products that are collected via Metal-Eco.Net are sorted and pressed into ingot
before being transferred to raw material manufacturers.
• The raw materials are then sent to manufacturers and made into new products.
• The recycled metals then come on the market as new products. (Return to Step 1)
Glass
▪ Glass is a relatively inert material, and, as such, it does not decompose;

thus, it is not biodegradable.
▪ Glass recycling is often separated into colors because glass keeps its color
after recycling.
• Mixed color glass “cullet” is used for glass phalt, a glass/asphalt
mixture.
• For every ton of recycled glass turned into new products, 315
kilograms of extra carbon dioxide that would have been released
during the creation of new glass are saved.
• Recycling one glass bottle can save 20% air pollution and 50% less
water pollution than making new bottle from raw materials
• Advantages of utilizing recycled glass include more rapid and
increased production rates and a reduction in pollutant emissions.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
How is it recycled?
• Glass is collected from curbsides or drop-off points

• Glass is transported to recycling plant where metal caps and plastic sleeves are
removed
• The glass is then crushed into small pieces and transported to the glass factory
• At the glass factory it is mixed with sand, limestone and soda ash and melted in a large
furnace
• The hot glass is molded into new bottles
Aluminum
• Recycling old aluminum uses only 5% of the energy used to make new aluminum.
• Approximately 2/3 of cans are recycled each year, saving 19 million barrels of oil
annually.
• Aluminum can be recycled from cans, bicycles, computers, cookware, wires, cars,
planes and other sources.
• Recycling a single aluminum can save enough energy to run a TV for three hours, or
run a 100watt light bulb for four hours
How is it recycled?
• Aluminum cans are picked up from cash-can centers or

curbside bins
• Cans are sorted and squashed together in large bales
• The bales are shredded into small pieces and cleaned
and are then melted down into large blocks of aluminum
• The large blocks are rolled like pastry into very thin sheets
• New cans are then made out of these thin sheets

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Papers
• Recycled paper can be made from three different types of

paper; mill broke (paper scrap and trimmings), pre-consumer
waste (paper that was discarded before consumer use), and
post-consumer waste (paper discarded after consumer use,
such as old newspapers).
• The process of recycling paper instead of making it from new

materials generates 74 percent less air pollution and uses 50
percent less water.
• Manufacturing recycled paper uses 60 percent of the energy

needed to make paper from new materials.
• Recycling one tonne (2204 lb) of paper saves 17 tress, 6,000

gallons of water and produces 73% less air pollution than if it
were made from raw materials
How is it recycled?
• Used papers are picked up from curbside bins and taken to the paper factory
• At the paper mill conveyer belts feed the paper into giant pulpers

E N G G 4 1 2 :
• Water and chemicals are mixed with the paper to remove ink and contaminants and turn
the old paper into pulp
• The pulp is then placed between two wire meshes and left to dry where it becomes new
paper
• The dried paper is polished and rolled into jumbo reels
Recyclable Plastics
Plastics are synthetic polymers, which are substances composed of a chain of molecules---for
instance, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and silicon---hooked together. Plastics are components of
countless products, such as electronics, furniture and beverage containers. U.S. residents used
nearly 13 million tons of plastic containers and packaging in 2008, according to the EPA.
Recycling plastic beverage containers greatly decreases the amount of discarded plastics in
landfills and conserves natural resources.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
How is it recycled?
• Plastic bottles are picked up from curbside recycling bins

• The bottles are taken away to be sorted and crushed into big blocks
• The bottles are then taken to a factory where they are crushed into small flakes
• The flakes are washed and dried and then melted and made into new bottles
Advantages of Recycling
▪ Recycling helps reduce the amount of trash that

is disposed of in landfills.
▪ Recycling, rather than throwing things away, is

also better for the environment.
• Currently it is believed that the amount of carbon dioxide in the

earth’s atmosphere is causing global warming which can have
devastating long term effects.
Recycling is one of many ways that people can cut down the amount of carbon dioxide that is
released into our atmosphere.
Purchasing recycled paper is also better for the environment because it takes less energy to
produce recycled paper and saves some trees along the way.
Disadvantages of Recycling
• Not always Cost Effective: Recycling is not always cost-effective. Sometimes, there
may be a need to establish separate factories to process reusable products. This may
create more pollution in terms of cleaning, storage and transportation.
• Recycled Products May not Last for Long: Recycled products are always not of
durable quality. Such items are mostly made of trashed waste, picked up from heaps
other waste products which are of fragile or overly used. For this reason, recycled
products are cheap and last for a shorter period
• Unsafe and Unhygienic Recycling Sites: Recycling sites are often unsafe and
unhygienic. Places where all sorts of waste is dumped are conducive for debris
formation and spread of disease and other dangers caused by harmful chemicals and
waste. This not only causes widespread pollution but is harmful for dedicated people
who recycle such products. Such waste if mixed with water, leads to leachate
formation and leads to toxication of water bodies including drinking water.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
• Not widespread on Large Scale: Although recycling is an important step to

minimize pollution, unfortunately this process is just a small part of long-term success.
Recycling often occurs at a small scale- homes or schools and has failed to be useful
at a large level such as at industries or holistically at a global stage. Saving paper at
schools cannot be compared to oil spills or massive tree felling at at industrial level.
• High Initial Cost: Setting up new recycling unit involves high cost. This huge cost can
come up as a part of acquiring different utility vehicles, upgrading the processing
facility, educating residents by organizing seminars and other programs, disposing of
existing waste and chemicals etc.
Composition of Daily Wastes

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Easy Ways to Recycle and Use
How to use waste materials:

• Plastic jars and tins can be used as piggy banks and pen holders.
• Cartons can be used to store many things.
• Old cloth can be used as shopping bags. Mats could also be made.
• Waste paper can be recycled or used in artwork. You can also make files with old
chart paper.
• Spoilt toothbrushes can be used for spray- painting.
• Papier- Mache can be made with waste paper, old newspapers, torn chart papers
(which are not in use) etc.
Other things to know:

• Protect your environment! Find many ways to save materials.
• You can write an article about recycling waste materials.
• Do not pollute your environment!

E N G G 4 1 2 :
Total Material Cycle
Adapted from Fig. 23.1, Callister and Rethwisch 9e
• Raw materials are first extracted from natural earthy resources through drilling, mining,
etc.
• Later-on these are subjected to purification, refining to convert them into metals, ceramics,
rubber, fuel, etc.
• These primary products are further processed to obtain engineered materials like metallic
alloy, glass, plastics, semi-conductors, etc.
• Now the engineered materials are shaped, heat treated to make components which are
assembled into products, devices that are ready for use by society.
• During the service, products become old, out fashioned, break down, or may not serve the
purpose efficiently. So they are discarded. This competes the life cycle.

E N G G 4 1 2 :
REFERENCES
Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 10th Edition by William D. Callister Jr and
David G. Rethwisch
Park, C. S., Fundamentals of Engineering Economics, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 2008.
Cohen, M., “Societal Issues in Materials Science and Technology,” Materials Research Society
Bulletin, September, 1994, pp. 3–8.
Ackerman, F., Why Do We Recycle?: Markets, Values, and Public Policy, Island Press,
Washington, DC, 1997.
Newnan, D. G., T. G. Eschenbach, and J. P. Lavelle, Engineering Economic Analysis, 10th

edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 2008.
Ashby, M. F., Materials and the Environment: Eco- Informed Material Choice,
ButterworthHeinemann/Elsevier, Oxford, 2009. White, J. A., K. E. Case, and D. B. Pratt, Principles
of Engineering Economics Analysis, 5th edition, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2009.

1. Choose the odd one out:
a. Poldi Hardness Test
b. Rockwell Hardness Test
c. Bend Test
d. Visual Testing
a. Casting
b. Normalizing
c. Annealing
d. Stress relieving
a. Clay
b. Nano
c. Silica
d. Alumina
a. Fiber-reinforced
b. Particle-reinforced
c. Nano
d. construction
a. Earthenware
b. Hardware
c. Porcelain
d. Stoneware
a. Phenolics
b. Ethylene
c. Epoxy
d. Vulcanized rubbers
a. Molybdenum
b. Titanium
c. Chromium
d. Nickel
a. Polymers
b. Carbon-based
c. Dendrimers
d. Metal-based
a. Pressure test
b. Ferrite test
c. Visual testing
d. Odor test
a. Aluminum
b. Platinum
c. Gold
d. Silver
What are the three basic categories of ceramics?
Is Recycling Sustainable

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E N G G 4 1 2 :

Ferrous and Non- ferrous Metals

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the different types of ferrous and non-ferrous metals

A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has

Types of Metal Alloys

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 1

Figure 1 Classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 2

Source: Callister (2014)

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 3

Source: Callister (2014)

High-strength, Low-alloy (HSLA) steels

It contains alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in

Medium-carbon steels contain 0.25-0.60 wt.% of carbon. It is stronger than low-carbon

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 4

Source: Callister, 2014

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 5

Source: Callister, 2014

Ductile (or Nodular) Iron

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 6

Compacted Graphite Iron

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 7

Copper and Its Alloys

Source: Callister, 2014

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 8

Aluminum and Its Alloys

Magnesium and Its Alloys

Titanium and Its Alloys

The Refractory Metals

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 9

Source: Callister, 2014

The Noble Metals

Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 10

Figure 2. Classifications scheme of metal fabrication techniques

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 11

Figure 3. shows the example illustration of an open and closed-die forging.

Figure 3. Open and Closed die forging

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 12

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 13

Figure 7. Step of Sand Casting

Figure 8. Die casting

Figure 9. Schematic Illustration of Investment Casting

Lost Foam Casting

Figure 10. Lost-foam Casting

Module No. 7 – Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals 15

Figure 11. Continuous Casting

Another fabrication technique involves the compaction of powdered metal, followed by a

In a sense, welding may be considered to be a fabrication technique. In welding, two or

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Heat Treatment Methods

Annealing is a heat treatment process in which a material is exposed to an elevated

Ageing or Precipitation Hardening

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Tempering carried out by preheating previously quenched or normalized steel to a

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○ Alumina - aluminum oxide (Al2O3), used in various applications from abrasives to

○ More complex compounds such as hydrous aluminum silicate (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the