COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

ISLAMABAD CAMPUS

Introduction to bioinformatics

Khezar Mahmood

SP20-BCS-043
Assignment 3

 DNA uses three-base sequences called triplets or codons to form words that guide the
production of specific amino acids. These codons are arranged linearly along DNA, and a
continuous stretch of DNA that encodes a particular protein is called a gene. Most DNA is in the
cell's nucleus, but protein synthesis primarily occurs in the cytoplasm. Since DNA cannot leave
the nucleus, messenger RNA (mRNA) is responsible for carrying genetic information from the
nucleus to the cytoplasm in a process called transcription. In the cytoplasm, mRNA directs the
assembly of amino acids to create a protein, a process known as translation. Translation occurs
on ribosomes in the cytoplasm or on the endoplasmic reticulum. This entire process, from DNA
to mRNA to protein synthesis, is governed by genetic information and aided by messengers
(mRNA) and translators (tRNA).
 DNA replication is the fundamental process of duplicating a double-stranded DNA molecule to
create two identical DNA molecules. It's crucial for ensuring that when a cell divides, both
daughter cells have the same genetic information as the parent cell. The replication process
unfolds in three key steps: first, the DNA double helix unwinds and separates into two strands at
a designated spot called the origin. Next, enzymes and proteins collaborate to prime the DNA
strands for duplication. Finally, a specialized enzyme called DNA polymerase orchestrates the
assembly of new DNA strands. While this process generally applies to all cells, specific variations
can occur based on the organism and cell type.
 DNA replication initiation involves two steps: firstly, an initiator protein unwinds a portion of the
DNA double helix. Subsequently, helicase, another protein, binds to the DNA and disrupts
hydrogen bonds between the bases on the DNA strands, causing them to separate. Helicase
progresses along the DNA, continuously breaking these hydrogen bonds and further separating
the two polynucleotide chains.
 DNA, the genetic material present in cells, must be copied before cell division (mitosis or
meiosis) to ensure that each new cell has the right number of chromosomes. This crucial process
is known as DNA replication and involves various proteins and RNA. In eukaryotic cells, like
animals and plants, DNA replication happens during the S phase of interphase in the cell cycle.
DNA replication is essential for cell growth, repair, and reproduction in organisms.
 DNA is an incredible molecule that defines our individuality. Scientists' growing knowledge of
DNA helps us understand ourselves, others, and the world better. Surprisingly, our DNA is 99.9%
identical to anyone else's, forming a shared foundation for human development. The remaining
0.1% accounts for variations that shape our uniqueness, combined with environmental and
social factors influencing our abilities, health, and behavior. The complexity of this single
molecule continues to amaze, making DNA research an exciting journey of discovery.
 DNA, a 6-billion-letter code, stores our genetic information and provides instructions for our
assembly. The human body contains 46 chromosomes, each with a single large DNA molecule
composed of repeating molecular units called nucleotides. These nucleotides form base pairs,
with adenine always pairing with thymine. Nucleic acids are essential chemicals in this process,
capable of breaking down into phosphoric acid, sugars, and organic bases like purines and
pyrimidines. Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, carry vital information in cells and govern
inherited traits. DNA is the master blueprint of life found in all organisms, while RNA has a role
in protein synthesis and is also present in living cells.
 This article delves into the chemistry of nucleic acids, explaining their structures and properties
that enable them to carry genetic information. DNA consists of four nucleotides—A, C, G, and T
—linked together with a backbone of alternating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar residues.
These nitrogen-containing bases pair up in a complementary manner, forming hydrogen bonds
between them. A always pairs with T through two hydrogen bonds, and G always pairs with C
through three hydrogen bonds. These paired segments have similar lengths, ensuring uniformity
in bridging the sugar-phosphate chains. This stable and complementary structure makes DNA
the perfect genetic material, facilitating replication and the transmission of genetic data.
 RNA is a unique molecule with ribose as its sugar component, containing one more oxygen atom
than deoxyribose found in DNA. It plays a crucial role in transferring genetic information and
synthesizing proteins, primarily outside the cell nucleus. RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid
composed of four nucleotides: A, C, G, and U, connected by a backbone of alternating
phosphate and ribose sugar residues. It serves as the first step in translating DNA information
into essential proteins for cellular functions. Additionally, some RNAs have direct roles in cellular
metabolism. RNA is produced by copying the base sequence of a gene from double-stranded
DNA through a process called transcription, catalyzed by an enzyme known as RNA polymerase.
 DNA, the genetic material of living organisms, was first discovered in 1869 by Swiss biochemist
Friedrich Miescher. His research initially focused on white blood cells, particularly their nuclei,
which he found contained a substance he called 'nuclein.' Over time, scientists like Richard
Altmann and Albrecht Kossel further characterized this nucleic acid, leading to its renaming as
nucleic acid. In the 1930s, research unveiled key properties of nucleic acids, including the
identification of their four bases and the presence of deoxyribose sugar, resulting in the name
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Erwin Chargaff's work revealed consistent base pair ratios in DNA
molecules across species. DNA is a polymer composed of nucleotide monomers.
 Nucleic acids, like proteins, contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, but they also
include phosphorus (C, H, O, N, and P). These large macromolecules consist of repeating units
called nucleotides, akin to pearls on a necklace. Nucleic acids play a crucial role in encoding,
transmitting, and expressing genetic information within our cells. Nucleotides consist of three
components: phosphate groups, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), and a nitrogen-
containing base (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil).