CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

The diagram representing the three- dimensional

arrangement of particles (atoms, ions, or
molecules) of a crystal in space with each particle
depicted as point is called crystal lattice. There are
only 14 possible three - dimensional lattices and are
known as Bravais lattices which is named after the
famous French crystallographer, Auguste Bravais.
The fourteen Bravais lattices are grouped into seven
crystal systems.

The seven crystal systems are known as cubic,

tetragonal, orthorhombic, rhombohedral (also
known as trigonal), hexagonal, monoclinic, and
triclinic.

COORDINATION NUMBER

- The number of atoms and ions immediately

surrounding a central atom in crystal
structure.
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR Crystallographic planes describe the orientation of
the crystal, which is dependent on the orientation of
- Atomic Packing Factor (APF) or packing
the individual unit cells within the crystals. Each
Efficiency is the fraction of volume in a
type of plane is unique, differing in atom count and
crystal structure that is occupied by
binding energies and that makes individual crystals
constituent atoms.
differ in their chemical, electrical and physical
- It is determined by assuming that atoms are
properties. Important planes of atoms in a crystal
Rigid Spheres.
are identified using Miller Indices.
- The radius of the spheres is taken to be the
maximum value such that atoms do not The following steps are used to determine Miller
overlap. indices:

Determine the coordinates of the intercepts made

by the plane along the three crystallographic axes.

Determine the reciprocals of these numbers.

Reduce these reciprocals to the smallest set of

integral numbers and enclosed them in parenthesis
(h, k, l). Negative direction has a top bar on the (h k
l) value, i.e.
 METAL CORROSION MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Corrosion is an oxidation-reduction reaction in OF MATERIALS
which a free metal is oxidized via exposure to wet,
A material determines its properties under applied
warm, salty, acidic and/or oxygenated conditions.
force. It can also be the basis on how to predict the
The corrosion of metal is of engineering concern
behavior of the materials with different load
because corrosion leads to degradation of
conditions and to be able use its properties on how
materials made up of metals that are prone to
to design a material. There are several properties of
corrosion. Iron is a widely used metal in many man-
materials: physical, mechanical, electrical, thermal,
made structures that is highly prone to corrosion.
and chemical.
Corrosion can be prevented by eliminating the
environmental conditions that favor oxidation. A. Stress-Strain relationship
Another way is by using a “sacrificial” metal that is
more easily oxidized than the metal that is being It deals with the response of the material
protected from corrosion. when a load is applied on it. When tension or
compression is applied to the material, there will be
The corrosion of iron can be demonstrated change in its original dimensions. It will be quite
electrochemically by the oxidation of free iron to helpful if we plot the values as a load-deflection
Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions and the reaction of oxygen with curve wherein we could acquire the value of the
water to form OH- ions. In this experiment, material’s elastic modulus. We can determine the
indicators will be used to signal the formation of stress values and strain values using the
Fe2+ ions and OH- ions as products of the corrosion mathematical equation:
of iron. One indicator is the hexacyanoferrate (III)
ion, which turns blue in the presence of Fe2+ ions.
The other one is the phenolphthalein indicator,
which turns pink in the presence of OH- ions.

Stress-Strain Curve

Let us discuss the stress-strain curve to further

understand the effect of tensile test on the
materials. The graph is between the stress (along
the y axis) and strain (along the x axis).
P: it is the proportionality limit, which represents 1. Hardness
the maximum value of stress at which the
stress-strain curve is linear. Hardness is the ability of the material to
E: it is the elastic limit, which represents the resist permanent deformation induced by
maximum value of stress. Between the region of mechanical indentation. It can be characterized by
proportionality limit and elastic limit, if the load is its strong intermolecular forces. Hardness is the
removed the material will return to its original ability of the material to oppose the dent which
length. may be caused by scratching, abrasion, cutting,
Y; it is the yield point, which states the limit of identation or penetration.
stretchability behaviour and the starting of
plastic behaviour. Before reaching the yield There are three types of hardness for materials:
point, the material will deform stretchability
and return to its origianl shape when the
applied stress is removed. 1. Scratch hardness- describes plastic
U; it is the ultimate strength or ultimate tensile deformation of fracture due to friction
strength (UTS), which is the maximum value of (scratches and abrasion). This test measures
stress-strain diagram. At this point, the how resistant a material is to fracture or
material will exhibit necking, in which the permanent plastic deformation due to
cross-sectional area reduces significantly. friction.
F; it is the fracture point or breaking point, which the
material fails and separates into two pieces. 2. Indentation hardness – describes resistance
to permanent plastic deformation due to
constant compression load. This test are
primarily used in engineering and metallurgy
fields. The traditional methods are based on
well-defined indentation hardness tests. So
to do this test, a very hard indenter are
continuously pressed into the material under
a particular force by using an indenter with
Possible ways to study stress-strain behavior: defined geometries and sizes. The most
common indentation hardness scales are
Tension/tensile – force applies is going outward Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers.
Compression – force applied is going inward 3. Rebound hardness – describes the height of
Shear – force applied in two directions the “bounce” of a diamond-tipped hammer
dropped onto the material from a specified
Torsion – force applied is twisting or rotational height. A material with higher rebound will
have a higher bounce when the hammer is
dropped.
 WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
Water Treatment Process Filtration

Detailed steps and methods of water treatment The partially clarified water is then passed through
depend on the nature of raw water and required sand gravity filter which removes impurities and
standard of water quality. microorganisms. During the process unpleasant
odors may occur, activated carbon can be used in
General steps in purification of drinking water are
filter bed to remove bad odors.
included.
Disinfection

The final stage is disinfection of the filtered water

by using disinfectants such as chlorination. In this
stage, disinfection kills pathogenic and other
microorganism in water. After disinfection, water is
distributed for domestic distribution.

Water Quality Indicators for Lakes and Ponds

2. Temperature
3. Turbidity
4. Transparency
Aeration 5. Speed
The sample (raw water) is collected in a large 6. Oxygen
aeration tank. The water sample is aerated by using 7. Carbon Dioxide:
compressed air through perforated pipes. It 8. pH
removes bad odors, CO2, and some metals such as 9. Hardness
iron, manganese through precipitation of their 10. Nitrogen
respective hydroxides. 11. Phosphorus
12. Chloride
Storage/ Settling

The aerated water is then placed in a settling tank

which should be stored for 10-14 days. Some of the
suspended solids heavier toxic chemicals will settle
down and water becomes clear. In addition,
pathogenic bacteria will gradually decrease in
counts. During the storage organic matter present
in water sample is oxidized by microorganisms.

Coagulation

Water sample is then placed in coagulation tank

with addition of precipitating agents such as alum
or lime. There should be constant stirring inside the
tank. There will be a formation of precipitate when
dissolved in water. Gradually the mass of the
suspended solid becomes heavier and finally
settles down.
 Determination of Dissolved
WASTEWATER TREATMENT Oxygen in Water
The treatment procedure are generally divided into
three group:
One of the most important indicators of water
1.Primary Treatment or Mechanical Treatment quality is dissolved oxygen. It is a measure of the
amount of gaseous O2 dissolved in water. Enough
2.Secondary Treatment or Biological Treatment
level of dissolved oxygen (DO) is needed to support
3.Tertiary Treatment or Advance biological or aquatic life in a body of water. A minimum of 5.0
Chemical Treatment mg/L of DO is required for a healthy aquatic system.
DO level can be determined by azide-modified
▪ Boiling is the simplest of all water Winkler titration which involves the treatment of
purification methods. It is effective because water sample with manganese sulfate, basic iodide-
it kills 99.9% of all living things and vaporizes azide reagent, and finally concentrated sulfuric
most chemicals. acid. Initially, Mn(OH)2 precipitate reacts with DO to
▪ Chlorination is one of the most common form a brown precipitate manganic hydroxide,
water purification techniques that has been MnO(OH)2. Upon acidification, manganic sulfate is
in use for many years. Likely, it is because it formed which releases free iodine from potassium
is easily available, cheap, and effective. iodide. The iodine, which is stoichiometrically
▪ Reverse Osmosis, commonly referred to as equivalent to DO, is then determined by titration with
RO, is the perfect solution to improve the sodium thiosulfate. Starch is used as indicator in the
taste, odor, and appearance of your water. titration which gives a blue-black color in the
RO is a method universally known for its presence of iodine.
effective purification of seawater. It is a
process in which dissolved inorganic solids,
such as fluoride, chlorine, lead, and
pesticides are removed from water by
applying pressure more than the osmotic
pressure and pushing the water through a
semi-permeable membrane.
▪ Distillation is one of the simplest water
purification processes. A water distillation
system is simply designed to purify your
water in an inexpensive, quick, and effective
way. This process has only two operations,
namely evaporation, and condensation.
▪ Filtration is a method of physical or
mechanical separation of one substance to
another in a liquid through a suitable media.
Traditionally, this media comprised of sand
and granules, but modern filtration systems
use activated carbon as the main constituent
material of the filter.