Introduction to Analytical Chemistry,

Solution, Dilution, Colligative Properties

and Stoichiometry
Antonio G. Celajes Jr., RCh
WCC Prayer
 Today’s Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to produce solutions with correct concentration and use it to analyze acids, bases and
other solutions.

Introduction to Analytical Chemistry

a. Qualitative versus Quantitative Chemistry
Solutions, Colloids, Acids and Bases
a. Types of Solution and Colloids
b. Factors that affect solubility
c. Electrolytes and Non-electrolytes
d. Methods of expressing concentration of solutions
e. Determination of concentrations of solution
f. The Colligative properties of solution
g. Acids and Bases
Stoichiometry
a. Computations based on balanced equations
 Analytical Chemistry

Analytical Chemistry

- the study of what is present (qualitative analysis) and how much is

present (quantitative analysis);

- the science of inventing and applying the concepts, principles,

and…strategies for measuring the characteristics of chemical
systems.
 Solutions and Colloids
Solution
- a special type of homogeneous mixture composed of two or more
substances;
- composed of two parts – solute (the one being dissolved) and solvent (the
one that dissolves / dissolving medium);
- water is considered the universal solvent as almost any solute can dissolve in
it and a solution whose solvent is water is called aqueous solution.

Types of Solution
1. Gaseous Solution – the solvent is gas ie air
2. Liquid Solution – the solvent is liquid ie saline solution, rubbing alcohol, soda
3. Solid solution – the solvent is solid ie sterling silver, amalgam
 Solutions and Colloids

Colloids
- a homogeneous, noncrystalline substance consisting of large molecules
or ultramicroscopic particles of one substance dispersed through a
second substance;

- include gels (hair gels), sols (smoke, fog, aerosols), emulsions

(mayonnaise, shampoo) and suspensions (muddy water, medicine
suspensions);

- the particles do not settle and cannot be separated out by ordinary

filtering or centrifuging like those in a suspension.
Factors Affecting Solubility
Solubility
- the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved by the solvent;
- applied to a system of solid / gaseous solute and liquid solvent.

Miscibility
- applied to a system of liquid solute and liquid solvent

Based on Solubility / Miscibility, Solutions are classified as:

1. Saturated – when a solvent contains all the solute it can hold
2. Unsaturated – any solution containing lesser amount of solute
3. Supersaturated – when a solvent contains more solute than it can
dissolved
 Factors Affecting Solubility

Solubility can be affected by the following factors:

1. Nature of Solute and Solvent – “like dissolves like”, polar dissolves polar, non-polar dissolves
non-polar
Polar solutes in a solution are mostly electrolytes – dissolves in water to produce + and
– charges
Non-polar solute in a solution are mostly non-electrolytes – do not produce + or –
charges
Pure polar solute, pure non-polar solute and pure solvents – do not conduct electricity

2. Temperature – the higher the temperature the higher the solubility

3. Pressure – applied only to gases; the higher the pressure the higher the solubility
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
Concentration – refers to the total amount of solute present in a solution; can be
expressed as:

1. Percent by weight / mass (if solute is solid) – weight of solute divided by the weight of
solution
Weight of solute
% by weight (or mass) = ------------------------------------------ x 100
Weight of solution
Weight of solution = weight of solute + weight of solvent

a. A certain solution has a density of 1.27g/mL. What is its percent by mass

concentration if 100mL of it contains 17.75g solute?
b. How may grams of KCl is needed to prepare 12.52% by mass solution whose final
volume is 7.28L. The density of the resulting solution was found to be 1.08g/mL.
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. A certain solution has a density of 1.27g/mL. What is its percent by mass
concentration if 100mL of it contains 17.75g solute?
I. Given: ρ = 1.27g/mL V of solution = 100mL wt. solute = 17.75g
II. Required: % by mass (wt)
III. Solution:

Weight of solute
% by weight (or mass) = ------------------------------------------ x 100
Weight of solution

Weight of solution = weight of solute + weight of solvent

ρ = wt solution / V solution
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. A certain solution has a density of 1.27g/mL. What is its percent by mass
concentration if 100mL of it contains 17.75g solute?

Weight of solution Weight of solute

ρ = -------------------------- % by mass (wt) = -------------------------- x 100
Volume of solution Weight of solution
17.75 g
Wt. solution = ρ x V solution % by mass (wt) = -------------------------- x 100
127 g
Wt. solution = 1.27g/mL x 100mL
% by mass (wt) = 13.98%
Wt. solution = 127 g
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
b. How may grams of KCl is needed to prepare 12.52% by mass solution
whose final volume is 7.28L. The density of the resulting solution was
found to be 1.08g/mL.
I. Given: %by mass solution = 12.52% V of solution = 7.28L = 7,280mL ρ = 1.08g/mL
II. Required: wt. in g of KCl (solute)
III. Solution:

Weight of solute Wt. solute x 100 = (%w/w)(wt solution)

% by weight (or mass) = ------------------------------------------ x 100
Weight of solution
(%w/w)(wt solution)
Wt. solute = --------------------------
Weight of solution = weight of solute + weight of solvent 100

ρ = wt solution / V solution
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
b. How may grams of KCl is needed to prepare 12.52% by mass solution
whose final volume is 7.28L. The density of the resulting solution was
found to be 1.08g/mL.
(%w/w)(wt solution) (12.52)(7,862.40g)
Wt. solute = -------------------------- Wt. solute = --------------------------
100 100

Wt. solution Wt. solute = 984.37g

ρ = --------------------------
Vol. solution

Wt. solution = ρ x V solution

Wt. solution = (1.08g/mL)(7,280mL)

Wt. solution = 7,862.40g

 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
2. Percent by volume (if solute is liquid) – volume of solute divided by the
volume of solution
Volume of solute
% by volume (v/v) = ------------------------------------------ x 100
Volume of solution

Volume of solution = volume of solute + volume of solvent

a. How many L of ethyl alcohol is there in a 750mL 55 proof Emperador Light Premium Brandy.
2 proof = 1% ethyl alcohol.
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. How many L of ethyl alcohol is there in a 750mL 55 proof Emperador Light Premium Brandy.
2 proof = 1% ethyl alcohol.

I. Given: V solution = 750mL = 0.75L Proof = 55 = 27.5% (% by volume)

II. Required: V in L of ethyl alcohol (solute)
III. Solution:
Volume of solute (27.5)(0.75 L)
% by volume (%v/v) = -------------------------- x 100 Vol. solute = --------------------------
Volume of solution 100

Vol. solute x 100 = (%v/v)(vol. solution) Vol. solute = 0.2063 L

(%v/v)(vol. solution)
Vol.. solute = --------------------------
100
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
3. Parts per million (ppm) – part of solute per million part of a solution, use for analysis of trace
quantities
Weight of solute in mg Weight of solute in mg
ppm = -------------------------------- or ppm = -------------------------------
Weight of solution in kg Volume of solution in L

*Parts per million can be converted into %by weight by simply dividing it by 10,000

a. What is the parts per million concentration of ethyl alcohol in Emperador Lights Premium
Brandy?

b. How may grams of Arsenic are there in a 6,750mL solution whose concentration is
332.59ppm?
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. What is the parts per million concentration of ethyl alcohol in Emperador
Lights Premium Brandy?
I. Given: V solution = 750mL = 0.75L Proof = 55 = 27.5% (% by volume)
II. Required: ppm ethyl alcohol (solute)
III. Solution: *Parts per million can be converted into %by weight by simply dividing it by 10,000

ppm ppm = 275,000ppm or 275,000mg/L

% w/w = --------------------------
10,000

ppm = %w/w x 10,000

ppm = (27.5)(10,000)
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
b. How may grams of Arsenic are there in a 6,750mL solution whose
concentration is 332.59ppm?
I. Given: V solution = 6,750mL = 6.75L ppm = 332.59mg/L
II. Required: wt. in g of As (solute)
III. Solution:

Wt. in mg solute Wt. in mg solute = 2,244.98 mg

ppm = --------------------------
Vol. in L solution 1g
Wt. in mg solute = 2,244.98 mg x --------------------------
1,000 mg
Wt. in mg solute = (ppm)(Vol. in L solution)
Wt. in g solute = 2.24 g
Wt. in mg solute = (332.59mg/L)(6.75 L)
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
4. Molarity (M) – the number of mole of solute per liter of solution; 1 mol = 1,000mmol

Weight of solute
M = --------------------------------------------
(MW of solute)(Liters of solution)

a. Determine the molar concentration of a 3.52-liter solution containing 45.83g

K4Fe(CN)6. K = 39; Fe = 56; C = 12; N = 14

b. How many grams of glucose are there in a 350mL urine sample whose glucose
concentration is 12.5mmol/L? C = 12; H = 1; O = 16; 1 L = 10dL; 1 g = 1,000mg

c. How many liters of solution will be produced if 16.33g NaOH was used to prepare
0.12M solution?
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. Determine the molar concentration of a 3.52-liter solution containing
45.83g K4Fe(CN)6. K = 39; Fe = 56; C = 12; N = 14
I. Given: V solution = 3.52L wt. solute = 45.83g
MW K4Fe(CN)6 = (4)(39) + (1)(56) + (6)(12) + (6)(14) = 156 + 56 + 72 + 84 =
368g/mol
II. Required: M
III. Solution:

Wt. in g solute 45.83g

M = ------------------------------------ = ------------------------------------ = 0.0354 mol/L = 0.0354M
(MW solute)(Vol. in L (368 g/mol)(3.52 L)
solution)
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
b. How many grams of glucose are there in a 350mL urine sample whose
glucose (C6H12O6) concentration is 12.5mmol/L? C = 12; H = 1; O = 16; 1 L =
10dL; 1 g = 1,000mg
I. Given: V solution = 350 mL = 0.35L M = 12.5mmol / L
MW C6H12O6 = (6)(12) + (12)(1) + (6)(16) = 72 + 12 + 96 = 180g/mol

II. Required: wt. in g glucose (solute)

III. Solution:
1 mol Wt. in g solute Wt. in g solute = 0.7875 g
M = 12.5 mmol / L x -------------------------- M = --------------------------
1,000 mmol (MW)(V in L solution)

M = 0.0125 mol / L Wt. in g solute = (M)(MW)(Vol. in L solution)

Wt. in mg solute = (0.0125mol/L)(180g/mol)(0.35L)

 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
c. How many liters of solution will be produced if 16.33g NaOH was used to
prepare 0.12M solution? Na = 23; O = 16; H = 1
I. Given: wt. NaOH (solute) = 16.33g M = 0.12 M = 0.12 mol / L
MW NaOH = (1)(23) + (1)(16) + (1)(1) = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40g/mol

II. Required: Vol. in L solution

III. Solution:

Wt. in g solute Wt. in g solute V solution = 3.40 L

M = -------------------------- V in L solution = --------------------------
(MW)(V in L solution) (M)(MW)
16.33 g
V in L solution = --------------------------
Wt. in g solute = (M)(MW)(Vol. in L solution) (0.12 mol/L)(40 g/mol)
-------------------- -------------------------------
(M)(MW) (M)(MW)
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
5. Molality (m) – the number of mole of solute per kg of solvent (NOT SOLUTION)
Weight of solute
m = ----------------------------------------------
(MW of solute)(kg of solvent)

a. What must be the MW of a certain solute if 29.54g of it was dissolved in

330mL distilled water whose resulting concentration is 5m?

b. What is the molal concentration of a solution containing 38.29g FeS and

723mL water? Fe = 56; S = 32
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. What must be the MW of a certain solute if 29.54g of it was dissolved in
330mL distilled water whose resulting concentration is 5m?
I. Given: wt. solute = 29.54g V solvent = 330mL ~ 330g (ρ water = 1g/mL) = 0.33kg
m = 5 mole/kg
II. Required: MW of Solute
III. Solution:

Wt. in g solute Wt. in g solute

m = -------------------------- MW solute = -------------------------------------
(MW solute)(kg solvent) (m)(kg solvent)
29.54g
MW solute = -------------------------------------
(5mol/kg)(0.33kg)
Wt. in g solute = (m)(MW solute)(kg solvent)
-------------------- -------------------------------
(m)(kg solvent) (m)(kg MW solute = 17.90g/mole
solvent)
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
b. What is the molal concentration of a solution containing 38.29g FeS and
723mL water? Fe = 56; S = 32
I. Given: wt. FeS (solute) = 38.29g V solvent = 723mL ~ 723g = 0.723kg
MW FeS = (1)(56) + (1)(32) = 88g/mol

II. Required: m
III. Solution:

Wt. in g solute
m = --------------------------
(MW solute)(kg solvent)

38.29g
m = ------------------------------------- m = 0.6018 mol/kg = 0.6018m
(88g/mol)(0.723kg)
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
6. Normality (N) – the number of gram-equivalent weights of the solute contained in one liter of the
solution.
Weight of solute
N = ------------------------------------------------------------------
(GEW solute)(Liters of solution)

Where: To determine number of equivalent:

MW solute acid – number of hydrogen
GEW = --------------------------
# of equivalent base – number of hydroxide (OH)
salts – valence x subscript of either cation or anion

Normality is related to Molarity by: N = (M)(# of equivalent)

 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. What must be the MW of a substance whose 2.50-L aqueous solution has a
concentration of 2.36N. 54.19g of the substance was used to prepare the solution and was
proven to have 5 hydroxide units. What is its molar concentration?

b. Pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2O7) was used to prepare a solution whose concentration is

6.3N. If the total volume produced is 8.26 liters, how much of the acid was used? H = 1; P =
31; O = 16

c. 22.56 grams of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) was dissolved in water to produce 2,250mL
solution. What must be its normal and molar concentrations? Na = 23; S = 32; O = 16

d. Determine the number of equivalents in a 2.76L solution containing 258.32 grams of a

certain substance whose concentration is 3.28N. The molecular weight was found to be
207g/mole.
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. What must be the MW of a substance whose 2.50-L aqueous solution has a
concentration of 2.36N. 54.19g of the substance was used to prepare the
solution and was proven to have 5 hydroxide units. What is its molar
concentration?
I. Given: V solution = 2.50 L N = 2.36 equiv/L wt solute = 54.19g # of equiv. =
5 equiv
II. Required: MW
III. Solution:
Wt. in g solute Wt. in g solute
N = -------------------------- GEW solute = -------------------------------------
(GEW solute)(V in L solution) (N)(V in L)
54.19g
GEW solute = -------------------------------------
(2.36 equiv/L)(2.50 L)
Wt. in g solute = (N)(GEW solute)(V in L
--------------------
solution) -------------------------------
(N)(V in L) (N)(V in L) GEW solute = 9.18 g/equiv
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
a. What must be the MW of a substance whose 2.50-L aqueous solution has a
concentration of 2.36N. 54.19g of the substance was used to prepare the
solution and was proven to have 5 hydroxide units. What is its molar
concentration?
GEW solute = 9.18 g/equiv MW solute = (9.18 g/equiv)(5 equiv)

MW solute = 45.9g/mol

MW of solute
GEW = --------------------------
# of equiv

MW solute = (GEW solute)(# of equiv)

 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
b. Pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2O7) was used to prepare a solution whose
concentration is 6.3N. If the total volume produced is 8.26 liters, how much of
the acid was used? H = 1; P = 31; O = 16
I. Given: N = 6.3 equiv/L V = 8.26L # of equiv. = 4 equiv
MW H4P2O7 = (4)(1) + (2)(31) + (7)(16) = 4 +62 + 112 = 178g/mole

II. Required: wt. H4P2O7

III. Solution:
Wt. in g solute 178g = 44.5 g/equiv
N = -------------------------- GEW = --------------------------
(GEW solute)(V in L solution) 4 equiv

Wt. in g solute = (N)(GEW solute)(V in L solution) Wt. in g solute = (6.3 equiv/L)(44.5 g/equiv))(8.26 L)

MW of solute Wt. in g solute = 2,315.69g H4P2O7

GEW = --------------------------
# of equiv
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
7. Mole fraction – the number of mole of solute or solvent per total number of mole of
solution
mole of solute
Mole Fraction Solute (Xsolute) = -----------------------------------------
Mole of solute + Mole of solvent

mole of solvent
Mole Fraction Solvent (Xsolvent) = -----------------------------------------
Mole of solute + Mole of solvent

Compute for the mole fraction of solute and solvent containing 38.87g NaCl and 82.93g
water.
Na = 23; Cl = 35
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
Compute for the mole fraction of solute and solvent containing 38.87g NaCl
and 82.93g water.
Na = 23; Cl = 35
I. Given: wt NaCl = 38.87g wt H2O = 82.93g MW NaCl = (1)(23) + (1)(35) = 58g/mole
MW H2O = (1)(1) + (1)(16) = 18g/mole
II. Required: X solute and solvent
III. Solution:
Mole solute
X solute = --------------------------
Mole solute + Mole solvent
Wt solute 38.87g
mole solute = -------------------------- = -------------------------- = 0.6702 mole
MW solute 58 g/mol
Wt solvent 82.93g
mole solvent = -------------------------- = -------------------------- = 4.6072 mole
MW solvent 18 g/mol
 Methods of Expressing Concentration of
Solution
Compute for the mole fraction of solute and solvent containing 38.87g NaCl
and 82.93g water.
Na = 23; Cl = 35
I. Given: wt NaCl = 38.87g wt H2O = 82.93g MW NaCl = (1)(23) + (1)(35) = 58g/mole
MW H2O = (1)(1) + (1)(16) = 18g/mole
II. Required: X solute and solvent
III. Solution:
Mole solute 0.6702mole 0.6702mole
X solute = -------------------------- = -------------------------- = -------------------------- = 0.1270
Mole solute + Mole solvent 0.6702mole + 4.6072mole 5.2774 mole

Mole solvent 4.6072mole 4.6072mole

X solvent = -------------------------- = -------------------------- = -------------------------- = 0.8730
Mole solute + Mole solvent 0.6702mole + 4.6072mole 5.2774 mole

X solute + X solvent = 1
 Dilution

Dilution

- the process of adding more solvent to a solution to produce new

concentration.

- Follows the formula C1V1 = C2V2

- Where C1 = initial concentration
C2 = final concentration
V1 = initial volume
V2 = final volume