DC Circuits

This chapter deals with direct current circuits involving combinations of voltage sources
(batteries or power supplies) and resistors. It also covers RC circuits in which capacitors
are charged or discharged through a resistor.

Voltage sources

A voltage source in a circuit is sometimes referred to a source of emf. Emf refers to

‘electromotive force’. It is not really a force -rather it is a potential difference which can
drive a current through a circuit. The most common sources would be a battery or a
‘power supply’. A power supply is an instrument which converts the AC (alternating
current or alternating voltage) from the line voltage source to a DC (direct current)
source.

Voltage sources are not perfect, and the voltage will vary with the amount of current that
is drawn from the source. A way of modeling this is to think of a voltage source as an
ideal voltage source (emf) in series with an internal resistor (r).

If the voltage source is connected to a load resistor (R), then it draws a current. The
voltage drop across the internal resistance is Ir, so the total voltage that appears across the
output terminals (a and b) is

∆V = emf – ΔVr = emf - Ir

This is less than the voltage that would appear if I = 0, which would be emf

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Example

A 12-volt battery has an internal resistance of 0.1 Ω. When connected to a 1-Ω load
resistor, what is the output voltage of the battery?

The output voltage of the battery must be the same as the voltage across the load. So,

ΔV =emf - Ir=IR
emf 12 V
I= = =10 .9 A
r+ R 0. 1 Ω+1 Ω
ΔV =IR=(10 . 9 A )(1 Ω)=10 . 9 V

How much power is dissipated in the load?

2 2
P=I R=(10 . 9 A ) (1 Ω)=119 W

How much power is dissipated internally in the battery?

2
P=(10. 9 A ) (0. 1 Ω)=11 .9 W

A simple circuit

A simple circuit with a voltage source and a single resistor is shown below. To measure
the voltage across the resistor we use a voltmeter. To measure the current through the
resistor we pass the current through an ammeter.

The ammeter is connected is series with the resistor because the current thought them is
the same. The voltmeter is connect in parallel with the resistor because the voltage across
them is the same.

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Ideally, the voltmeter should have infinite resistance so that all the current that goes
through the ammeter also goes through the resistance. Also, ideally the ammeter should
have zero resistance.

In practice both the voltmeter and the ammeter have finite resistance.

Resistor combinations

Series Combination

For resistors in series, the current must be the same through each resistor, and the total
voltage drop across the resistors is the sum of the voltage drop across each of the
resistors.

ΔV = ΔV 1 + ΔV 2 + ΔV 3 +. ..
IR s = I 1 R1 + I 2 R2 + I 3 R 3 +. ..
I = I 1=I 2 =I 3=. . .
IR series = I ( R1 + R 2 + R3 +.. .)

thus,

R series = R 1 +R 2 + R 3+..

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Parallel Combination

For resistors in parallel, the voltages must be the same across each resistor and the total
current is the sum of the currents through each of the resistors.

So,

I = I 1 +I 2 +I 3 +.. .
ΔV ΔV 1 ΔV 2 ΔV 3
= + + + .. .
R|| R1 R2 R3
ΔV 1 = ΔV 2 = ΔV 3 = . .. = ΔV

1 1 1 1
= + + +.. .
R|| R 1 R 2 R 3

For two resistors in parallel, the above equation can be written as

R1 R2
R|| = .
R1+ R2

Note that the rules for adding resistors in series and resistors in parallel are opposite to
the rules for adding capacitors in series and in parallel.

Example

Three resistors, R1 = 4 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω, and R3 = 12 , are connected in parallel. Find the

equivalent resistance.

Solution:

1 1 1 1 6 1
= + + = = ⇒ R|| = 2 Ω
R|| 4 6 12 12 2

Note that R|| is smaller than any of the individual resistances.

If connected in series, then the equivalent resistance is

R series =4+6+12=22 Ω

Rseries is larger than any of the individual resistances.

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Example

Find the current through and the voltage drop across each resistor in the circuit below.

We first find the total equivalent resistance. R2 and R3 are in parallel, and this parallel
combination is in series with R1. Thus,

R2 R3 (6 )(12 )
R 23 = = =4 Ω
R 2 + R 3 6+12
Req = R1 + R23=8+ 4=12 Ω

The total current, which is also the current through R1, is

ΔV 24 V
I= = =2 A (=I 1 )
R eq 12 Ω

Then,

ΔV 1 =I 1 R 1 =(2 A )( 8 Ω)=16 V
ΔV 2= ΔV 3 =ΔV 23=IR 23=(2 A )( 4 Ω)=8 V
ΔV 8 V ΔV 8V
I2= 2 = =1. 33 A , I 3 = 3 = =0 . 67 A
R2 6Ω R 12 Ω
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Note that, as required,

I 1 = I 2+ I 3
ΔV 1 + ΔV 23 = ΔV

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Kirchhoff's Rules

In the previous problem we saw that the currents at the junction of the resistors added and
that the voltages across the resistors added to give the supply voltage. These are very
general results and apply to all circuits. They are referred to as Kirchhoff's rules:

1. ∑i I i = 0 The sum of the currents entering a junction must be the sum of the
currents leaving a junction. (node rule).

2. ∑i ΔV i = 0 The sum of the potential changes around a closed loop must add
to zero. (loop rule).

The first rule is based on conservation of charge and the second rule is based on
conservation of energy.

In interpreting and applying the loop rule, we have to be careful about signs. ∆V can be
positive or negative, depending on whether V increases or decreases while traversing the
loop across a circuit element.

Example

Let’s apply the loop rule to the simple series circuit below.

We must first pick a direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) about which to traverse

the loop in summing the potential changes. Either direction will work. As indicated
above, we choose the clockwise direction. Starting at point a, applying the loop rule
gives

ΔV −IR 1−IR 2 =0

We can solve this for I and get I = 9V/3Ω = 3 A. Then,

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 12V −( 3 A )(1Ω )−(3 A )(2Ω )=12 V −3 V −6 V =0

In going from point a to point b, the potential increases. In going from b to c the
potential decreases. (Current flows in the direction of decreasing potential.) And in
going from c back to a, the potential also decreases. If we had summed the potential
changes going counter-clockwise, all the signs in the above equation would have been
reversed, but the results would have been the same.

The Kirchhoff's Rules are used to solve general circuits containing more than one power
supplies or when the combination of the electric components cannot be simplified as
series and/or paralleled combination.

Example

Use Kirchhoff's rules to determine the current in each part of the circuit below.

Applying the loop rule in the clockwise direction to the left loop, starting from point a,
we have

ΔV 1 −I 1 R 1 +I 2 R 2− ΔV 2 =0
12V −I 1 (2Ω )+ I 2 (3 Ω)−6 V =0

Dropping the units and simplifying, the above equation is

2 I 1 −3 I 2 =6 Eq. (1)

Note that the sign of the potential change when going across a resistor depends on
whether we are going in the direction of the current (-) or opposite to the current (+).

For the right loop, starting from a and going clockwise, we have

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 ΔV 2 −I 2 R 2−I 3 R 3 =0
6 V −I 2 ( 3 Ω )−I 3 ( 6 Ω )=0

Again, dropping units and simplifying, we have

I 2 +2 I 3 =2 Eq. (2)

The sum rule, applied to either junction a or b, gives

I 1 + I 2=I 3 Eq. (3)

The three boxed equations involve three unknowns, I1, I2, and I3. We can solve these
equations to get (do the algebra)

I1 = 2 A I2 = -0.67 A I3 = 1.33 A

Note that the sign of I2 is negative. This means that the choice of the direction of I2
indicated in the diagram (up) was reversed. The current is really down.

Nowadays complex circuits containing multi loops and several currents are solved using
computer software.

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RC Circuits

A RC circuit consists of a resistor and a capacitor. We will consider only the series
combination of them.

Charging a capacitor

Initial conditions: Power supply provides the constant potential difference VS = Ɛ

The charge on the capacitor is Q = 0.

As the process of charging starts (for example by closing a switch) the E moves positive
charges from one plates to the others resulting in the capacitor with charge Q. To study
how the value of the charge as a function of time we use the Kirchhoff's loop equation

V S −V R −V C = 0

or

dQ Q
VS − R− =0
dt C

which is a differential equation in Q(t). The equation can be solved by separation of

variable leading to
t t
− −
RC RC
Q(t) = C Ɛ (1−e ) = Q MAX (1−e )

The charge increase the a maximum value

QMAX = Ɛ C

The time t = RC = τ is the time constant of the

circuit. For t = τ, about 63% of QMAX is present
already on the capacitor.

The current across the resistor is

t t
dQ (t) Ɛ − RC −
RC
I ( t) = = e = I MAX e
dt R

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The current through the resistor is greatest when the charging starts and decreases
exponentially in time and approaches zero as the capacitor voltage reaches the battery
voltage.

The voltage across the capacitor VC is

t
Q −
VC = = Ɛ (1−e RC )
C

We can evaluate VC at some relevant times:

t = 0, V C = Ɛ( 1−e 0 ) = Ɛ(1−1)=0 .

t = infinity, V C = Ɛ( 1−e−∞ ) = Ɛ (1−0 ) = Ɛ

t = RC, V C = Ɛ( 1−e−1 ) = Ɛ (1−0. 368 .. .) ≈ 0 . 632 Ɛ

RC has units of time and is a measure of how long it takes for the capacitor to charge
through the resistor. (Actually, it takes an infinite time to fully charge; however, it
charges up to nearly 2/3 its final value (0.632…) in the time RC).

The Voltage across the resistor VR is

t
−
RC
VR = Ɛe

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Discharging a capacitor

When a capacitor is discharged through a resistor, then its voltage and charge decrease
exponentially in time.

V C = V 0 e−t/ RC , Q = CV C = CV 0 e−t /RC

The discharge current is opposite to the charge current and its magnitude also decreases
exponentially.

Evaluating VC at some relevant times, we have

t = 0, V C =V 0 e0 =V 0 .

−∞
t = infinity, V C =V 0 e =0

−1
t = RC, V C =V 0 e =0 . 368V 0

Example

A 10 μF capacitor is charged by a 24 volt battery through a 400 kΩ resistor. After 1 s,

what is the voltage across the capacitor, the charge on the capacitor, the current to the
capacitor, and the voltage across the resistor?

The time constant is τ = RC = (400 x 103 Ω)(10 x 10-6 F) = 4 s

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 V C = Ɛ( 1−e−t/ RC )=24 V (1−e−1/4 )=24 V (1−0. 779 ) = 5 . 3 V
Q = CV C =( 10 x 10−6 F )(5 . 3V ) = 5. 3 x 10−5 C
Ɛ 24 V
I = e−t /RC = e−1/4 = 4 . 57 x 10−5 A
R 5
4 x 10 Ω
V R = IR=( 4 . 57 x 10−5 A )(4 x 105 Ω) = 18 . 7 V

Note that VC + VR = Ɛ .

Example

A 2 μF-capacitor is charged to 50 volts and then discharged through a 1 MΩ resistor.

Find the time for the capacitor voltage to drop to 25 volts.

V C = V 0 e−t/ RC
25 V = 50 Ve−t/ RC
e−t/ RC = 25/50=0. 5
−t /RC t
ln ( e )=− = ln( 0 .5 ) = −ln (2)
RC
t = RC ln (2 ) = ( 1 x 106 Ω )( 2 x 10−6 F )ln( 2 ) = 1 .39 s

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