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MARCH 2022
VOL. 50, NO. 3
CONTENTS 40 ON THE COVER

Jupiter’s swirling clouds are just
one example of a solar system
filled with amazing weather. NASA/JPL
FEATURES
16 COVER STORY 40 50 COLUMNS
Wild weather of When the Atomic Age Beyond the Strange Universe 13
the solar system met the Space Age Messier marathon BOB BERMAN
Today’s forecast: Scalding Is space for exploration or If you’re tired of running the
temperatures, extreme winds, militarization? Early rocket same old race, here’s a new Observing Basics 14
GLENN CHAPLE
and a chance of diamond pioneers like Wernher von route through the night sky.
downpours. RANDALL HYMAN Braun thought it might be MICHAEL E. BAKICH Secret Sky 15
prudent to pursue both. STEPHEN JAMES O’MEARA
24 FRED NADIS 54 Binocular Universe 60
First look at the 2024 Leap into the Large PHIL HARRINGTON
total solar eclipse 46 Magellanic Cloud
On April 8, 2024, millions Planetary nebulae The Milky Way’s close
of Americans will watch the in color companion is more than just
Moon entirely blot out the Sun. These dying stars are going a single deep-sky object — it’s 7
MICHAEL E. BAKICH out in style, showing off rich a bustling galactic metropolis QUANTUM GRAVITY
greens, blues, and reds you can waiting to be explored. Everything you need to
32 enjoy through your eyepiece. MICHAEL E. BAKICH know about the universe
Sky This Month ALAN GOLDSTEIN this month: the hollowed-
Plenty of planets at dawn. 58 out core of a nebula,
MARTIN RATCLIFFE AND Add the Polarie U dazzling aurorae, a how-
ALISTER LING to your toolbox to for announcing alien
Vixen’s star tracker will suit life, and much more!
34 your observing needs, no
Star Dome and matter your experience level.
Paths of the Planets RAYMOND SHUBINSKI
IN EVERY ISSUE
RICHARD TALCOTT;
ILLUSTRATIONS BY ROEN KELLY 62 From the Editor 5
Ask Astro Astro Letters 6
Cosmic fireworks. Advertiser Index 61
Reader Gallery 64
Breakthrough 66
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4 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

FROM THE EDITOR
The eclipse of
Editor David J. Eicher
Assistant Design Director Kelly Katlaps
EDITORIAL
Senior Editor Mark Zastrow
a lifetime
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ART
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WWW. ASTRONOMY.COM 5
ASTRO LET TERS
These exotic stars
may hold the
A cosmic gold mine

key to solving
some of physics’
greatest mysteries.
A round of applause
BY CAITLYN BUONGIO
RNO
IT ISN’T A SECRET
THAT
People have Earth-bound Brava, Ms. Buongiorno, Creating a neutron

star
speculated about the on the beautifully

In David J. Eicher’s Editor’s Note in the October issue,
existence of UFOs for written article on
many generations, as he said, “It may well be that reports of UFOs tell us
illustrations like this more about the nature of people here on our planet neutron stars. Your
suggest. UFO © EMOKE prose is clear and
KUPAI/DREAMSTIME
rather than any potential advanced life forms that
may exist in deep space.” I concise and a pleasure to read! — Kathleen Dusto
have felt for some time that
any UFOs, whether they are
real piloted technological with 2 feet of dust on my bedroom floor and furniture
objects or some mystical every day, so I’m just looking for clarification. Does
creation, might be related he mean that if you took the entire dust content of a
to our Earth. We know so typical bedroom for an hour it would fill some type of
little of our home planet gauge, akin to a rain gauge measurement, to a depth of
and all that pertains to it. 1 inch? — John A. Ferko, Colorado Springs, CO
We welcome
your comments — William Arthur,
at Astronomy Letters, Highlands Ranch, CO Author Bob Berman responds:
P.O. Box 1612, Fortunately, no, my bedroom is not covered with many
Waukesha, WI 53187; inches of dust. Or any dust at all that I can see. Yet that
or email to letters@ A bit dusty “inch an hour” is the oft-published figure for the speed
astronomy.com .
After reading Bob Berman’s article “Dust to dust” in of settling airborne dust. My guess is that people’s
Please include your
name, city, state, and
the September issue, I wanted to ask a tongue-in-cheek and pets’ motions, and air currents from windows or
country. Letters may question of Bob: Just how filthy is your bedroom? In heating systems, constantly cause dust to circulate
be edited for space the article, Bob states that dust in the air of a bedroom and even rise from furniture, floors, and such, so it’s
and clarity. settles at the rate of 1 inch an hour. Now, I don’t end up a continual process.
Lowell Observatory is now open for

General Admission with new safety protocols.
Book your ticket now
lowell.edu/astronomymagazine
ALCON 2022
ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO
-XO\
\

(PEDVV\6XLWHV+RWHO
Albuquerque, New Mexico
+RVWHGE\
The Albuquerque
Astronomical Society
ZZZWDDVRUJ
DOFRQDVWUROHDJXHRUJ

QUANTUM GRAVITY
QG EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE UNIVERSE THIS MONTH
SNAPSHOT
MYSTERY: SUPERBUBBLE
N44 has a
strange hole
at its heart.
NASA, ESA, V. KSOLL AND D. GOULIERMIS (UNIVERSITÄT HEIDELBERG), ET AL.; PROCESSING: GLADYS KOBER (NASA/CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA). BOTTOM FROM LEFT: PSI/PAMELA L. GAY; NASA/GODDARD/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA; THRUSTME
Lurking approximately
170,000 light-years
away within the Large
Magellanic Cloud is the
nebula N44. This cosmic
gem is notable not for its
structural complexity,
massive stars, or glowing
hydrogen gas, but for its
hollowed-out core. Some
250 light-years wide, the
hole, called a superbubble,
is a cosmic enigma.
One theory for the
superbubble’s presence is
that stellar winds from
massive stars at its core
may have blown away
the gas. But the winds
aren’t fast or powerful
enough to account for this.
Another theory points to
the nebula’s population of
massive stars, which age
quickly and end their lives
in supernovae. A series of
such stellar explosions and
their expanding debris
shells could have carved
out the gaping wound
within N44. However, only
one supernova remnant
has been identified inside
the superbubble so far, HOT TWO-FOR-ONE BIG ROCKS ALTERNATIVE FUEL
A newly developed
leaving the hole an open BYTES A new technique lets the
exoplanet-hunting TESS
NASA’s OSIRIS-Rex
spacecraft found that electric rocket engine
mystery. — CAITLYN BUONGIORNO mission identify a planet asteroid 101955 Bennu is expels iodine as a
circling a binary system covered in larger rocks propellent to create thrust.
after only two transits than expected. Scientists Iodine is cheaper, safer,
(one for each star). That’s say the highly porous and easier to store than
one less stellar crossing rocks withstood impacts the xenon currently used
than was previously better than denser rocks, in such engines.
required. becoming compressed
rather than fragmented.
QUANTUM GRAVITY
AN EXOPLANET OUTSIDE THE

MILKY WAY? exoplanet circling a binary system.
In a galaxy far, far away may lie an
ECLIPSING X-RAYS. A neutron star or

black hole sits at the heart of M51-ULS-1,
pulling material off its stellar companion,
in this artist’s concept. Scientists
suspect a planet may have briefly
blocked our view of the X-rays produced
by the siphoned material. NASA/CXC/M. WEISS
Astronomers think they may galaxies: M51, M101, and M104. The about 3,000 light-years from Earth
have spotted the first extragalac- team targeted more than 200 star — well within the boundaries of the
tic exoplanet — a planet outside of our systems within these galaxies, using Milky Way, which is 100,000 light-years
own galaxy. the Chandra X-ray Observatory and across. To find extragalactic planets,
Residing some 28 million light-years the European Space Agency’s XMM- scientists tried searching for transiting
away in the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51), Newton. Within all those systems, they planets within X-ray binaries. These
the binary system M51-ULS-1 consists found only one potential exoplanet. systems contain a white dwarf, neutron
of either a neutron star or a black hole star, or black hole pulling in material
paired with a more ordinary compan- HUNTING EXOPLANETS from a companion star. As this material
ion star 20 times the mass of the Sun. Researchers have mainly used two falls into the remnant’s accretion disk,
Evidence for this possible planet methods to spot the Milky Way’s more it becomes superheated, producing
came from X-ray data rather than the than 4,000 confirmed exoplanets so far. X-rays.
visual light observations astronomers The radial velocity method measures In these binary systems, the specific
usually use to detect exoplanets. “We how a star slightly wobbles as an area where X-rays are produced within
are trying to open up a whole new orbiting planet gently tugs on its stellar the accretion disk is tiny enough that
arena for finding other worlds,” said host. Alternatively, the transit method even a planet can block a significant
study lead Rosanne Di Stefano of spots planets that cross in front of their portion (if not all) of the X-ray light.
the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for stars, which briefly dims the starlight This makes X-ray transits detectable
Astrophysics in a press release. we detect. at much greater distances than visual
The new research, published Oct. 25 The transit method has been the transits.
in Nature Astronomy, examined three most useful, spotting planets out to In the case of M51-ULS-1, the system

NASA, ESA, AND R. SAHAI (JET PROPULSION LABORATORY); PROCESSING: GLADYS KOBER (NASA/CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA)
QUICK
TAKES
LAUNCH AND REPEAT

This year, South Korea will begin
developing a reusable rocket equipped
with a cluster of liquid-fueled, 100-ton-
thrust engines. With a starter budget of
$10.2 million, the government intends
for the new rocket program to
dramatically slash launch costs.
EXO-ATMOSPHERE
In a first, astronomers have
measured the abundance of both
water and carbon monoxide in the
atmosphere of an exoplanet,
Incredible frEGGs WASP-77Ab. The team used the
ground-based Gemini Observatory in
Chile, which provided clearer data than
Each of these tadpolelike blobs of cold, dense gas is incubating newborn stars the Hubble Space Telescope.
deep inside it. These objects — imaged here by the Hubble Space Telescope and
located in the Northern Coalsack Nebula in Cygnus — are known as free-floating
ARTEMIS 2025
Evaporating Gaseous Globules, or frEGGs. They are the surviving remnants of a
NASA announced Nov. 9 that the
much larger cloud of gas that has been steadily evaporating, heated by ultraviolet Artemis program’s first lunar landing
radiation from nearby stars. Similar structures, called Evaporating Gaseous Globules, won’t occur until at least 2025 due to
or EGGs, were first spotted in the famous “Pillars of Creation.” In that iconic Hubble budgetary constraints, COVID impacts,
image, the EGGs appear as dark, elongated tendrils protruding from the larger gas testing delays of the Space Launch
pillars in the Eagle Nebula (M16). But the Northern Coalsack’s frEGGS are being System rocket, and extended
heated from multiple directions, effectively pinching them off from the main cloud litigation over the Human Landing
and leaving them as free-floating structures. — MARK ZASTROW System contract.
INFANT PLANET
The newly found exoplanet 2M0437b is
is one of M51’s brightest X-ray binaries. one of the youngest planets yet known.
But when astronomers examined Chandra The budding world likely formed within
data, they saw that for three hours, the past several million years — roughly
the X-rays emanating from the system when the Hawaiian Islands emerged
dropped to 0. According to the research- from the Pacific Ocean.
ers, this suggests that a Saturn-sized
exoplanet is orbiting the binary system at DEEP RED SPOT
some 19.2 astronomical units (AU; where New data from NASA’s Juno spacecraft
1 AU is the average distance between show that Jupiter’s Great Red Spot — a
Earth and the Sun). That’s about twice centuries-old vortex wider than Earth —
as far as Saturn is from the Sun. extends even deeper than previously
However, an exoplanet isn’t the only thought, plunging more than 200 miles
explanation for why the X-ray signal (350 kilometers) beneath the world’s
could have been disrupted. X-ray sources chaotic cloud tops.
can also be obscured by a cloud of dust
passing in front of them. The researchers JWST + EHT = SGR A*
did consider this explanation, too, but NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope
ultimately concluded it was less likely than (JWST) will join the Event Horizon
an exoplanet. Telescope (EHT) to image the Milky
Way’s supermassive black hole,
Unfortunately, confirming the extra-
Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*). Scientists hope
SPIRAL HOME. Nestled inside one of the galactic detection will take a long time.
the infrared view, which cuts through
Whirlpool Galaxy’s arms lies M51-ULS-1, at a With such a wide orbit, the candidate isn’t
distance of more than 28 million light-years intervening dust, will provide insight
expected to pass in front of the source
away. X-RAY: NASA/CXC/SAO/R. DISTEFANO, ET AL.; OPTICAL: NASA/ESA/ into Sgr A*’s flickering flares. — JAKE PARKS
STSCI/GENDLER again for another 70 years. — C.B.
QUANTUM GRAVITY
DISAPPEARING RINGS
The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array
(ALMA) often observes dusty protoplanetary disks
circling young stars. And a pattern that continues to Sz 91 AS 209 Elias 24
emerge in ALMA images is rings and gaps within these
disks. One theory for how such features form is that
budding planets carve out gaps as they accumulate
material, pushing uncaptured dust grains to the outer
edge of the gap to create a ring. To test this scenario,
astronomers have begun seeking planets near the rings STEP BY STEP. The three phases of ring formation, from left to right, are
shown here. The top row highlights ALMA examples of each simulated
they’ve presumably sculpted — starting with the outer phase, while the bottom row comprises ATERUI II simulations. The gray
rings, which are easier to observe because they are less regions in the simulated views were not calculated by the supercomputer;
the dotted lines show the planet’s orbit at each stage of the simulation.
likely to be lost in the glare from the host star. But so KAZUHIRO D. KANAGAWA, ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)
far, these observations have turned up nothing.

Researchers recently explored the mysterious ori- most powerful supercomputer dedicated to astronomy:
gins of rings by simulating how a migrating planet ATERUI II at the National Astronomical Observatory
affects the rings of a protoplanetary disk, using the of Japan in Oshu. Their results show that, at least in
Black hole’s gravity gives it away

Black holes, as their name holes, which have masses
suggests, give off no light up to about 100 times that of
of their own, making them the Sun. That’s because other
notoriously difficult to detect. methods for finding these
But often, black holes appear objects require the black hole
in binary systems with a nor- to be actively feeding or in
mal star. In these cases, the the throes of smashing into its
gravitational pull of the black partner.
hole on its visible companion What’s more, NGC 1850
may be the only sign of its is relatively young — just
presence. 100 million years old. In such
That’s exactly what young clusters, it’s even less
researchers saw within NGC likely that black holes will be
1850, a cluster of stars some feeding or colliding, making
160,000 light-years away in dynamical interaction the
the Large Magellanic Cloud. only technique available to
INVISIBLE PARTNER. Within the extragalactic star cluster NGC 1850 is a
They used the Multi Unit binary system containing a black hole and a massive star. This artist’s find them in such environ-
Spectroscopic Explorer on the concept shows how the gravitational pull of the black hole distorts its ments. So, targeting young
Very Large Telescope in Chile; companion’s shape; that same influence also tugs on the star’s orbit. clusters using this method is
ESO/M. KORNMESSER
this instrument allows astrono- an opportunity to increase the
mers to look closely at the causing noticeable motion in a found such a small black hole known number of younger
light of individual stars — even visible star five times the mass in another galaxy using only stellar-mass black holes.
those packed within the dis- of the Sun. its gravitational influence. The Astronomers can then com-
tant, crowded cluster. By doing The research, published researchers say this type of pare them to older black holes
so, scientists discovered an Nov. 11 in Monthly Notices of gravitational, or dynamical, found via other methods to
invisible member: a black hole the Royal Astronomical Society, influence is the best way to study the life cycle of these
11 times the mass of our Sun, is the first time scientists have spot many stellar-mass black extreme objects. — ALISON KLESMAN

a low-viscosity (easy to move through) disk,
three distinct steps occur.
LEVEL 7
First, a ring forms just outside the original Independent follow-up of
location of the planet and the world eventu- predicted biological behavior
in environment
ally migrates inward. Next, that initial ring
(still at its original location) begins to deform LEVEL 6
and a second ring starts to materialize near Future observations that
rule out alternative
the new location of the migrated planet. hypotheses proposed
According to the study, published Nov. 12 in Confirmation of
the presence of life
The Astrophysical Journal, these two rings can LEVEL 5
Additional, independent
coexist for more than a million years. Finally, signal(s) detected
the outer ring fully dissipates, leaving behind Alternative
only the inner ring. hypotheses
eliminated LEVEL 4
Moving forward, more-capable, next- All known non-biological
sources of signal shown to be
generation telescopes will be able to better implausible in that environment
search for planets near the inner rings of Independent
biosignature
numerous protoplanetary disks, confirming observed LEVEL 3
Prediction of how life produces
whether or not these new simulations really the observed signal within the
mirror reality. — J.P. environment of its host body
Search for alternative
explanations
ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER GREEN, J., HOEHLER, T., NEVEU, M. ET AL.
LEVEL 2
Contamination
ruled out
Strong aurorae Examine host

body’s environment
LEVEL 1
dazzle astronauts Detection of

Detection of what may
be evidence of life
In late October, an intense flare erupted from the biogenic signal

Sun. A few days later, European Space Agency
French astronaut Thomas Pesquet captured this
stunning light show from aboard the International
Space Station as the station passed over North
America. Pesquet’s description, posted on his Flickr
account, reads, “We were treated to the strongest
auroras of the entire mission, over north[ern]
America and Canada. Amazing spikes higher than
HOW TO ANNOUNCE
our orbit, and we flew right above the centre of the
ring, rapid waves and pulses all over.” Aurorae occur
ALIENS RESPONSIBLY
when waves of charged particles from the Sun It’s alive. Orson Welles’ infamous 1938 radio
strike Earth’s magnetic field, causing atoms in the broadcast of “The War of the Worlds” provides FAST FACT
atmosphere to glow. Studying space weather, includ-
some clues about how announcements of Another study, published
ing aurorae and other effects, can help us better
understand our Sun and the dangers such outbursts
alien life can quickly get out of hand. While in 2020 in The Astrophysical
could pose to future astronauts. — A.K. the first real report of alien biosignatures Journal, suggests that a
is doubtful to be anything like people- minimum of 36 communicating
snatching alien tripods, it is important that civilizations could exist
in the Milky Way.
the messaging is handled properly. A recent
essay published Oct. 27 in Nature proposes a
scale for communicating the strength of evidence
for life beyond our planet. The scale starts with the initial detection,
clearly defining a set of follow-up observations that must be taken to
confirm the presence of life and rule out alternative explanations. — C.B.
ESA/NASA–T. PESQUET
QUANTUM GRAVITY
RUSSIA CARRIES OUT ANTI-SATELLITE TEST

In an ASAT test, the impact kicks
debris into higher and lower orbits. In
this case, most of the debris pushed into
lower orbits will reenter the atmosphere
within five years, LeoLabs said. But
debris boosted into higher orbits may
Cosmos 1408
take decades to reenter.
ASAT missile The test drew swift reproach from U.S.
and European officials. U.S. Secretary
of State Antony J. Blinken called the test
“recklessly conducted” and “danger-
ous and irresponsible.” The European
Plesetsk Cosmodrome
Union’s internal market commissioner,
Thierry Breton, condemned the test,
adding the event was “a reminder that
INTERCEPTION. The direct-ascent missile that took out Cosmos 1408 followed an arcing path to space is increasingly contested.”
strike the satellite, as depicted in this simulation. The inset shows how the cloud of debris created by
the impact quickly stretched out after completing just one orbit. Eventually, the particles will be NASA Administrator Bill Nelson said
scattered roughly evenly over the whole globe. EUROPEAN UNION SPACE SURVEILLANCE AND TRACKING he was “outraged by this irresponsible
and destabilizing action. With its
Russia destroyed one of its collisions with other satellites or crewed long and storied history in human
own satellites in a test Nov. 15, spacecraft. According to an analysis by spaceflight, it is unthinkable that
creating a cloud of debris that prompted the space tracking company LeoLabs, Russia would endanger not only the
astronauts and cosmonauts on the the Russian test may have increased the American and international partner
International Space Station (ISS) to density of debris at 250 miles (400 km) astronauts on the ISS, but also their
briefly shelter in docked return capsules. — a typical altitude of the ISS and own cosmonauts.”
In the test, a missile was launched China’s Tiangong space station — by Russian officials called U.S. criticism
from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome and more than three times. hypocritical, pointing out the U.S. has
struck Cosmos 1408, a defunct intel- LeoLabs noted that the choice of satel- also conducted ASAT tests. The most
ligence satellite orbiting between lite made this ASAT test particularly recent U.S. ASAT demonstration was
289 miles (465 kilometers) and risky. Cosmos 1408 was in a high- in 2008. It targeted a satellite in a lower
304 miles (490 km) high. U.S. Space inclination orbit, passing close to Earth’s orbit than the Russian test — as did
Command reported the anti-satellite poles on a path that intersects with an Indian test in 2019 — resulting in
(ASAT) test generated over 1,500 pieces almost every other orbit at the same shorter-lived debris.
of detectable orbital debris and likely altitude. That altitude is also crowded China performed an ASAT test in
created hundreds of thousands of orbital space — less than 62 miles 2007 against a satellite roughly 530 miles
smaller, undetectable pieces. (100 km) above the ISS and Tiangong (850 km) high. That created a long-lived
Such tests have always drawn and less than 62 miles (100 km) below debris cloud: The week before Russia’s
scrutiny: As the amount of orbital debris many commercial satellites, including test, the ISS was forced to maneuver to
grows, so does the risk of catastrophic SpaceX’s Starlink constellation. avoid a piece of it. — M.Z.
Hubble’s catch of the day

TECHNOLOGY); PROCESSING; GLADYS KOBER (NASA/
Some 6,000 light-years distant lies the Prawn Nebula (IC 4628), a massive stellar nursery
NASA, ESA, AND J. TAN (CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF
within the constellation Scorpius. IC 4628 is an emission nebula, meaning its gas is ener-
gized thanks to radiation from nearby stars. The energy it absorbs is then re-emitted in the
CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA)
form of infrared light. Unfortunately, despite spanning some 250 light-years and taking up
the equivalent of four times the size of the Full Moon in our sky, the nebula is all but invisible
to our sight because the human eye can’t detect this type of light. Thankfully, the Hubble
Space Telescope’s Wide Field Camera 3 can pick up on this glow, giving astronomers the
opportunity to peer into the deep cosmic sea to study objects like the Prawn. — C.B.

STRANGE UNIVERSE
When astronomers (4 to 10 degrees Celsius) — desertlike aridness. Pale blue

indicates a dew point around 60 F (16 C). Milkiness with
get stuck
no blue reveals a dew point above 70 F (21 C), meaning
you’ll see very few stars that night. Check your humidity
appraisal against the local weather service. You’ll get
good at this fairly quickly.
Here’s some trivia to enjoy the next time you hit traffic. Next up, pull out your sunglasses, because it’s time to
discuss polarization. Air molecules scatter sunlight,
causing the rays to march in unison at a point about 90°
from the Sun and syncing up the solar electric field
vectors. This makes the sky surrounding that spot — just
where the half Moon floats — the deepest blue of the
whole sky when you’ve got your polarizing sunglasses
on. Go ahead, take a look.
Trivia is another popular highway pastime. First,
some plain old physics trivia. We can stump your geeki-
est passenger. Ask them to guess the minimum driving
speed that causes bugs to splatter on windshields. It’s
about 38 mph (61 km/h). Stay slower than that and
you’ll make it home from a car wash with the car still
gleaming, because insects just bounce off, intact.
It’s easy to add auto safety to our road trip trivia
If taillights are all game. Just as with the asteroid impacts that cause mass
you can see on your As the weather improves, we astronomers get extinctions and lunar craters, speed is far more critical
next summer road
trip, this column can the itch to jump in our cars and travel, just like than a moving object’s weight. Hopefully you’ll never
offer some help to everyone else. And get stuck in traffic. As validate this kinetic energy principle by totaling your
pass the time. boredom threatens, we might seek refuge in traditional car, but if that seems imminent, be aware that a crash
DISQDR/DREAMSTIME
roadway games. at 35 mph (56 km/h) is twice as damaging as one at
One popular pastime is observing license plates. So, 25 mph (40 km/h). That amazing stat means even a
guess how many states’ tags contain a celestial image? small velocity decrease before an abrupt stop helps
Surprise: several! enormously. So brake hard.
Texas’ standard plate shows its trademark Expand the conversation by considering a
lone star. Colorado’s is dominated by what I Road trips 2009 Universe Today article stating that
imagine to be a huge unspoiled night sky can be real about 1 percent of the static between FM
above white mountains. Kansas’ spells out its channels is leftover microwave noise from
Latin state motto, “Ad astra per aspera,” catnip for the Big Bang. Can you therefore prove the Big
which is also the oath its astronomers repeat science Bang theory while stuck in traffic? It’s gotten
after dropping their costliest eyepiece: “To lovers. trickier. About a decade ago, most broadcast-
the stars through difficulties.” Still others ers switched from analog to static-free digi-
— Arizona’s, Ohio’s, South Carolina’s — tal, and that meant bye-bye to Big Bang
portray the Sun or Moon. And Alaska offers specialty signals. But if you drive an older car — I still adore my
plates featuring the aurora or the same star pattern as 2005 Solara convertible — then your analog radio may
its flag: the Big Dipper pointing to Polaris. still keep you in business. When trapped in traffic,
But let’s get to real science. Once you’ve exhausted the you’re also stuck in an expanding universe, and an old
parade of license plates, move on to observing your sur- car may help prove it.
roundings. Look out your car window and notice Road trips can be real catnip for science lovers. But
whether the horizon is dark blue, light blue, or milky. — perhaps to make you consider that next turnoff — your
When you peer toward the low sky, you’re sighting overall lifetime odds of dying in a car as of 2019: 1 in 107.
BY BOB BERMAN through 40 times more air than when you look high That’s very similar to the chance of not making it back
Bob’s recent book, overhead. Each tiny water droplet in that air scatters from a space shuttle launch, back when they still flew.
Earth-Shattering sunlight, creating a whitening effect. In bone-dry places You knew we’d get back to astronomy sooner
(Little, Brown and
like the southwestern U.S., the air’s minuscule moisture or later.
Company, 2019),
explores the greatest keeps the horizon blue. In humid locales like the
cataclysms that have Carolinas, the low sky is creamy. A deep blue low sky BROWSE THE “STRANGE UNIVERSE” ARCHIVE
shaken the universe. means the dew point is below 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit AT www.Astronomy.com/Berman
OBSERVING BASICS
Binocular basics astronomy, partly because it allows more light to reach

the eyes. Fully coated optics and prisms made of BaK4
(barium crown) glass also enhance the view.
It’s the easy way to enhance your view of the cosmos. Of the many sizes available, 7x50 binoculars are gener-
ally the go-to for astronomical observing. Binoculars
with only a center focus don’t take into consideration the
ROOF PRISM PORRO PRISM different visual capabilities of each eye. However, binos
Diopter that combine center focus (both barrels simultaneously)
adjustment Eye cup Diopter
ring Center Ocular adjustment Eye cup with the ability to make so-called diopter adjustments
ring Ocular
focus lens lens (each barrel individually) allow you to tailor the focus
wheel
Prisms finely to each eye.
So, are you ready to put your two pocket telescopes to
Prisms Prism work? If it’s clear tonight, grab a pair of binoculars and
housing head outside. As you did last month, bring along a red-
Prism
housing filtered flashlight and this copy of Astronomy, turned to
Center Center the Star Dome map on page 34. If your horizon is open
hinge
Center hinge to the west and southwest, you can still catch a glimpse
Objective focus of the constellations we explored last month. Begin with
barrel wheel
Objective Orion’s Belt and Sword, an area alive with stars. That
barrel
Objective lens Light path
fuzzy patch within the Sword is the Orion Nebula (M42),
Objective lens Light path and binoculars help bring out its beauty. Next, catch the
Pleiades above the western horizon before moving on to
Because the prisms in the Hyades, the V-shaped cluster that forms the head of
roof prism binoculars
are in line, they are If you honed the skills I described in last Taurus the Bull. The Hyades overcrowds the tight field
easier to hold. But month’s column, you have a general idea of of a telescope, but it comfortably fits inside a wide, low-
the offset prisms of
Porro prism binoculars
what’s up in the evening winter sky. But by power binocular field. Also seek out the Beehive Cluster
often provide a wider now, you’re dying to explore the heavens above with a (M44) in Cancer the Crab, then sweep the area from the
field of view and telescope. And I won’t hold you back. In fact, you’re going foot of Gemini the Twins through the middle of Auriga
greater depth of field
than comparable roof
to use two telescopes! But not quite how you think: I’m the Charioteer to see if you can spot the four fuzzy forms
prism models. talking about using a “dual wide-field refractor,” more of open clusters M35, M36, M37, and M38.
ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
commonly known as binoculars. For a real challenge, aim your binos at Gamma (γ)
“Wait a minute,” you say. “Why not a real telescope? Ursae Majoris in the bowl of the Big Dipper. Move diago-
One that magnifies a gazillion times so I can nally across the bowl to Alpha (α) and con-
really explore outer space?” tinue an equal distance beyond. If skies are
I’ll admit, that was my attitude when I first So, are you dark enough, you should stumble across two
got interested in amateur astronomy; I ready to put small hazy patches — one round, one elon-
bypassed binoculars in favor of a telescope. gated. These are galaxies M81 and M82,
However, I soon discovered that not all celes-
your two located some 12 million light-years away. See,
tial objects require great magnifications to pocket you don’t need a gazillion-power telescope to
enjoy. In fact, such power can sometimes be telescopes explore the distant cosmos!
detrimental. Case in point: Large star clusters to work? Want more? Two Astronomy columnists
like the Pleiades and Hyades were too expan- have penned guidebooks for the binocular
sive to fit inside the limited eyepiece field of user. Stephen James O’Meara is the author of
my scope. I needed optics capable of bridging the gap Observing the Night Sky With Binoculars (Cambridge
between unaided eye and telescope. This is why I pur- University Press, 2008) and Phil Harrington wrote
chased a pair of 7x50 binoculars. (The first number is Touring the Universe Through Binoculars (Wiley, 1990).
the magnifying power, while the second number is the Harrington also puts together the Binocular Universe
diameter of the objective lenses in millimeters.) In doing column in each issue of Astronomy. As he often advises,
so, I opened a whole new window to the universe. remember that two eyes are better than one.
BY GLENN CHAPLE If you’re in the market for binoculars, here are the Questions, comments, or suggestions? Email me at
Glenn has been an
basics. Each barrel is a low-power, wide-field refracting [email protected]. Next month: choosing your ideal
avid observer since
a friend showed telescope with internal prisms that serve to undo the first telescope. Clear skies!
him Saturn through upside-down image produced by astronomical refrac-
a small backyard tors. Binoculars come in two main designs: roof prism BROWSE THE “OBSERVING BASICS” ARCHIVE
scope in 1963. and Porro prism. The latter option is preferred for AT www.Astronomy.com/Chaple

fascinating sights on the Moon, but you have to catch
SECRET SK Y it at just the right time to receive its full impact.
The Pitatus “gateway” opens about the eighth or
ninth day after New Moon, when sunlight slips through
Lunar morning
the shared cleft — more like a valley — in the crater
wall. This creates a spectacular shaft of light across the
crater’s shadowed floor. Two weeks later, the reverse
magic
happens, with a sunset ray filtering through the cleft to
Daybreak on the Moon makes create a narrow light ray slicing eastward across the
for spectacular sights. floor of Pitatus. Philip Koch of Las Vegas popularized
the phenomenon, which he first
saw in 1988.
Cleft Hesiodus
Another ray
On the evening of April 20, 2021,
the Moon achieved First Quarter.
While it was too early to see the
Hesiodus Hesiodus ray, I decided to check in
on southern Mare Nubium with
Pitatus my 3-inch Tele Vue refractor. I was
not disappointed.
While Hesiodus was completely
immersed in shade, Pitatus
Cleft hugged the terminator, offering an
Pitatus G eye-catching interplay of light and
shadow. It wasn’t long before the
CLOCKWISE FROM view baffled me: Beaming across
TOP LEFT: This
Lunar 4 Orbiter image Sunrise can be magic its flat floor was a narrow ray that
of Pitatus shows the — even on the Moon. broadened slightly toward the
cleft in the northwest
wall leading into
One prime example lies Pitatus Mystery ray crater’s sunlit central peak —
Hesiodus. NASA/USGS/LPI in Mare Nubium (Sea of Clouds), splitting the long shadow of
where the lunar crater Pitatus Pitatus’s eastern wall in two.
The Hesiodus ray was
imaged through the
and its sma ller neighbor, While this ray was a poor cousin
author’s 3-inch Tele Hesiodus, sink into its southern f loor like lunar to the Hesiodus ray, it warrants attention. Perhaps it is
Vue refractor May 20, lagoons. And like their earthly counterparts, these created from some topographical depression in or near
2021. STEPHEN JAMES O’MEARA
lagoons have enchanting elements. the crater Pitatus G, a smaller crater on the rim of Pitatus.
The mystery ray in Named after Italian astronomer Pietro Pitati, the The image above was taken through my 3-inch scope,
Pitatus, taken through crater Pitatus formed some 4 billion years ago. It was and it does not do the clarity of the feature justice. It
the author’s 3-inch
refractor on the night later flooded by molten rock seeping through looked at first like an illuminated walkway
of April 20, about 12 cracks in the crater’s shallow floor. reaching from Pitatus G to the shining mono-
hours and 45 minutes
after First Quarter.
Even the smallest of telescopes will show We can see lith that is Pitatus’ central peak. I then noticed
a wide gash — a fault line — ripping through
STEPHEN JAMES O’MEARA
the crater’s northwest wall, which is shared
Hesiod being lunar ray material north and south of the peak
also spreading out across the floor like wings,
with 28-mile-wide (45 km) Hesiodus crater. born from a giving it a birdlike quality.
And at this site, sunrise magic can occur. ray of light, At the time of my observation, the Moon
just as night was 57 percent illuminated and 8.1 days old.
Born from light ends and The Sun’s colongitude was 14°, meaning the
A near contemporary of Homer, the Greek selenographic (lunar) longitude of the
poet Hesiod, namesake of the crater Hesiodus,
day begins. morning terminator was –14°. This month,
believed that the Muses — the nine daughters a similar, but not exact, circumstance occurs
of Zeus and Mnemosyne, inspirational god- March 11 at 14:30 UT, when the Moon will
desses of the arts and sciences — filled him with the light be 61.2 percent illuminated and 8.4 days old, with a
of poetry. And in his Theogony (meaning “birth of the colongitude of 14°. Will the sunrise ray in Pitatus
gods”), we see how darkness gives birth to light: “Night, reappear?
BY STEPHEN pregnant after sweet intercourse with Erebos [the pri- By the way, the sunrise ray in Hesiodus may occur
JAMES O’MEARA mordial god of darkness], gave birth to … Day.” about seven hours and 15 minutes later. As always, send
Stephen is a globe-
Thanks to the gap in the shared crater wall of Pitatus your observations to [email protected].
trotting observer who
is always looking and Hesiodus, when dawn breaks at that location, we
for the next great can see Hesiod being born from a ray of light, just as BROWSE THE “SECRET SKY” ARCHIVE AT
celestial event. night ends and day begins. It is one of the many www.Astronomy.com/OMeara
Today’s forecast: scalding
temperatures, extreme winds, and
a chance of diamond downpours. OF THE
T
he solar system monsoons, and a mélange of to weather is its one-way ver- why such a large difference
whips up some wild other weather. Elsewhere, the sion of a water cycle, accord- exists between the two worlds
weather — from recipes become more exotic ing to research published in when the cometary contribu-
Jupiter’s newly dis- and extreme. the Astrophysical Journal tions to both should have
covered stratospheric winds, to Letters in March 2020. The been similar. The likely
Neptune’s recent giant storm THE ROCKY team showed that intense answer: Mercury’s proximity
reversal, to Titan’s methane PLANETS solar radiation, combined to the Sun.
floods. But while the Coriolis Mercury has the weakest with Mercury’s extreme tem- The researchers showed
effect, polar jets, cyclones, weather of all the planets. The perature range, may produce that some of the glacial ice
and precipitation may switch atmosphere of the solar sys- some of the planet’s perma- sequestered in Mercury’s polar
things up a bit, all planetary tem’s innermost world is more nently shadowed polar ice, craters — detected by NASA’s
weather relies on the same akin to a vacuum than Earth’s which is far more plentiful MESSENGER spacecraft —
basic ingredients we have here protective blanket. This makes than that found on the Moon. could come from the constant
on Earth: atmosphere, heat for a daily forecast of perennial Scientists have long wondered storm of solar protons raining
transfer, and planetary tilt black skies surrounding a fixed
and spin. Sun that appears twice as large
Atmosphere gives body to as it does from Earth. With an
winds. Heat flux fuels those almost 59-day rotation barely NASA’s
winds. And planetary spin outpacing its 88-day orbit, MESSENGER
curves them, planting the and with virtually no air to spacecraft
transmitted this
seeds for cyclones or vortices. exchange solar heat via churn- false-color image
Hotter, rising air fosters low- ing wind cells, one side of the of Mercury,
accentuating the
pressure cells, while colder, planet fries throughout the various surface
descending air creates high- mercurian day at 800 degrees details of the planet.
NASA/JOHNS HOPKINS
pressure systems. On Earth, Fahrenheit (426 degrees UNIVERSITY APPLIED PHYSICS
this all translates to phenom- Celsius) while the other is a LABORATORY/CARNEGIE
INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
ena such as trade winds, frigid –290 F (–180 C).
jet streams, hurricanes, The closest Mercury comes
NASA/JPL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
BY RANDALL HYMAN
Water ice resides in the shadows of
craters on Mercury. Using data from
Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico,
researchers have identified evidence
of such ice (yellow) at the planet’s
north pole. NASA/JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY/CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
OF WASHINGTON
ABOVE: The clouds in these images, taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft, lie some
40 miles (60 km) above Venus’ surface and are comprised of sulfuric acid
particles. NASA/JPL-CALTECH
LEFT: When the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s Akatsuki spacecraft

finally reached Venus in 2016, it captured this infrared image. The left side of
our sister planet is bathed in sunlight while the night side (right) shows the
intricacies of Venus’ atmosphere. ISAS, JAXA
upon its surface. Water mol- will remain remarkably pre- the hottest planet in the solar solar radiation at higher levels
ecules could spring from these dictable for years to come. system, as well as the closest whips the venusian atmo-
protons reacting with Venus, too, boasts a stable in size and mass to Earth. But sphere around the entire
hydroxyl minerals in the mer- forecast, but hardly a boring our sister world is also the planet in just four days. A
curian soil, producing H2O. one. The planet’s atmosphere only rocky planet that rotates decade ago, Europe’s Venus
The same process can be trig- is mostly carbon dioxide backward. Express orbiter recorded a
gered by small meteors (CO2), causing nightmarish Like Mercury, Venus bakes 33 percent jump in wind speed
smashing into the planet, global warming. The abun- mostly on one side, since a from 186 mph (300 km/h) to
unleashing their own storm dant CO2 traps most incoming day on the scorching world is 248 mph (400 km/h).
of loose protons. solar radiation, producing some 18 days longer than its With recent contested
A small percentage of that surface temperatures around year — though Venus does claims of a microbial biosig-
H2O could become trapped as 900 F (480 C). If humans were manage to fit two sunrises nature called phosphine in
ice in polar craters over mil- ever to visit — and could into its 225-day trek around Venus’ high sulfuric clouds,
lions of years. “It’s a little like somehow manage to with- our star. The additional ingre- interest in our nearest neigh-
the song ‘Hotel California.’ stand the planet’s crushing dient of a thick atmosphere bor has skyrocketed. A trio
The water molecules can atmospheric pressure — they results in violent heat of NASA and ESA missions,
check in to the shadows, but would be summarily speed- exchange and tornado-force planned to launch around the
they can never leave,” said broiled. Thus, at just under winds in the middle and early 2030s, will study Venus’
principal investigator Thomas two hours, a hardened Soviet upper levels. While evenly terrain and geological evolu-
Orlando in a press release. Venera lander from 1978 holds distributed greenhouse heat- tion, and determine whether
With little else on the the surface survival record. ing keeps winds calm at the life is hiding in the planet’s
radar, Mercury’s long days Venus is famous for being surface, the imbalance of upper atmosphere.

MORE UPCOMING
INTREPID
EXPLORERS
MERCURY
BepiColombo — a joint mis-
sion between the European
Space Agency (ESA) and the
Japan Aerospace Exploration
Agency — launched in 2018
and will enter orbit around
the solar system’s innermost
planet in 2025. There, it will
study Mercury’s composition,
geophysics, atmosphere,
Clouds drift across the martian sky magnetosphere, and history.
in this image captured by NASA’s
Opportunity rover’s Pancam.
Mars’ atmosphere is approximately 95 percent (by volume) VENUS
NASA/JPL-CALTECH/CORNELL
carbon dioxide, 2.6 percent molecular nitrogen, 1.9 percent argon, NASA’s DAVINCI (short for
0.16 percent molecular oxygen, and 0.06 percent carbon Deep Atmosphere Venus
monoxide. NASA/GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER Investigation of Noble gases,
Chemistry, and Imaging) will
measure the composition of
Venus’ atmosphere at every
level as the probe descends
from the cloud tops to the
ground. It is anticipated to
launch later this decade.
And EnVision, a joint mission
from ESA and NASA, will pro-
vide a holistic view of Venus,
from its inner core to upper
atmosphere, when it
launches in the early 2030s.
JUPITER
ESA’s JUICE (JUpiter ICy
moons Explorer) has a
planned launch for 2022 and
will study three of the gas
giant’s moons — Europa,
Ganymede, and Callisto —
which researchers believe
harbor subsurface oceans.
While in the system, the craft
will also peer at the jovian
atmosphere and magneto-
Like Earth, Mars has ice at its north pole. Because this particular patch is present all year round, it cannot sphere.
be carbon dioxide ice and is instead likely water ice. ESA/DLR/FU BERLIN (G. NEUKUM)
A dust storm rages

across the martian
landscape in this image
captured by ESA’s Mars
Express orbiter.
ESA/DLR/FU BERLIN
Like Venus, Mars’ skies are isn’t too far off from what we 400 mph (644 km/h), astrono- heat with massive injections
mostly filled with CO2. But experience on Earth, except mers recently discovered of energy at upper levels,
like Mercury, its atmosphere on Jupiter it stretches above stratospheric polar winds aurorae may heat equatorial
is extremely thin — a mere where scientists believe the moving more than three regions more than models
1 percent as dense as Earth’s. necessary water clouds exist. times as fast beneath the predict. This anomaly is a
The diminished martian Recent observations from the aurorae ringing Jupiter’s decades-long mystery scien-
atmosphere still produces Juno spacecraft may have poles. The team suspects tists refer to as Jupiter’s energy
winds strong enough (about solved the mystery, however. these winds could be part of crisis, an mysterious surplus
60 mph [97 km/h]) to create Unlike Earth, Jupiter’s a giant vortex, which could of heat begging some
dust storms that can be seen atmosphere also contains measure up to four times the unknown source that could
from Earth. About once a plenty of ammonia, a great size of Earth and reach not be explained.
year, the Red Planet experi- antifreeze. Deeper thunder- heights greater than 560 miles Like Jupiter, Saturn’s atmo-
ences a continent-sized dust clouds could be a mixture (900 km). “A vortex of this sphere is rich in hydrogen and
storm that can lasts for a few of ammonia and water, creat- size would be a unique meteo- rife with ammonia-ice clouds.
weeks. And about once every ing a secondary weather rological beast in our solar At a frigid –218 F (–138 C), it
three Mars years, a global effect: the aforementioned system,” said co-author has jet streams circling its
dust storm kicks up. mushballs. Thibault Cavalié in a press poles. In 2012, NASA’s Cassini
That isn’t the only seasonal On Earth, hail forms when release. spacecraft produced vivid
weather that Mars sees. At an airborne drop of water Even more research pub- photographs of a strikingly
either pole sits an ice cap — freezes and then gets tossed lished this past summer with geometric jet stream — first
Planum Boreum (north) and around, gaining more ice lay- data from Hawaii’s Keck tele- detected in the 1980s by the
Planum Australe (south). ers. Eventually, the icy ball scope suggests that Jupiter’s Voyager probes — shooting
These caps are layered, like a becomes too heavy for winds aurorae — the most intense around the planet’s north
stack of pancakes. On the bot- to support, and it falls as hail. in the solar system — may be pole. Scientists aren’t quite
tom, sand and dust are glued In Jupiter’s cloud tops, the responsible for heating the sure what causes the planet’s
together with water ice. On mixed-in ammonia would entire planet. By disrupting jet streams to create this
top of that sits layers of water prevent a water droplet from the normal poleward flow of unique six-sided shape.
ice mixed with dust that fell fully freezing. So water-
out of the atmosphere over ammonia slushballs are
thousands of years. These lay- thrown around, accumulating
ers make up the bulk of the ice before falling lower in the
ice caps. Just below the top atmosphere. Scientists also
layer sits mostly pure water suspect the water trapped in
ice. The topmost layer is com- these mushballs makes it pos-
posed of CO2 ice that waxes sible for Jupiter’s upper clouds
and wanes over the course to have the electrical charge
of the martian year. needed for lightning.
In the winter, when tem- Of course, Jupiter is most
peratures are around -243 F famous for its brilliant red
(-153 C), Mars becomes cold and white bands of alternat- A massive hexagon-shaped hurricane
enough for CO2 in the atmo- ing winds, crowned by the — containing an eye a staggering
sphere to freeze. About Great Red Spot. This 1,250 miles (2,000 km) across —
lurks at Saturn’s north pole.
25 percent of the martian immense storm — about as NASA/JPL-CALTECH/SPACE SCIENCE INSTITUTE
atmosphere condenses in wide as Earth and easily vis-

these seasonal ice caps. As the ible in backyard telescopes
planet warms in the summer, — has been observed for more
the CO2 returns to a gas. than 150 years. In 2000,
Jupiter also spawned a smaller
THE GAS storm, Oval BA, aka Red Spot
GIANTS Jr. Both rotate counterclock-
Beyond Mars, solar system wise in the southern hemi-
weather gets really spicy. A sphere. The storms are
normal forecast on Jupiter turbocharged by Jupiter’s
includes freezing tem- 28,273 mph (45,500 km/h)
peratures of –160 F (–110 C), equatorial spin and robust
lightning, and a chance of internal heat production.
mushballs. While the Great Red Spot Titan’s thick atmosphere acts like a smog,
blanketing the surface of the moon from
Lightning seen on Jupiter boasts rotational speeds up to view. NASA/JPL/SPACE SCIENCE INSTITUTE

IT’S RAINING MUSHBALLS The water
accumulated in
mushballs makes it
Mushball growth possible for
electrical currents
2
1 Water ice crystals to exist high in the
jovian atmosphere.
ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY,
2 Melted ammonia-water
AFTER NASA/JPL-CALTECH/
SWRI/CNRS
3 Ice crust forms 3

With winds of up to 400 mph (644 km/h),
Jupiter’s Great Red Spot plows through the 1
clouds ahead of it, creating cascading Shallow
ribbons in its wake. NASA/JPL/SPACE SCIENCE INSTITUTE lightning
4 Ice crust grows 4

Jupiter’s north pole is home to a
group of eight cyclones surrounding
Up
a central, persistent one, as seen in Water
dr
condensation t
af
this image from NASA’s Juno
mission. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/SWRI/ASI/INAF/JIRAM
5 Ice crust
melts Rain
“Mushballs”
Evaporation
Ammonia-water
6
core evaporates
Downdraft
ABOVE: A strong jet stream plows through Saturn’s northern hemisphere in this
false-color view from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/SSI
LEFT: Titan’s visible light appearance is shown here (center) compared to six
infrared images of the icy moon’s surface. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/STÉPHANE LE MOUÉLIC, UNIVERSITY
OF NANTES, VIRGINIA PASEK, UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA; NASA/JPL/SPACE SCIENCE INSTITUTE
Pole
ABOVE: Taken using the Keck II

telescope in Hawaii, these are the
sharpest image scientists have of Equator
Uranus’ clouds. The planet’s north
pole (right) is swarmed by stormlike
clouds. LAWRENCE SROMOVSKY, PAT FRY,
HEIDI HAMMEL, IMKE DE PATER/UNIVERSITY OF
WISCONSIN-MADISON
RIGHT: Uranus actually rotates on

its side, as seen in this diagram.
LAWRENCE SROMOVSKY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-
MADISON/W.W. KECK OBSERVATORY
Known as the Hexagon, this despite temps hovering near enable it to fly northward in a sideways planet in the solar
massive hurricane-like storm –290 F (–179 C). series of hops covering a total system, tilted a full 98° to its
above Saturn’s north pole has During its 13-year mission, distance more than 108 miles orbital plane. The extreme
an eye 50 times larger than Cassini made several flybys of (175 km). Based on seasonal tilt places the Sun directly
the eye of the average Earth Titan, discovering a subterra- observations from Cassini, over one pole at a time. The
hurricane. nean saltwater ocean, lakes NASA forecasters predict planet’s north pole features a
Saturn also features an and seas of liquid methane calm weather during prominent cloud cap.
exceptionally symmetrical near the poles, and vast Dragonfly’s tenure. Summers and winters last
magnetic field. By modeling stretches of arid dunes ring- “We think of Titan as a decades and violent storms
data taken from Cassini’s ing the equator. When the real-life laboratory where we stalk its hydrogen-rich atmo-
final orbits and its final spacecraft launched the can see similar chemistry to sphere during the seasonal
plunge into Saturn’s atmo- Huygens probe to land on that of ancient Earth when transitions. Hubble images
sphere, researchers revealed Titan’s surface in 2005, photos life was taking hold here,” have revealed other clouds
this symmetry is most likely revealed a fantastical land- says astrobiologist Melissa circling the planet at over
maintained by a thick layer of scape of misty haze, river Trainer, Dragonfly’s deputy 300 mph (483 km/h).
perennial helium rainstorms channels, and dunes. principal investigator. Neptune, on the other
ringing the poles at high With an axial tilt of about hand, features vast, white,
latitudes. 27°, Titan has four seasons, THE ICE GIANTS methane-ice cirrus clouds
The mission also produced each lasting about seven Compared to the other and mysterious dark storms
intriguing imagery of Saturn’s Earth years, and methane planets of the solar system, dubbed dark spots. Like all
largest moon, Titan, which is rainstorms are thought to Uranus and Neptune remain four giant planets, it has an
of particular interest to astro- flood polar rivers during somewhat neglected, with atmosphere of mostly hydro-
biologists. Titan is the only Titan’s summer. NASA plans only one probe (Voyager 2) gen with some helium and a
moon in the solar system with to send an eight-rotor helicop- having flown past them. Not pinch of methane. Unlike
clouds and a dense, nitrogen- ter, named Dragonfly, to much is known about weather Jupiter’s prominent storms,
rich atmosphere, which is Titan’s equator in 2034 in on these last two planets, the internal dynamics of its
some four times heavier than search of life. The dense except what can be deduced cyclones are unknown.
our own. It is also the only atmosphere (as compared to from Hubble photos and Another mystery is the
world besides Earth that fea- the ultrathin air Ingenuity laboratory simulations. relative dearth of ammonia on
tures liquid on the surface, deals with on Mars), should Uranus is the only the ice giants, both of which

Sept. 18, 2015 May 16, 2016 Oct. 3, 2016 Oct. 6, 2017
In 1996, two hours

before closest
approach, the
Voyager 2
spacecraft Hubble spotted a storm swirling around Neptune’s atmosphere in 2015. Surprisingly, the
snapped this shot massive storm shrunk from about 3,100 miles (5,000 km) to 2,300 miles (3,700 km) wide over
of Neptune’s a period of two years. NASA, ESA, AND M.H. WONG AND A.I. HSU (UC BERKELEY)
clouds. NASA/JPL
Pluto’s famous heart isn’t just a

nitrogen glacier. Every day, some
of the ice in Sputnik Planitia
vaporizes only to refreeze when
NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft caught this image of Pluto’s tenuous atmosphere above the planet’s the temperature plunge again at
majestic icy mountains and streams of frozen nitrogen. NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI night. NASA/JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY/SOUTHWEST
RESEARCH INSTITUTE/ALEX PARKER
seemingly should have high- hydrogen-helium atmo- tilt than Uranus — 123° — nitrogen ice in Sputnik
altitude abundances similar to sphere, researchers think, making for ultra-long seasons Planitia vaporizes when sun-
Jupiter and Saturn. According drifts a zone of methane ice. during its 248-year-long light strikes the region. Then,
to scientists at the 2021 meet- Thanks to the planet’s own orbit. When NASA’s New at night, when the tempera-
ing of the Europlanet Science internal heat and an atmo- Horizons spacecraft made its ture plummets, the nitrogen
Congress, Jupiter-like mush- spheric pressure 1 million historic flyby in July 2015, it condenses back to ice. This
ball storms on Uranus and times that of Earth’s, scien- discovered a nitrogen glacier cycle drives 20 mph (32 km/h)
Neptune could be shunting tists say that these extreme later dubbed Sputnik Planitia. winds around Pluto.
ammonia away from upper conditions can separate car- As New Horizon glanced As NASA and other space
cloud layers — where it is eas- bon atoms from hydrocar- back at Pluto while barreling agencies prepare a new fleet
ily detectable — to deep bons and squeeze them into off toward interstellar space, of interplanetary spacecraft,
within the atmosphere, where diamonds that fall toward it captured glorious views of weather permitting, we are in
its presence is cloaked from Neptune’s core. the backlit body, catching a for a wild ride through the
present technology. distinct blue haze rimming solar system.
And, if another theory, THE DWARF the world. Researchers had
hatched in 1981, is right, PLANET known Pluto held a thin Randall Hyman is a science
Neptune may also host other No tour of our solar system’s atmosphere since 1988. A writer whose passions have
bizarre storms, including the weather would be complete thousand times thinner than led him from the Arctic to
wildest weather in the solar without a parting visit to our the CO2 atmosphere of Mars, the cosmos for four decades,
system: diamond rain. largest dwarf planet, Pluto. It Pluto’s nitrogen atmosphere covering stories for magazines
Beneath Neptune’s thick has an even more dramatic has a heartbeat. Every day, worldwide.
First look at the
LESS THAN FIVE YEARS AGO,

2024 TOTAL
On April 8, 2024, millions of Americans will watch the
every viewer was left with just one ques- Basics of the eclipse
IN 2017, millions of people in the U.S. tion: “When is the next one?” Because Earth is not always the same
witnessed a spectacular event: the first The answer, happily, is April 8, 2024. distance from the Sun and the Moon
total solar eclipse to touch the conti- And although six years, seven months, is not always the same distance from
nental U.S. in nearly four decades. The and 19 days sounds like a long time, it’s Earth, the length of totality varies from
narrow path of American totality started much shorter than the average time one total solar eclipse to the next. The
in Oregon and ended in South Carolina, between two eclipses appearing at a Earth-Sun distance changes by about
captivating all those fortunate enough to given location on Earth: every 330 years 3 percent and the Moon-Earth distance
dot its track. But after the excitement of in the Northern Hemisphere and 550 by as much as 12 percent. Therefore,
the Great American Eclipse died down, years south of the equator. the maximum duration of totality for
SOLAR ECLIPSE
Moon entirely blot out the Sun. BY MICHAEL E. BAKICH
any eclipse occurring between 2000 b.c. contiguous U.S. will at least be treated BACKGROUND: The various stages of the Great
American Eclipse of Aug. 21, 2017, are on full
and a.d. 3000 is 7 minutes 32 seconds. to a partial eclipse. In fact, the Moon display in this composite that captures how the
(Don’t get too excited, though — such will cover no less than 16.15 percent of eclipse progressed (from left to right). The
an extra-long eclipse doesn’t occur the Sun’s brilliant surface. (That mini- placement of each frame roughly matches the
actual position and motion of the eclipse
until July 16, 2186.) mum coverage comes at Tatoosh Island, across the sky around the time of totality.
Totality for the 2024 eclipse won’t a tiny speck of land west of Neah Bay, ALAN DYER
last that long, but it’s still a worthy Washington.) INSET: Cowboy Nicolas Silva enjoys his view of
chunk of time: 4 minutes 28 seconds. Comparing a partial eclipse to a total the total solar eclipse on July 2, 2019, from atop
a mountain ridge near Cabalgatas Altos de
And as with the Great American eclipse is like comparing almost win- Cochiguaz, a ranch in Chile’s Elqui Valley.
Eclipse in 2017, everyone in the ning the lottery to winning the lottery. RICK ARMSTRONG
Even partial eclipses can be fun and exciting to watch, especially with a group. Dense clouds can certainly ruin your eclipse day. But thin wisps of clouds can
This shot, taken during a public event in Centennial Park in Jasper, Alberta, often make for more dramatic views. This is especially true for partial eclipses,
shows the partial eclipse of Oct. 23, 2014, through a handheld solar filter. ALAN DYER such as this one photographed in October 2014. ALAN DYER
If you are outside during a solar eclipse tiny islands before it encounters stay in Mazatlán itself, you’ll lose only
with 16 percent coverage, eclipse glasses North America just southeast of about 10 seconds.
will reveal the Moon taking a small Mazatlán, Mexico. Viewers at that loca- The greatest duration of totality —
bite out of the Sun’s disk, but you won’t tion will enjoy an impressive 4 minutes 4 minutes 28.1 seconds — occurs when
even notice the sky getting darker with 27 seconds of totality. And if you wish to the Moon’s shadow reaches San Martín,
your naked eyes. And it doesn’t matter
whether the partial eclipse above your
location is 16, 56, or 96 percent, you
won’t see the true celestial spectacles:
two diamond rings, the Sun’s glorious
corona, 360° of sunset, and stars show-
ing themselves in the daytime.
To glimpse any of these, you must
be in the path of totality. That said,
your next goal is to be as close to the
center line as possible. The fact that the
Moon’s shadow is round means that the
longest eclipse occurs at its center line,
because that’s where the lunar shadow’s
full width will pass over you.
The big day: April 8, 2024

The Moon’s shadow first touches Earth
just north of Penrhyn Island, an atoll in
the Cook Islands in the South Pacific.
That spot will experience a 98 percent
partial eclipse. Some 73 minutes later,
totality first strikes land at Socorro
Island, a possession of Mexico. If you
choose to view the eclipse from there,
be sure to position yourself at the
island’s far southeastern tip, where
you’ll enjoy an extra 34 seconds of
totality.
The shadow’s path covers a few more

north of Torreón and roughly half the The center line then passes through
distance from the coast to the Mexican Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, FAST FACTS
border with Texas. Fortunately, the Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
duration of totality along the center line New York, Vermont, and Maine. Those
is never more than one second less than wishing to observe the eclipse from the A solar eclipse lines up
the Sun, the Moon, and Earth. The
this maximum during the shadow’s same location the center line crossed Moon, directly between the Sun and
more than 550-mile (885 kilometers) during the Aug. 21, 2017, eclipse should Earth, casts a shadow on our planet. If
voyage through Mexico. head to a location near Makanda, you’re in the dark part of that shadow
Illinois, just south of Carbondale. But a (the umbra), you’ll see a total eclipse. If
Crossing the border word of warning, if I may: The weather you’re in the light part (the penumbra),
you’ll see a partial eclipse.
Totality first reaches the U.S. when the in Illinois in April — and I’m specifi-
Moon’s shadow crosses the Rio Grande cally talking about cloud cover here Tons of people will see it.
River at the wonderfully named Radar — is a far cry from what it is in August. In 2017, approximately 12.25 million
Base, Texas, which lies in Maverick Your chances of actually seeing the residents of the U.S. lived along the
County. There, totality lasts 4 minutes 2024 eclipse increase dramatically as path of totality. In 2024, more than
that number live along the path
27 seconds. As the eclipse progresses you move southwest. before the eclipse leaves Texas! In
through the Lone Star State, a huge Other major cities in the 2024 all, approximately 31.5 million people
number of people won’t have to travel eclipse path include Little Rock, across 15 states can simply walk
anywhere to view it. That said, ventur- Arkansas; Indianapolis, Indiana; outside, look up, and see a totally
ing just a few miles to the center line Dayton and Cleveland, Ohio (with eclipsed Sun in the daytime sky —
weather permitting, of course.
is surely worth your while. northwestern parts of Cincinnati and
San Antonio, Austin, Waco, Dallas, Columbus under the shadow); Buffalo, This event will happen!
and Fort Worth all lie under the Rochester, and Syracuse, New York; As astronomers, some of the problems
shadow, although none is on the center and about half of Montréal, Québec, we encounter are due to the uncertainty
line. That’s more than 11 million people Canada. and limited visibility of celestial
events. Comets may appear bright if
who can experience the total eclipse But if some of these places don’t their compositions are just so. Meteor
with little to no effort — and we’re not float your boat, don’t worry. There are showers might reach storm levels if we
even out of Texas yet. plenty of other great options. pass through a thick part of the stream.
— Continued on page 30 A supernova as bright as a whole galaxy
could be visible now, but you need a
telescope to view it. In contrast, the
2024 total solar eclipse will occur when
Imagers often create we say, where we say, for how long
composite shots to we say, and in the daytime, no less.
show the progression Guaranteed! — M.E.B.
of an eclipse, such as
this event over Madras,
Oregon, on Aug. 21,
2017. NASA/AUBREY GEMIGNANI
This composite of the total solar eclipse of March 29, 2006, was taken from Libya. It shows the diamond ring formed
during second contact at top left, totality at center, and the third-contact diamond ring at bottom right. You might
also notice the New Moon’s usually invisible face is slightly illuminated by earthshine — sunlight reflecting off our
planet and back at the Moon — during totality. ALAN DYER
12 OF THE BEST PLACES
TO VIEW THE 2024 TOTAL ECLIPSE
THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF APRIL 8, 2024, I’ll also offer another suggestion when choosing a site: Carefully
will dazzle everyone who views it. And by using maps like the one consider the population. All things being equal, a town of 10,000 is
on the next page, it’s easy to find the specific cities in Mexico and more likely to have event-related problems than a city of 75,000.
the U.S. where totality will grace the skies. But where are the best Small towns with one main road may suffer hours of gridlock. If you
locations to set up shop? That answer is less straightforward. opt to travel to such a location, get there early, perhaps even a day
You’ll surely want to be near the eclipse’s center line, where or two ahead of the eclipse. (Remember: April 8, 2024, is a Monday,
totality lasts the longest. But not every place along the center line and most people will be free the entire weekend beforehand.)
makes for an ideal viewing site. So, here are 12 great locations Finally, if you’d like to preview exactly what the eclipse will look
you should really consider for the 2024 total solar eclipse, starting like from any location on the big day, visit www.eclipse2024.org/
in Mexico and working our way to the Northeastern U.S. eclipse-simulator/ for an impressively accurate interactive view.
1 Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico Eclipse starts: 12:21:23 P.M. CDT Eclipse starts: 12:41:51 P.M. CDT
Maximum eclipse: 2:00:21 P.M. CDT
The Moon’s umbra touches the coast Maximum eclipse: 1:40:53 P.M. CDT
of the United Mexican States at 11:07 A.M. Eclipse ends: 3:01:16 P.M. CDT Eclipse ends: 3:17:26 P.M. CDT
Mexican Pacific Daylight Time (MPDT), less Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 65.5° Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 57.3°
than 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Mazatlán, Duration of totality: 4 minutes 23 seconds Duration of totality: 4 minutes 6 seconds
which was one of the main destinations for Width of Moon’s shadow: 119.2 miles (191.8 km) Width of Moon’s shadow: 115.5 miles (185.9 km)
travelers viewing the July 11, 1991, total solar
eclipse. This city previously showed it can
Russellville, Arkansas 6 Indianapolis, Indiana
host a large influx of travelers, so it’s a decent
bet that it will be a prime destination again.
4 With a population near 30,000, The umbra will cover a wide swath
Russellville has enough resources to host a of Indiana, but most of the attention will
Eclipse starts: 9:51:28 A .M. MPDT moderate influx of visitors for the eclipse. Those focus on the state’s capital city. Downtown
Maximum eclipse: 11:09:39 A .M. MPDT eclipse chasers who prefer to observe the event Indianapolis is a metropolis served by four
Eclipse ends: 12:32:11 P.M. MPDT outside the city could head for nearby Mount interstate highways and will surely be one of
Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 69.1° Nebo, a flat-topped mountain that rises 1,350 feet the most sought-after destinations. It offers
Duration of totality: 4 minutes 18 seconds (410 meters) above the surrounding valley. plentiful lodging, excellent cuisine, and
Width of Moon’s shadow: 123.7 miles many attractions for travelers.
Eclipse starts: 12:33:08 P.M. CDT
(199.1 km)
Maximum eclipse: 1:52:10 P.M. CDT Eclipse starts: 1:50:31 P.M. EDT
Eclipse ends: 3:10:46 P.M. CDT Maximum eclipse: 3:07:56 P.M. EDT
Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 61° Eclipse ends: 4:23:10 P.M. EDT
2 Radar Base, Texas Duration of totality: 4 minutes 11 seconds Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 53°
For eclipse chasers who want the
Width of Moon’s shadow: 117.2 miles (188.6 km) Duration of totality: 3 minutes 49 seconds
greatest possible amount of totality without
Width of Moon’s shadow: 114 miles (183.4 km)
leaving the U.S., consider Radar Base, which
lies right on the U.S.–Mexico border. While its
5 Cape Girardeau, Missouri Cleveland, Ohio
name might imply a military base, the settle-
ment is actually a small town of several hun-
dred residents. That number will balloon on
The largest city in southeastern Missouri
that will experience totality is Cape Girardeau,
7 With a metro population of more
with 80,000 residents. It lies on the bank of the than 2 million, this city will host a multitude
eclipse day, so be sure to get there early. of eclipse chasers. Get there a couple of
Mississippi River and is easily accessible from
Interstate 55. For an additional four seconds of days early and fill the waiting time with visits
Eclipse starts: 12:10:26 P.M. CDT
totality, eclipseophiles can head 10 miles (16 km) to some of Cleveland’s highlights, including
Maximum eclipse: 1:29:53 P.M. CDT
northwest on Route 72 to Jackson. the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Rock &
Eclipse ends: 2:51:30 P.M. CDT
Roll Hall of Fame.
Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 68.5°
Duration of totality: 4 minutes 27 seconds Eclipse starts: 1:59:20 P.M. EDT
Width of Moon’s shadow: 120.9 miles (195.5 km) Maximum eclipse: 3:15:37 P.M. EDT
Eclipse ends: 4:28:57 P.M. EDT
Duration of totality: 3 minutes 49 seconds
3 Hillsboro, Texas Width of Moon’s shadow: 111.9 miles (180.1 km)
Although not a huge city, Hillsboro is
an easy destination, lying on Interstate 35
where I-35E and I-35W split south of Dallas. The usually invisible solar corona bursts into
view in this shot of the 2017 Great American
It also sits right along the center line of total- Eclipse. ALAN DYER
ity, which will help maximize your time under
the Moon’s umbra.

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ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER MICHAEL ZEILER
Erie, Pennsylvania Eclipse starts: 2:04:50 P.M. EDT million, Sherbrooke offers plenty of lodging
8 The only large city in the Maximum eclipse: 3:20:02 P.M. EDT
Eclipse ends: 4:31:57 P.M. EDT
and other amenities. A quick 10-mile (16 km)
drive south will bring you to the center line
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to be
graced by the Moon’s umbra is Erie, which, Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 45.6° and five additional seconds of totality.
with its 100,000 residents, sits on the shore Duration of totality: 3 minutes 31 seconds
Width of Moon’s shadow: 110.8 miles (178.4 km) Eclipse starts: 2:16:35 P.M. EDT
of the Great Lake that bears its name. It’s Maximum eclipse: 3:29:23 P.M. EDT
certain that many eclipse chasers from Eclipse ends: 4:38:13 P.M. EDT
Pittsburgh, 130 miles (210 km) to the south
via Interstate 79, will visit for the event. 10 Buffalo, New York Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 38.8°
The largest city in New York to experi- Duration of totality: 3 minutes 25 seconds
Eclipse starts: 2:02:23 P.M. EDT ence the Moon’s umbra is Buffalo, with its Width of Moon’s shadow: 107.8 miles (173.5 km)
Maximum eclipse: 3:18:12 P.M. EDT metropolitan population of 1.1 million. The cen-
Eclipse ends: 4:30:48 P.M. EDT ter line passes right through downtown, so
Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 47°
expect all activity to come to a screeching halt
in midafternoon. Travelers desiring information
12 Mars Hill, Maine
To be honest, Mars Hill is a small town
Width of Moon’s shadow: 111.2 miles (179 km) about the eclipse might want to check with the of some 1,500 residents. But just think of it: an
staff of Zygmunt Planetarium, which is part of amateur astronomer watching the Moon
the Buffalo Museum of Science. cover the Sun from a place named Mars Hill?
9 Niagara Falls, New York Terrific. This location also is one of the last
If the Northeastern U.S. has good Eclipse starts: 2:04:54 P.M. EDT spots in the U.S. to see totality. But if you’re
weather on eclipse day, the most pictur- Maximum eclipse: 3:20:11 P.M. EDT one of those more serious types, just venture
esque images of the event might come from Eclipse ends: 4:32:07 P.M. EDT 20 miles (32 km) south for an additional 10
Niagara Falls. One of the best perspectives Sun’s altitude at maximum eclipse: 45.6° seconds of totality.
will be the outlook called Terrapin Point, Duration of totality: 3 minutes 45 seconds
where the Sun will hang halfway up in the Width of Moon’s shadow: 110.7 miles (178.2 km) Eclipse starts: 2:22:20 P.M. EDT
southwest — directly over the Falls! Science Maximum eclipse: 3:33:41 P.M. EDT
buffs who observe or photograph the Eclipse ends: 4:40:52 P.M. EDT
Sherbrooke, Quebéc,
eclipse from this area surely will want to
visit the Nikola Tesla Monument within 11 Canada
Width of Moon’s shadow: 106.2 miles (171 km)
Queen Victoria Park on the Canadian side of Those Canadians who may not wish to cross
Niagara Falls. It lies only 0.3 mile (0.5 km) the border can opt for Sherbrooke, which is
north of Terrapin Point. only a 100-mile (161 km) drive from Montréal. Drive safely and don’t forget your eclipse
With a metro population of nearly a quarter- glasses. I wish you all clear skies! — M.E.B.
QUICK TIPS
Request a vacation day.
Although it’s nearly three years before
the great event, April 8, 2024, will
surely be a popular vacation day. If
2021 or 2022 are too early to submit
your vacation request, set a reminder
now to do so in 2023.
Watch the sunset all around.

After totality begins, the horizon will take
on an eerie glow. On the leading edge of
the shadow, sunset is happening. On the
following edge, sunrise is occurring. The
360° sunset is one of the coolest earthly
sights during any total solar eclipse.
But don’t dwell on it too long. The real
drama is in the sky.
Time will fly. In the “Forum” section

of the August 1980 issue of Astronomy,
columnist Norm Sperling tried to
convey how quickly totality speeds by.
He wrote: “Everyone who sees a total
solar eclipse remembers it forever. It
overwhelms the senses, and the soul
as well — the curdling doom of the
onrushing umbra, the otherworldly
pink prominences, and the ethereal
pearly corona. And incredibly soon,
totality terminates. Then it hits you:
‘It was supposed to last a few minutes
— but that couldn’t have been true. It
only seemed to last eight seconds!’ ”
— M.E.B.
Photographed Aug. 11, 1999, from Hasankayef — a village and archeological site along the Tigris River in
southest Turkey — a total solar eclipse dazzles high in the sky above fortress ruins in the foreground. It’s
hard to imagine what the people who used to live in the homes built into the valleys some 2,000 years ago
would have thought if they saw such an unfamiliar sight. ALAN DYER
— Continued from page 27
A long wait after 2024 near that point, namely Hogeland and
For those wanting to view another total Turner, Montana, experience totalities
solar eclipse in the contiguous U.S. after only a few tenths of a second less than
the 2024 event, it’ll be a 20-year wait — that. And the Montana cities of Chinook,
until Aug. 23, 2044 — for the next one. Zurich, Harlem, Dodson, and Malta lose
Plus, that eclipse is visible only in north- only another second.
eastern Montana and a tiny segment of After 2044, three more total solar
North Dakota. Its greatest duration of eclipses track through the contiguous
totality, 2 minutes 4 seconds, happens U.S. in the 21st century. So, if 2044’s
over Canada’s Northwest Territories. eclipse disappoints you, you’ll be thrilled
At the intersection of the center line to know that another happens less than
This spectacular image reveals fine details in the of the 2044 eclipse and the U.S.-Canada one year later. The event, on Aug. 12,
Sun’s corona (its outer atmosphere) that you won’t
be able to spot with your own eyes. IMAGE: DON SABERS border, totality is 20 seconds shorter: 2045, is a truly spectacular cross-country
AND RON ROYER; PROCESSING: MILOSLAV DRUCKMÜLLER 1 minute 44 seconds. The small towns eclipse, with totality lasting from

Aug. 12 ,
2026
Aug. 12 , 2026
33
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Sept. 2 , 2035
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July 22 , 2028
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Center line
Path of totality
After 2024, another total solar eclipse won’t occur

in the contiguous U.S. until 2044. But there’s no
shortage of eclipses around the world before then.
ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER FRED ESPENAK, NASA/GSFC
Observers with clear
skies on the center
line are sure to see
4 minutes 23 seconds on the Northern the eclipse’s diamond
rings pop into view as
California coast to an amazing maxi- the display evolves.
mum of 6 minutes 6 seconds at Port St. IAN WARDLAW
Lucie, Florida.
Next, the center line of the total
solar eclipse on March 30, 2052, lands
only on Florida and Georgia. But total-
ity for that small path will only last
between 3 minutes 30 seconds in
Savannah, Georgia, and 3 minutes
44 seconds near Laguna Beach, Florida.
The final 21st-century total solar
eclipse whose path intersects the con-
tiguous U.S. occurs May 11, 2078. Like
the eclipse in 2052, this one also tracks
through the southeastern U.S. Totality
will last 5 minutes 17 seconds in Nags
Head, North Carolina.
For those of you who stood beneath
the Moon’s shadow in 2017, no con-
vincing is needed to get you to seek out
darkness in 2024. If you can catch it, an
eclipse is a sight you’ll never rate as
anything other than awesome — in the
truest sense of the word. Just be sure to
check the weather first!
Michael E. Bakich is an eclipsophile

who has stood beneath the Moon’s umbral
shadow more than a dozen times.
SKY THIS MONTH
Visible to the naked eye
Visible with binoculars
Visible with a telescope
THE SOLAR SYSTEM’S CHANGING LANDSCAPE AS IT APPEARS IN EARTH’S SKY.

BY MARTIN RATCLIFFE AND ALISTER LING
Venus continues to dom-
MARCH 2022
inate in the morning,
along with a retinue of fellow
planets gracing the predawn
sky. Mars, Saturn, and elusive
Plenty of planets Mercury provide lots to observe.

Jupiter largely is hidden from
view after its conjunction with
the Sun. Meanwhile, the eve-
at dawn ning sky carries William

Herschel’s great discovery of
1781, the planet Uranus, easily
visible in binoculars.
Let’s start with a closer look
at this distant giant. The only
planet visible in the evening sky
is 6th-magnitude Uranus, nes-
tled within a dim region of
Aries the Ram. It stands due
north of the circle of stars
depicting the head of Cetus
the Whale.
The easiest way to find the
field of view containing Uranus
as you scan around with bin-
oculars is to draw a line
LEFT: Mercury, Venus, Mars, and

Saturn share the sky in July 2010.
This month, the same planets appear
in the morning twilight, with Mercury
ducking out early and Jupiter joining
in late March. ALAN DYER
An evening guide
ARIES
Menkar Uranus Hamal
A NDROM E DA
Moon Mirach
CETUS
PISCES Alpheratz
Scheat
PEGASUS
10°
March 6, 1 hour after sunset

Looking west
ABOVE: Uranus sits between the bright stars Menkar and Hamal. On March 6,
a crescent Moon also helps guide the way, hanging just southwest of the ice
giant. ALL ILLUSTRATIONS: ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY

RISING MOON I More hopeful by the day
SPRING CRESCENTS ARE THE BEST! With
Lacus Spei and more
the Moon standing high above the horizon,
you’ve got time to explore Luna’s eastern limb,
Mare
where shadows abound. On the 3rd, perhaps
OBSERVING the only recognizable features north of the
Humboldtianum
N
HIGHLIGHT equator are Mare Humboldtianum and the
110-mile-wide Gauss.
MERCURY and SATURN stand E
42" apart the morning of Come back on the 4th to see Hahn and
Endymion
March 2. Try to catch them in Berosus sporting bright rims in the sunshine,
the half-hour before sunrise. their bowls in shadow. Friedrich von Hahn was a
dedicated amateur astronomer in the late 1700s Lacus Spei
who discovered the Ring Nebula’s (M57) central
star. Berosus was a 3rd-century B.C. astronomer
who realized the Moon spun once on its axis for
each revolution around Earth, explaining why
between Hamal, the brightest Gauss
we always see the same face.
star in Aries, and Menkar, the Lacus Spei, the Lake of Hope, has
brightest star in Cetus. Uranus tasted morning Sun by the 5th. It’s
Berosus
lies midway between these two about halfway between Gauss and the
easy-to-spot 2nd-magnitude notable flat-floored Endymion. Can you Hahn
stars. see Spei’s splotch? Perhaps not with the
The Moon’s libration this month allows us
Once you’re in the right mixed shadowed terrain, but in a few
a fine view of features in the lunar west.
vicinity, look for a pair of stars nights its darkness will stand out. It might be CONSOLIDATED LUNAR ATLAS/UA/LPL. INSET: NASA/GSFC/ASU
within the field of view of 7x50 an old mare that never got covered, or the sooty
or 10x50 binoculars. The two apron from a shallow volcanic cone. it’s a trick of perspective when our satellite
A dynamic phenomenon to watch is the climbs above the ecliptic and bares its under-
stars you’re looking for are
night-by-night backward tilt of Gauss and side. This libration also lets us see more of the
Omicron (ο) Arietis and
Humboldtianum away from us and toward the west and less of the east because the Moon is in
29 Arietis, both about 6th
limb, which occurs from the 4th through the a slower part of its orbit, letting its constant
magnitude and separated by
10th. The Moon does not really rock like that — turning get ahead.
2.8°. Uranus wanders
— Continued on page 38
METEOR WATCH I Focus on the sky

Chance sighting FOR THE SECOND MONTH in observers this month is viewing
a row, no major meteor showers the zodiacal light in the evening
occur. This offers two oppor- sky. Your best chances are the first
tunities for observers. One is few days of March before the
looking for the background, or Moon interferes and the last week
sporadic, meteor rate. The best of the month, when again the
times this month occur during Moon is out of the way.
the dark Moon period beginning Zodiacal light comes from
March 1. A First Quarter Moon on sunlight reflecting off fine dusty
March 9 sets before 2 A.M. local debris littering the inner solar sys-
time, offering dark morning skies. tem. This is the detritus left by
Sporadic rates average a half- ancient comets. Once twilight has
dozen meteors per hour. Morning faded, look for a delicate cone-
skies are best because you’re on shaped glow extending above the
the leading hemisphere of Earth western horizon. You’ll need a very
as we orbit the Sun, so meteors dark moonless sky with no inter-
strike the atmosphere head-on. fering lights. The zodiacal light is
Evening rates tend to be lower as aligned with the ecliptic, Earth’s
we look back along our orbit, as if orbital plane, and passes through
viewing out the rear-facing win- Pisces, Aries, and Taurus. Try using
dow of planet Earth, so meteors peripheral vision to spot the arch-
A sporadic meteor that is not associated with a shower streaks across have to catch up with us. ing cone of light by scanning left
the sky in July 2020. ROCKY RAYBELL The second opportunity for to right along the horizon.
N
STAR DOME
HOW TO USE THIS MAP A
This map portrays the sky as seen
N
H
E
E
near 35° north latitude. Located C
R
DR
inside the border are the cardinal LE
U
O
AC
MINOR US
directions and their intermediate S
URSA
PHE CE
points. To find stars, hold the map
overhead and orient it so one of
Polaris IS
the labels matches the direction NCP
DA
L
you’re facing. The stars above AR
OP
the map’s horizon now match
what’s in the sky.
BO
T Ö
The all-sky map shows ES
M81
Mi
how the sky looks at:
za
51
r
M82
10 P.M. March 1
CA
10 P.M. March 15
NE
9 P.M. March 31
M RS
S
A A
U
Planets are shown
VE
JO
NX
Arct
R
BER
NA
at midmonth
CO
LY
T
urus
IC
NIC E
A
LEO M
NGP
ES
MAP SYMBOLS
Castor
GEMINI
M64
INOR
Open cluster
E
Globular cluster
x
Diffuse nebula
llu
LE
M44
Po
Den
M6
Planetary nebula O
6
M6
ebo
VIR
Galaxy
5
la
Re
GO
gu CANCER
lu
s
yon IS
Proc N R
STAR A
C INO
MAGNITUDES M
Spi
SE
M10
HY
ca
X DR
Sirius TA A
4
C N S
R S RO
0.0 3.0 E
CO
A
T
E N OC
RV
1.0 4.0 R MO
US
2.0 5.0
M4 7 S
A NI R
C JO
MA
STAR COLORS PYXIS

A star’s color depends
on its surface temperature. ara
AN Ad h
•• The hottest stars shine blue

TL
IA PUPP
IS
SE
Slightly cooler stars appear white

• Intermediate stars (like the Sun) glow yellow 47 7
• Lower-temperature stars appear orange
NG C 2
• The coolest stars glow red VELA
• Fainter stars can’t excite our eyes’ color

receptors, so they appear white unless you
use optical aid to gather more light
S
BEGINNERS: WATCH A VIDEO ABOUT HOW TO READ A STAR CHART AT
www.Astronomy.com/starchart.
MARCH 2022
SUN. MON. TUES. WED. THURS. FRI. SAT.
A
31 1 2 3 4 5
PE ED
W
IO M
N
S M
AS C O
R
D
N
A
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
ILLUSTRATIONS BY ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY

86 GC
N 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
3
M3
4
88 G C L
ME
UM
N A
C
L
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
GU
AN I
TR
IES
S
l
go
27 28 29 30 31
U
SE
Al
AR
R
Note: Moon phases in the calendar vary in size due to the distance
PE
ti c)
lla
l ip from Earth and are shown at 0h Universal Time.

pe
ec
n(
Ca
u
eS
ade
Uranus
th
GA
of
Plei
th
Pa
RI
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
AU
M38
M36
2 Mercury passes 0.7° south of Saturn, 8 A.M. EST

CETUS
TAU R U S
M35 M37
Hyades
New Moon occurs at 12:35 P.M. EST

W
5 Jupiter is in conjunction with the Sun, 9 A.M. EST

M1
Aldebaran
7 The Moon passes 0.8° south of Uranus, 1 A.M. EST

9 The Moon passes 0.3° south of dwarf planet Ceres, 2 A.M. EST
N
IO
10 First Quarter Moon occurs at 5:45 A.M. EST

OR
The Moon is at apogee (251,200 miles from Earth), 6:04 P.M. EST
e
us
12 Venus passes 4° north of Mars, 9 A.M. EST

ge
tel
US
13 Neptune is in conjunction with the Sun, 8 A.M. EDT

Be
AN
42 18 Full Moon occurs at 3:18 A.M. EDT

ID
M
ER
l
20 Venus is at greatest western elongation (47°), 5 A.M. EDT

ge
Ri
Vernal equinox occurs at 11:33 A.M. EDT

ius S
Sir P
U
Mercury passes 1.3° south of Jupiter, 6 P.M. EDT
LE
23 The Moon is at perigee (229,758 miles from Earth), 7:37 P.M. EDT
1
M4 25 Last Quarter Moon occurs at 1:37 A.M. EDT
27 The Moon passes 4° south of Mars, 11 P.M. EDT
28 The Moon passes 7° south of Venus, 6 A.M. EDT
SW
The Moon passes 4° south of Saturn, 8 A.M. EDT
M BA 29 Venus passes 2° north of Saturn, 9 A.M. EDT

LU
CO 30 The Moon passes 4° south of Jupiter, 11 A.M. EDT
The Moon passes 4° south of Neptune, 3 P.M. EDT
PATHS OF THE PLANETS
CAS DRA
UMa
LAC
HER CVN
CYG LMi
LYR BOÖ
CNC
CrB
VUL COM
PEG LEO
Massalia
SGE Comet
EQU
P SC
C/2017 K2 SER
AQL OPH
Sun VIR
Jupiter Venus appears farthest from
the Sun on March mornings SEX
Neptune LIB
CET Me r Path of CRV

cu r y the Moon
Mars CRT HYA

Saturn
Pluto ANT
PsA SGR
SCL PYX
MIC LUP
CrA SCO VEL
PHE CEN
GRU
Moon phases Dawn Midnight
To locate the Moon in the sky, draw a line from the phase shown
for the day straight up to the curved blue line.
5 4 3 2 1
31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14
Uranus
THE PLANETS THE PLANETS IN THE SKY
These illustrations show the size, phase,
IN THEIR ORBITS and orientation of each planet and the
Arrows show the inner two brightest dwarf planets at 0h UT for
planets’ monthly motions Jupiter Neptune the dates in the data table at bottom.
and dots depict the Solar conjunction South is at the top to match the view
Saturn
outer planets’ positions is March 13 through a telescope.
at midmonth from high Venus
above their orbits.
Mercury Mars
Pluto Ceres
Ceres
PLANETS MERCURY VENUS

Date March 1 March 15
Earth Mercury
Vernal equinox Magnitude –0.1 –4.6
is March 20
Jupiter Angular size 5.9" 26.2"
Mars Solar conjunction
is March 5 Illumination 76% 47%
Venus 1.148
Distance (AU) from Earth 0.636
Greatest western elongation
is March 20 Distance (AU) from Sun 0.467 0.723
Right ascension (2000.0) 21h16.9m 20h37.5m
Declination (2000.0) –17°16' –15°49'

JULY 2021
This map unfolds the entire night sky from sunset (at right) until sunrise (at left). Arrows
and colored dots show motions and locations of solar system objects during the month. MARCH 2022
CAS 1 Io
AND LAC Callisto

LYN PER 2 Jupiter
AUR
Co
m TRI
GEM Bo e t 1 9 3
rr e P PEG
lly / Europa
Cere ARI
s 4
Path
of the Io
Sun 5 Europa
Iris Uranus (e clip
tic) PSC
CMI Sun 6
Celestial equator Ganymede
ORI
MON 7
CET AQR
CMA
JUPITER’S 8
LEP
MOONS
PsA 9 Callisto Ganymede
Dots display
ERI FOR
PUP COL SCL positions of
Galilean satellites 10
CAE at 7 A .M. EDT on
PHE
the date shown. 11
Early evening South is at the
top to match the 12
view through a
31 30
telescope.
13
14
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
15
S 16
Jupiter
W E 17
Saturn
N
18
19
10"
20
21
Uranus Neptune Pluto
22
23
24
MARS CERES JUPITER SATURN URANUS NEPTUNE PLUTO 25

March 15 March 15 March 31 March 15 March 15 March 15 March 15
26
1.2 8.7 –2.0 0.7 5.9 7.8 15.2
4.9" 0.5" 33.4" 15.5" 3.5" 2.2" 0.1" 27
93% 97% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

28
1.909 2.768 5.908 10.712 20.368 30.913 35.024
1.444 2.661 4.976 9.904 19.712 29.919 34.482 29
20h35.5m 4h21.9m 23h27.6m 21h31.0m 2h37.9m 23h34.7m 20h01.1m

30
–19°41' 23°02' –4°35' –15°40' 15°01' –3°57' –22°25'
31
WHEN TO
SKY THIS MONTH — Continued from page 33 VIEW THE
PLANETS
Close encounter Venus is first up in the
morning sky, rising more than EVENING SKY
two hours before the Sun Uranus (west)
Altair
March 1st. Mars rises within
MORNING SKY
half an hour of Venus, and the Mercury (east)
AQUIL A
two stand 5° apart in eastern Venus (southeast)
Sagittarius. Venus is dazzling at Mars (southeast)
magnitude –4.7, while Mars is Jupiter (east)
a relatively dim magnitude 1.3. Saturn (east)
Venus
SAGIT TA R I US Over the month, Venus dims
Mars to magnitude –4.4 and Mars
brightens to magnitude 1.1.
CAPRIC ORNUS Mars appears as a glowing,
10°
Saturn
Mercury amber-colored jewel compared and Saturn, which lies farther
with the stunning white sap- east and glows at magnitude 0.7
March 2, 30 minutes before sunrise
Looking southeast phire glow of Venus. They trek all month.
in tandem across Sagittarius, Venus reaches its greatest
Mercury is visible early in the month. Catch it standing just 42" south of Saturn reaching Capricornus March 6. elongation on March 20, when
on the 2nd. You’ll find them 3.9° apart — it stands 47° west of the Sun.
their closest — March 15. Check it out with a telescope
northeastward during March, The spring Venus’ continued daily drift to reveal a 50-percent-lit disk
starting from a point 44' south-
east of 29 Ari. The planet will
equinox occurs against the backgrounds stars
remains faster than Mars’. The
spanning 25". Due to the
Schröter effect, reported in the
appear slightly bluish under March 20 at brilliant planet soon forms the 1790s by German astronomer
good transparent skies. 11:33 A.M. EDT. apex of a triangle with Mars Johann Schröter, the visual
A useful guide is the waxing
crescent Moon, which sits in
Aries March 6 — a lovely sight
in the evening sky. Swing your
COMET SEARCH I Goin’ to California
binoculars between 3° and 4°
northeast of our satellite to find TAKE ADVANTAGE of two Comet 19P/Borrelly
dark-sky windows to view the
Uranus.
departing Comet 19P/Borrelly. NGC 1499 N
From March 14 to 23,
The comet starts off March near 30 Menkib PERSEUS
Uranus stands within 18' of a
the magnitude 3.6 guidepost 25
7th-magnitude red giant field 41 Arietis, halfway between the
star, and their color contrast is Pleiades (M45) and the familiar Path of
c 20 k
noticeable. It’s an especially hockey stick shape of Aries. Comet Borrelly
s 15
fine view using an APO refrac- Glowing at 10th magnitude, q 10
tor, which has good color rendi- Borrelly will be a fair bit dimmer 41
E r
tion. Notice the brighter blue than M1 far to its southeast — the 5
supergiant, Omicron, standing object that started comet hunter p Pleiades AR I E S
just over 1° to the east. For the g March 1
Charles Messier on his journey to o c ¡ i
remainder of March, Uranus t
creating the Catalogue of Nebulae NGC 1554/5
heads toward Omicron, ending ¡ b
and Star Clusters. TAU RU S
the month 0.8° due west of Tough for a 4-inch scope, the Aldebaran b l /
m Hyades 2°
the star. ball of dust and ice will be within a
e
Switch to a telescope to view reach of a 6-inch aperture under
Uranus’ distinctive bluish-green dark skies. At powers above 150x, Wide-field astroimagers get a nice treat starting March 25, when Comet
Borrelly slides less than 2° south of the California Nebula (NGC 1499). It sits
disk, which spans just over 3". the north limb of the inner coma on the state’s southern border the 27th.
This distant giant lies 1.9 billion will be sharply defined, hiding
miles from Earth. the actual nucleus from sight, while a stubby fan diffuses out to the south. The Moon interferes for the
To observe more planets, middle two weeks of the month.
Sporting a period of 6.8 years, Borrelly returns as a binocular comet with a very favorable apparition in
set your alarm early to catch
December 2028.
a spectacular show in the
And there’s more! The photogenic field between M35 and the Rosette Nebula (NGC 2237) hosts two
predawn sky, starring Venus,
fainter comets: 104P/Kowal and C/2019 L3 (ATLAS). Comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko is nearby in
Saturn, and Mars.
Cancer. Visual observers will want to switch to the brighter C/2017 K2 (PanSTARRS) in Aquila after midnight.
LOCATING ASTEROIDS I
Climbing the horns of the Bull
HIGH IN THE SOUTHWEST, ruddy Aldebaran seems to keep an
Twilight portrait eye on the ruler of the asteroid belt climbing up Taurus’ northern
horn. Dwarf planet 1 Ceres remains a straightforward target for a
60mm refractor from the suburbs, even as it slowly fades out of
AQU I L A binocular reach.
On its inside track around the Sun, Earth overtook Ceres a few
months ago, leaving it to travel eastward on a straight path near
the ecliptic. Halfway between the Hyades and Pleiades, Ceres lies
near the magnitude 4.4 star 37 Tauri. In this younger section of
PEGASUS the Milky Way, the dichotomy of faint and bright stars provides
CAPRIC ORNUS
Venus recognizable patterns for you to latch onto. To watch the dwarf
Mars
AQUAR IUS Saturn planet shift spots in one observing session, use it as a third point
Moon of some notable triangle and note how the shape morphs after a
three-hour span.
Jupiter If you’re at the Crab Nebula (M1) during a Messier marathon at
10°
month’s end, pop up to the field just north of Tau (τ) Tauri, nab
March 28, 20 minutes before sunrise Ceres, and watch the stars vanish into the trench of dark nebula
Looking east
Barnard 19, an envelope for several smaller and deeper dust
clouds.
The Moon and planets are out to play by March 28 — including Jupiter,
which sits low in twilight. Those with a clear eastern horizon may spot it.
Through dark and light
moment of dichotomy (when observer with a telescope. Venus N

B19 r
the planet is 50 percent lit) spans 23" and now displays a
appears later than predicted 54-percent-lit disk. Saturn’s 30 Path of Ceres Pleiades
25
during morning apparitions. 16"-wide globe, surrounded by 20
15
This is likely a combined effect its famous rings, provides dra- 10
o p 5 March 1
of the refraction of light matic contrast. Mars remains a g
E 37
through the upper clouds of tough observational target (and
Venus combined with percep- will for some months), span-
NGC 1554/5 t
tion effects by the visual ning a mere 5".
NGC 1647 TAU RUS
observer. When do you observe Try following Venus into ¡
dichotomy? daylight, when you can achieve
On March 24 and 25, Venus better views of its cloud tops by b
1°
is roughly equidistant (4° to 5°) avoiding the glare that occurs Aldebaran
m Hyades
from Mars and Saturn. The ele- when it’s in a darker sky. On e
gant triangle of planets stands March 31, Venus and Mars are Ceres travels up the star-studded face of Taurus the Bull this month.
8.5° high an hour before sun- 6° apart, with Saturn now neatly
rise. A waning crescent Moon situated between them.
lies in Sagittarius on the 25th. Mercury remains visible in
The best scene of the month early March. You can catch it just 20 minutes before sunrise? and Mars stand 10° higher in
occurs March 28, when a just 42" south of Saturn on Soon after this, Mercury disap- the southeast.
26-day-old crescent Moon joins March 2 when they rise shortly pears, continuing toward its The spring equinox occurs
the planetary trio. Our satellite before 6 A.M. local time. early April superior conjunc- March 20 at 11:33 A.M. EDT. It’s
stands 6° below Mars, while Mercury shines at magnitude tion. Meanwhile, Saturn climbs the transition from northern
Saturn and Venus are 2.2° apart –0.1, brighter than Saturn. Try higher each morning. winter to spring, offering equal
6° north of the Moon. It’s a to spot the pair 30 minutes after Jupiter reappears briefly in sunlight in both hemispheres.
stunning spectacle that’s excit- they rise, when they stand 6° the morning sky at the end of Neptune reaches conjunc-
ing to follow as twilight pro- above the eastern horizon. the month, following its tion with the Sun March 13.
ceeds. Grab some photos of this Venus lies 22° farther west along March 5 conjunction with the It is not visible this month.
elegant morning scene and the ecliptic, already 20° high. Sun. See if you can spot the
enhance it with suitable silhou- Mercury quickly descends magnitude –2.0 planet at the Martin Ratcliffe is a
ette features such as a windmill, deeper into twilight and end of the month, standing just planetarium professional with
trees, or stylish buildings. becomes harder to spot. Can 2° high in the eastern sky in the Evans & Sutherland and enjoys
A visual treat awaits the you see it 2° high on March 9, 30 minutes before dawn. observing from Wichita, Kansas.
Telescopic viewing of the giant Alister Ling, who lives in
GET DAILY UPDATES ON YOUR NIGHT SKY AT planet will have to wait a Edmonton, Alberta, is a longtime
www.Astronomy.com/skythisweek. month or two. Venus, Saturn, watcher of the skies.
A key figure in the
development of the
Nazi rocket program,
Wernher von Braun
became director of
NASA’s Marshall
Space Flight Center
in 1960. NASA/MSFC
WHEN THE
MET THE
SPACE
AGE
Is space for exploration or militarization? Early rocket
pioneers like Wernher von Braun thought it might be
prudent to pursue both. BY FRED NADIS
THE SPACE FORCE, a early science fiction writers. From V-2s to V-2 rockets, the world’s first
new branch of the U.S. mili- While robotic rovers on Mars space stations long-range guided missiles.
tary with an insignia shaped symbolize our thirst for scien- As a teenager in the 1920s, These rockets, however, did
much like a Star Trek com- tific knowledge and the von Braun was inspired by not help the Nazis explore
municator, was launched International Space Station German-Romanian space space; they exploded in
in December 2019 with a exemplifies international visionary Hermann Oberth’s London and Antwerp during
continuing mission “to pro- cooperation, peaceful description of humans the last months of World War
tect U.S. and allied interests and purely scien- leaving the planet II, killing about 5,000 people.
in space.” To justify the tific pursuits in to explore the But for von Braun, missile
establishment of the Space outer space solar system. design was a prelude; outer
Force, military planners and have always Pursuing this space exploration awaited.
members of its predecessor, contended goal, in the After his surrender to the U.S.
Air Force Space Command, with militaris- 1930s and Army in Germany in 1945, he
frequently offer the mantra: tic ambitions. 1940s von and his engineers intrigued
“Space is no longer a benign And no one bet- Braun led the interrogators with visions
environment.” ter embodied the design of the Nazi such as erecting giant mirrors
But space has never been a tension between mili- in space that would be able to
benign environment — and tarism and the high ideals President Donald J. Trump unveiled change the weather or incin-
the seal of the U.S. Space Force via
not just because of the bug- of spaceflight than Wernher Twitter, on Jan. 24, 2020. erate cities.
eyed monsters imagined by von Braun. U.S. SPACE FORCE There was just one problem:
In the immediate post-war
America that the ex-Nazi
engineers were whisked away
to, spaceflight was still widely
seen as science fiction. Von
In the Collier’s
Braun’s new day job was to
design missiles for the U.S.
series, von Braun
Army. But in his spare time,
he sought to shift the public’s
insisted that an
opinion. He wrote a highly
technical novel about a jour-
orbiting space
ney to Mars that failed to find
a publisher. From 1952 to
station was a
1954, with the help of splashy critical first step for
color illustrations, he and a
panel of other experts pro- space exploration.
vided a glimpse of the
impending Space Age in
Collier’s magazine, presented To help justify this costly
as an eight-part series titled effort, von Braun insisted that
“Man Will Conquer Space builders would stock the space
Soon.” From 1955 to 1957, von station not just with scientific
German technicians work to stack the stages of a V-2 rocket, the Braun also helped shape Walt equipment but also nuclear
world’s first long-range guided ballistic missile, in this undated
photo. Following World War II, von Braun, along with a number of Disney’s three-part television weapons. President Harry S.
other captured scientists and engineers who worked on the V-2 film series on space explora- Truman and staff had turned
program, were brought to the U.S. to work at Fort Bliss in Texas
and Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. NASA/MSFC
tion, starting with the episode to nuclear deterrence as the
“Man in Space.” most cost-effective method to
In the Collier’s series, von keep the Soviet Union in
Braun insisted that an orbiting check. Capitalizing on this
space station was a critical strategy, von Braun told mili-
first step for space exploration. tary audiences, “If we can …
The spoked-wheel-shaped establish our artificial satel-
station, which later inspired lite with its space-to-ground
the one in Stanley Kubrick’s missiles ready for action, we
2001: A Space Odyssey, would can stop any opponent cold
be 250 feet (76 meters) wide, in his attempt to challenge
useful as a scientific base, for our fortress in space!” Guided
surveillance, and for staging
ventures to the Moon and
Mars. It could spin every
12.3 seconds to simulate
Earth gravity, or it could spin
every 22 seconds to create
artificial gravity at one-third
that on Earth — similar to
that on Mars. The space sta-
tion would orbit 1,075 miles
(1,730 kilometers) above Earth
and circle the planet every
two hours at 15,840 mph
(25,490 km/h). It would be
visible from the ground “as a
These German drawings depict the Aggregat 4 (A-4),
later renamed the V-2. The cross-section at left fast-moving star.” Although
highlights the rocket’s internal workings, while the von Braun noted that the sta-
view at right shows its dimensions. The V-2 stood
45 feet (15 m) tall and 5.5 feet (1.65 m) wide. NASA tion, with an estimated cost of
$4 billion, could end up “unit-
ing mankind,” his plan wasn’t
benign.

by radar and striking at Space-based surveillance and
supersonic speed, space-based communication had both
nuclear-armed missiles would military and peaceful applica-
be deadly and, von Braun tions, and the same rockets
claimed, accurate. The Cold that launched satellites could
War would be over. Collier’s be armed as missiles. In fact,
editors supported this plan, ballistic missiles, in their
noting, “A ruthless foe estab- parabolic flights, have the
lished on a space station could
actually subjugate the peoples
of the world. … In other
words: whoever is the first to German rocketeers (left to
right) Walter Dornberger,
build a station in space can Herbert Axster, von
prevent any other nation from Braun, and Hans
doing likewise.” Lindenberg are seen
here after surrendering
to U.S. troops in May
Space for science? 1945. Von Braun had
broken his arm in
President Dwight D. car crash that
Eisenhower offered a more March. NATIONAL
ARCHIVES AND RECORDS
moderate vision of the ADMINISTRATION
advance into space. In 1958,
he proposed to Congress that
NASA be established under
civilian control, with the aim potential to reach altitudes a space station, either. In Force’s deputy director of
that “outer space be devoted of thousands of miles, well 1959, Dwight E. Beach, the research and development,
to peaceful and scientific past the Kármán line 62 miles Army’s director of guided Homer A. Boushey, argued that
purposes.” But Eisenhower (100 km) up, which generally missiles and special weapons, because missiles launched at
also made the Department denotes the ill-defined border said, “We ought to consider the Moon would take about
of Defense responsible for of outer space. the possibility of Moon-based 48 hours to arrive, no Soviet
“space activities peculiar to A number of Cold War-era weapons systems, eventually attack on the Moon or Earth
or primarily associated with strategists argued that nuclear to be used against Earth and would go unanswered, making
military weapons systems weapons needn’t be limited to space targets.” The Air the base a superb deterrent.
or military operations.” Also in 1959, the U.S.
Eisenhower’s dual approach Army developed
indicated that exploration Project Horizon, a plan
and the military use of space for a Moon base that
were not easily separated: would house scientists
and, potentially,
nuclear missiles. To
build Horizon, how-
ever, would have
required 149 launches,
as well as another 64
launches in its first year
to maintain the base.
The cost: $6 billion at
the time, which equates
to over $54 billion
ABOVE: Marshall Space Flight Center today.
(MSFC) Director Wernher von Braun poses Eisenhower not only
at his desk, which is adorned with rocket
models and stands in front of a poster of a rejected Project Horizon, but
lunar lander. First appointed in 1960, von questioned the strategic value
Braun remained director of MSFC until
his transfer to NASA Headquarters in 1970.
of any nuclear weapons in
NASA/MSFC space. His Science Advisory
LEFT: Von Braun explains the Saturn V
Committee had reported in
rocket, developed for the Apollo program, to March 1958 that while recon-
President John F. Kennedy on Nov. 16, 1963, naissance and communication
just six days before Kennedy’s assassination.
NASA Deputy Administrator Robert from spaceflight would have
Seamans is at left. NASA
LEFT: Von Braun and Walt
Disney pose together during the
famed entertainment visionary’s
visit to Marshall Space Flight
Center in 1954. In the 1950s,
Disney produced three
television films based on
space exploration. Von Braun,
while working on the Saturn
project, also served as
technical director for these
films. NASA
RIGHT: The March 22, 1952,

issue of Collier’s magazine
included several articles
written by space experts
that detailed von Braun’s
plans for manned
spaceflight. The multi-
year series captivated
the American public.
COURTESY OF RON MILLER
While space
Testifying before Congress (unarmed) missiles between professor of national security
currently is free of that year, von Braun admitted 1965 and 1971, and did not affairs at the Naval War
that his earlier vision of a decommission the armed College, explains that a wary
nuclear weapons, nuclear-armed “space plat- missiles until several years consensus grew of space as a
it is stocked with form” was flawed. Stuck in a

fixed orbit, the platform
after the Salt II Treaty banned
them in 1979.
“sanctuary, a way to keep an
eye on each other, but not the
satellites that would be “nothing but a

housing facility in outer
Even during this
adrenaline-packed phase
best place for war.” The United
Nations’ Outer Space Treaty,
spy and guide space.” He grudgingly agreed
with military planners who
of the Cold War, a saner
vision of space development
which both the United States
and Soviet Union signed in
weapons systems preferred smaller, maneuver-
able spacecraft that might
coexisted with that of the
military imagination. David
1967, banned all weapons of
mass destruction in space, and
on Earth. orbit Earth a few times with
“reconnaissance or even
T. Burbach, an associate insisted that the “moon and
bombing capability.”
important military applica- In the early 1960s, the
tions, there was no real value Soviets began developing just
to releasing atomic or other such a weapon, the Fractional
weapons from space. Bombs Orbiting Bombardment
dropped from a satellite System (FOBS). These
would not simply fall on their nuclear-armed missiles could
targets, but spiral in gradually briefly remain in orbit and
as their orbits decayed. Even pass under the South Pole,
with a rocket to give it the making an end run around
necessary boost, a missile the United States and
launched from a moving plat- NATO’s radar network in
form in space, though harder the Northern Hemisphere.
to detect, would be far less Such orbital bombers
accurate than an Earth-based could, conceivably, allow
one. Indeed, the committee Soviets a first strike.
In order to protect U.S. interests, in 1959, the Army explored building a
judged the idea “clumsy and The Soviet Union test- military base, possibly equipped with nuclear weapons, on the Moon.
ineffective.” launched 24 of these Named Project Horizon, the plan was rejected by Eisenhower. U.S. ARMY

LEFT: In the 1950s, von Braun proposed a
ringlike space station, like the one shown in
other celestial bodies shall this illustration, that would spin to generate
tunable artificial gravity. NASA/MSFC
be used by all States Parties
to the Treaty exclusively for ABOVE: The spoke-and-wheel-shaped space
station von Braun envisioned is gaining steam
peaceful purposes.” again. This modern rendering shows a similarly
designed station tentatively planned for
No nukes, but … construction later this decade. GATEWAY FOUNDATION
The Outer Space Treaty,

however, did not ban con-
ventional weapons from
space. And, sanctuary or
not, in the years that fol-
lowed, the United States and of the SDI was scrapped in threat from such activity — is here to stay, space explora-
the Soviets both scrambled for 1993 and replaced by a scaled- an exploded satellite generates tion and commercial develop-
tactical advantage. In 1983, down agency with a focus on space debris that litters orbits. ment are flourishing, and von
President Ronald Reagan pro- Earth-based missiles. While shared concerns over Braun’s “platform” is back.
posed his Strategic Defense While space currently is space debris may eventually U.S. organization the Gateway
Initiative (SDI), which funded free of nuclear weapons, it is shape a new consensus, the Foundation is planning an
research into creating an stocked with satellites that spy U.S. government has not yet orbiting hotel and spaceport
impenetrable missile shield and guide weapons systems committed to various interna- shaped in a “von Braun ring,”
that would render nuclear on Earth. These satellites, in tional proposals, and a diplo- ready by 2027. The expected
missiles obsolete. Billions turn, have long been consid- matic resolution to curtail cost is $60 billion. And a
were spent to research laser ered strategic targets. The antisatellite weapons is not in three-and-a-half-day stay in a
and missile systems, including United States, Russia, China, sight. Todd Harrison, of the deluxe suite will cost roughly
one space weapon that would and India have all tested anti- Center for Strategic and $5 million per person.
surround an exploding satellite missiles. And these International Studies, suggests It will not house nuclear
nuclear device with X-ray nations, along with others, that for now, “the most prom- weapons.
lasers — a clear violation of also have developed “non- ising approach for the U.S. is
the Outer Space Treaty. Given kinetic” weapons, including to build a consensus around Fred Nadis’ most recent book
that the technology behind signal jammers and land- norms of behavior in space, is Star Settlers: The Billionaires,
many of Reagan’s plans did based lasers that can disrupt define what is normal, what Geniuses, and Crazed
not exist yet, it was perhaps satellites. The 2013 film is abnormal.” Visionaries Out to Conquer the
unsurprising that his version Gravity dramatized a major Meanwhile, the Space Force Universe (Pegasus Books, 2020).
Planetary
nebulae in
COLOR These dying stars are going out in style, showing
off rich greens, blues, and reds you can enjoy
through your eyepiece. BY ALAN GOLDSTEIN
F
or new observers, the night sky none of that. Light from the deep sky reddened by Earth’s atmosphere as it rises
appears to be a monochrome appears mostly as shades of gray. or sets. But looking elsewhere in the solar
scene of black and white. But those of us with more experience system, Mars, Uranus, and Neptune show
Although astronomy books and know the universe is a colorful place. It’s us disks that are intensely red, green, and
websites are replete with objects just that color in the universe requires blue, respectively. And their shape and
revealing vivid reds, pinks, blues, and intensity — enough photons to stimulate bright color are duplicated by one group
greens, gazing at most of these same the cones in your eyes. These color recep- of deep-sky objects: planetary nebulae.
objects with a small telescope shows tors are an evolutionary response to
humans spending most of our lives in Colorful targets
daylight: When light is plentiful, its sub- Planetary nebulae are the product of
tle differences in wavelength convey Sun-like stars shedding and then light-
useful information, which we perceive as ing up their outer layers late in life.
color. By contrast, while the eye’s rods are Their blues, greens, and reds come from
highly sensitive to light to help us see glowing gases such as hydrogen, helium,
clearly in nocturnal environments, they nitrogen, and oxygen.
don’t register color. Long before this was known, two
In the case of the Sun, its many photons 18th-century astronomers, Antoine
at every wavelength saturate all our color Darquier de Pellepoix and William
receptors at once, making it appear white. Herschel, both considered the shape of
And the Moon con- these nebulae planetlike. Herschel is
sists of dark widely credited with first calling them
basalts and gray planetary nebulae, although there is no
NGC 2392 dust and rock definitive answer as to whether the term
The compact Lion Nebula
(NGC 2392) is surrounded by fragments — no truly originated with him.
a fluffy ring of gas akin to the color there unless Despite the name, only about
mane framing a big cat’s face.
DOUGLAS J. STRUBLE there is an eclipse 20 percent of planetary nebulae are spher-
or its light is ical. The rest occur in a variety of shapes,

NGC 40
NGC 40 is a small but bright planetary nebula in
Cepheus the King. Its glow is distinctly red — odd
for this type of object. It sits in front of an unrelated
supernova remnant, CTA 1. DOUGLAS J. STRUBLE
previous eruptions, but these are too

faint for most amateur telescopes.
However, many on our list do reveal
their central star — the white-hot engine
lighting up these glowing balls from
within.
The list
NGC 40 is the first target — and the
observe most challenging. Located in the circum-
planetaries polar northern skies at 72° declination
without a filter. in Cepheus, it’s magnitude 10.4 and 35"
The full intensity across. It sits about 3,500 light-years dis-
of the unfiltered tar- tant. Some 1,000 light-years behind it is
get will stimulate your the unrelated, tenuous
cones, giving these compact supernova rem-
nebulae color and even making nant CTA 1.
them bright enough to spot from subur-
resulting from the particular way each ban skies. By contrast, faint and extended
central dying star sloughs off its outer nebulae usually don’t
layers. Their density ranges from 100 to show color, and
10,000 times that of empty interstellar the special filters
space. The more colorful nebulae, which are designed for NGC 3242
Also called the Ghost of Jupiter,
appear on this list, tend to have higher observing when NGC 3242 appears to the eye
densities and appear round or oval in a the goal is simply as a compact blue-green ball
roughly the same angular size
telescope. That’s because denser regions finding the object, as Jupiter. Higher magnification
of gas glow more intensely. not revealing its will show it is slightly oblate.
ADAM BLOCK/MOUNT LEMMON SKYCENTER/
color. UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
Observing tips One common
The invention of the Oxygen-III (OIII) thread between
filter revolutionized observing planetary the colorful plan-
nebulae because the filter’s peak trans- etaries on our list is their distance. Most
parency is the same wavelength as these are located between 1,000 and 5,000 With moder-
objects’ strongest emission. However, light-years away. At these distances, they ate telescopes, this
although a filter dramatically improves range from 15" to 40" in diameter — nebula resembles a partial ring
image contrast, it also blocks out natural except for the Ring Nebula (M57), which that looks more like a parenthesis. It is
color. To see their true color, it’s best to is much larger. Bright planetaries can also called the Bow Tie Nebula. The mag-
show color in telescopes as small as nitude 11.4 progenitor star in the center
6 inches. Larger apertures are better and is a rare Wolf-Rayet star — a type of star
all bear magnification well. A lot of plan- deficient in hydrogen and producing
etaries have tenuous outer shells from strong stellar winds. With a full magni-
tude of difference between the star and its
nebula, some observers consider this one
M57 of the best targets in which to observe the
One of just a few planetary nebulae progenitor. In large apertures (20 inches
in Charles Messier’s catalog, the or more), NGC 40 shows a reddish hue,
Ring Nebula (M57) looks just as its
name indicates: a ring-shaped cloud which is atypical for planetaries as nor-
in space, glowing green. MARK HANSON mally, ionized oxygen and nitrogen give
these objects green or blue colors.
NGC 6543
The author thinks of the Cat’s Eye Nebula
(NGC 6543) as the Atom Nebula because
it contains intersecting rings that look
like electron orbits in simple atom
illustrations. ADAM BLOCK/MOUNT LEMMON
SKYCENTER/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
NGC 2392 was once known as

the Eskimo Nebula because it has
a round interior surrounded by a
ring of “fluffy” gas reminiscent of
a head ensconced within a parka
hood. However, after considering
the term’s derogatory history, NASA
decided in 2020 to refer to the object
only by its catalog name. It’s recently
also been described as the Lion Nebula,
comparing the exterior gas to a lion’s
mane. Sources disagree on its exact
distance: This dying star is located
somewhere between 3,000 and 6,000
light-years away.
At magnitude 10.1, it’s the brightest
nebula in Gemini and an easy and becomes
target with small telescopes. bluer with increas- as in
Seeing its bluish-green ing aperture. my child-
color requires more The Ghost of Jupiter lies at hood observation.
aperture rather than least 1,400 light-years away and is about It makes me wonder whether children see
darker skies. Can 2 light-years in diameter. The structure colors more intensely than adults. Or am
is a thin ring surrounded by a larger, I just remembering that vivid vista with
tenuous envelope visible with larger green-tinted glasses?
telescopes. The central star shines at NGC 6210 is the brightest planetary
NGC 6210 magnitude 11.7 and is visible in moder- in Hercules and lies roughly 5,400
Tiny NGC 6210 hangs
amid the stars of ate apertures. light-years away. Its location in our sky
Hercules, showing The Ring Nebula (M57) in Lyra glows puts it more
off its stunning color.
Challenge yourself to
at magnitude 8.8 and has an extended than 3,000
spot its 12th-mangitude halo nearly 4' across. It was the first plan- light-years NGC 6826
central star. CHRIS SCHUR etary nebula I ever observed. I was about above the The Blinking Planetary
Nebula (NGC 6826)
10 years old at the time, and my interest Milky Way’s does just as its name
in stargazing was limited to locating disk, away suggests: Switching
between direct and
you see it in an 8-inch scope? Echo satellites. The telescope I used was from the bulk averted vision makes
NGC 3242 is sometimes called the a homemade 21-inch reflector owned by of its kin. It is it appear to blink in
and out of your visual
Ghost of Jupiter for its shape and appar- the Louisville Astronomical Society. a compact awareness. PETER GOODHEW
ent size, reminiscent of our solar system’s Through it, M57 left an indelible mem-
fifth planet. It’s a colorful planetary ory because of its bright green color.
tucked in Hydra, the largest constellation A decade later, that telescope, which
snaking its way through the spring skies. included glass cast from the same
This nebula is 2° south and slightly west formula as the 200-inch Hale tele-
of Mu (μ) Hydrae. Binoculars or a finder scope, was donated to the
scope will show it as a magnitude 8.6 University of Louisville. When
star, while a small telescope reveals its I observed M57 with that
nonstellar appearance. Under higher same telescope again at
magnification, you’ll see a slightly oblate Moore Observatory, the green
disk 40" by 35" across. The nebula fluo- color was more muted. I’ve
resces greenish blue with a 6-inch scope never seen it as bright green

20" by 16" and magnitude 9.7. Its blue- visible in small tele-
green color is apparent in modest scopes, but larger scopes NGC 7009
telescopes. Like most small plan- show its 15"-wide boxy The Saturn Nebula (NGC 7009)
etaries, it bears magnification well, shape better. The central features bright ansae, or
handles, at the ends of its
although spotting the magnitude star is deeply embedded Saturn-like rings. Upon finding
12.7 central star embedded within in the gas cloud and this object in 1782, William
Herschel couldn’t explain how
the bright nebula is a challenge. beyond viewing for the it had formed. DANIEL VERSCHATSE
The Cat’s Eye Nebula most part. This is a great
(NGC 6543) in Draco is a com- object to observe with
pact 18" in diameter and shines at your high-power eyepieces.
magnitude 8.8. I personally call The Saturn Nebula (NGC 7009) is observatory.
this the Atom Nebula because it easy to find, lying about a degree west of Viewed from
has two intersecting ellipses that Nu (ν) Aquarii. It is a bright magnitude atop the four-
remind me of electron 8.3, 41" by 35" across, and shows story Natural
orbits around the cen- green or yellow color in Sciences building in
tral star as the atom’s NGC 7027 small telescopes. Its an urban area, the Blue
nucleus. Its blue-green NGC 7027 shows its Saturn-like “rings” are Snowball lived up to its name, proving
glow elongates in a boxy shape in larger formed by structures called that deep-sky observing can be done
telescopes. Its dense
north-south direction and is concentration of gas ansae: symmetrical knots of even with light pollution present. The
visible in a modest telescope. and dust hide the gas at each end of the nebu- high contrast of compact planetaries
central star from view.
Even more detail within the ADAM BLOCK/NOAO/AURA/NSF
la’s long axis. And they makes them ideal targets for mediocre
nebula becomes available aren’t unique to NGC 7009 skies.
with increasing aperture. — this object is simply the Of course, there are plenty of other
The central star is some brightest example you’ll planetary nebulae that show color. This
10 times hotter than see through your list is just the beginning. Whether you
the Sun and some telescope. When use a large or small telescope, this group
observers claim Herschel discov- of deep-sky objects offers a broad spec-
it is easier to see ered it in 1782, trum of challenges. From discerning
with lower mag- the nebula’s color, detail, and the central star to simply
nification. This shape stumped separating the distant, tiny nebula itself
dying star lies him. He couldn’t from the rich background of Milky Way,
about 3,300 figure out how it these colorful and compelling targets
light-years away. had formed. present opportunities to test
The famous (Today, researchers any stargazer’s
Blinking Planetary believe ansae are mettle.
Nebula (NGC 6826) in related to a star’s
Cygnus offers a unique behavior as it ages into
experience. The name comes a planetary nebula.) The Irish
from the odd optical effect you get when observer William Parsons, Earl of Rosse,
switching between normal and averted later coined the name. It lies between
vision. When observing this object, I 2,000 and 4,000 light-years away.
noted that while its green color was vis- NGC 7662 is Andromeda’s brightest
ible in the telescope, the central star planetary nebula and sports a simple and
appeared white when viewed straight-on. visually accurate moniker: the Blue
With averted vision, the nebula seemed Snowball.
to vanish — and the green color col- At 2,200
lapsed into the bright central star, giving light-years NGC 7662
it an intense verdant glow. A green star? away, it is an NGC 7662 is also called the
Blue Snowball — and that’s
That’s what I saw! Try it. easy magni- exactly what you’ll see through
The Blinking Planetary is a compact tude 8.3 and your scope. This relatively bright
27" by 24" and magnitude 9.8. The cen- spans 32" by target is good even under light-
polluted skies. DEREK SANTIAGO
tral star is about 0.5 magnitude fainter. 28". One of
It lies about 2,200 light-years distant. my most
NGC 7027 in Cygnus is a young memorable
nebula, both compact and dense at observations of this object was with a Alan Goldstein has observed planetary
its distance of 3,000 light-years. Its 12-inch Alvan Clark reflector at the nebulae since the mid-1970s. They are his
10th-magnitude, intense green glow is University of Louisville’s on-campus favorite deep-sky object — after galaxies.
Beyond the
Messier
marathon
If you’re tired of running the same old race, here’s a
new route through the night sky. BY MICHAEL E. BAKICH
multiple times, as I have — you Start the non-marathon

might enjoy a different list of The first object is the Helix Galaxy
deep-sky treats to track down (NGC 2685), a magnitude 12.7
instead when the Moon isn’t in spiral in Ursa Major. You’ll find
the evening sky. it 3.8° east-southeast of Muscida
My alternate list has objects for (Omicron [ο] Ursae Majoris). At
telescopes of all sizes. Objects are low magnifications, you’ll see a
ordered by their right ascension, disk-shaped glow twice as long as
so the ones at the beginning rise it is wide (4.9' by 2.4'). To see the
around sunset in early March and ephemeral ring that gives the gal-
are highest around midnight, or axy its common name, you’ll need
HELIX GALAXY 1 a.m. when daylight saving time
takes effect March 13.
a 14-inch scope.
Next up is NGC 2768, also in
The descriptions are short Ursa Major. It glows at magnitude
The Helix Galaxy because of limited space, but that 9.9 and measures 6.4' by 3.0'. Some
(NGC 2685) is a
polar ring galaxy THIS YEAR, there are two doesn’t mean you should just take references classify this galaxy as
— a rare formation windows to run a Messier mara- a quick glance and move on. Get elliptical, but it’s lenticular, with
thought to be
caused by two thon: a few days around New comfortable, spend some quality a clear disk. NGC 2768’s core and
galaxies colliding. Moon (March 2), and from sunset time with each object, and you’ll outer halo are evenly illuminated.
DON GOLDMAN
until the Moon rises around Last have at least as much fun as your Now head to Cancer and
Quarter (March 24) through New friends who are stuck trying to NGC 2775. This is a magnitude
Moon (April 1). But if you’ve done figure out which M object they’re 10.1 spiral with dimensions of 4.6'
the Messier marathon once — or staring at in the Virgo Cluster. by 3.7'. Through an 8-inch scope,

The Antennae galaxies in
Corvus are locked in an
embrace that will only
grow tighter over the next
several hundred million
years. Their iconic tidal
tails — streams of stars
torn by the galaxies’
gravitational interaction —
stretch roughly 350,000
light-years. KFIR SIMON
ANTENNAE GALAXIES
it looks oval. A 12-inch scope at Through an 8-inch scope, you’ll see (5.5' by 3.7') smudge of light dotted
250x reveals the outer halo. several dark regions in its spiral by faint foreground stars. Can you Instead of the clear
structure of a grand
Our next target, the magnitude arms, but the arms themselves are tell that the central region is ever- design spiral galaxy,
10 spiral NGC 2784 in Hydra, lies tough to see. so-slightly brighter? the arms of
NGC 2775 are
1.9° north-northeast of Kappa (κ) Leo contains many fine galax- Look for the next target, feathery and
Pyxidis. Through an 8-inch scope, ies, five of which made Messier’s magnitude 10.9 barred spiral patchwork, giving
you’ll see a stretched core sur- list. Don’t overlook NGC 2903, NGC 3079, 2.2° northeast of it its classification
as a flocculent spiral
rounded by a similarly shaped however, which shines brighter Phi (φ) Ursae Majoris. I love galaxy. ADAM BLOCK/
halo. It measures 5.5' by 2.4'. (magnitude 9.0) than any of that MOUNT LEMMON SKY CENTER/
UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
No. 5 on this list, NGC 2787 in quintet save M66. It measures a
Ursa Major, is a bit of an odd duck. worthy 12.0' by 5.6'. Through a
Astronomers classify it as a barred 10-inch scope, look for a halo that
lenticular galaxy. It glows at magni- surrounds a bright core. Be patient
tude 10.9 and measures 3.1' by 1.8'. and look closer for the central bar
Through a 12-inch or larger scope, and the spiral arms. Larger scopes
you’ll see the bar, but its long axis show dust lanes and emission neb-
tilts a bit relative to the long axis ulae throughout NGC 2903’s arms.
of NGC 2787. Next up is irregular galaxy
Next up is gorgeous NGC 2841, Sextans B. To find this object,
a magnitude 9.3 spiral in Ursa aim 6° north-northwest of
Major. Look for it 1.8° west-
southwest of Theta (θ) Ursae
magnitude 4.5 Alpha (α) Sextantis.
Through a 12-inch scope, you’ll
NGC 2775
Majoris. It measures 8.1' by 3.5'. see a magnitude 11.3 rectangular
it’s bright. At low power through
a 6-inch scope, you’ll see the
16"-wide, blue-green disk. Through
larger scopes, and at powers in
excess of 200x, the center looks
like an eye surrounded by a faint
spherical shell 40" across. For best
results, use a nebula filter.
Although our next object is
called Coddington’s Nebula
(IC 2574), it’s a magnitude 10.4
spiral galaxy in Ursa Major. Look
for it 5.7° west of Lambda (λ)
NGC 2903 Draconis. Through an 8-inch

scope at 75x, it appears twice as
long as it is wide (13.5' by 8.3'). The
central region glows a bit brighter
and looks offset to the southwest.
Although you’ll need to head to
Leo Minor for the Sliced Onion
Galaxy (NGC 3344), the best way
to find it is to look 6.3° east-
northeast of Zeta (ζ) Leonis. This
spiral glows at magnitude 9.9 and
measures 6.9' by 6.4'. An 8-inch
scope shows a bright core. Double
the aperture and NGC 3344’s many
arms wind tightly around the core,
making the galaxy appear circular.
Our next target is spiral galaxy
NGC 3521 in Leo. Because it lies
just 28 million light-years away,
LEO GALAXY CLUSTER NGC 4435 & 4438 it appears big (12.5' by 6.5') and
bright (magnitude 9.0). NGC 3521
sits in a small region of Leo
CLOCKWISE FROM between Sextans and Virgo 4.5°
TOP: NGC 2903 is northwest of Phi Leonis. Through
one of the brightest
deep-sky objects in a 10-inch telescope, you’ll see the
the northern sky that observing galactic “splinters,” and brilliant star’s glare through the bright, extended core surrounded
escaped Messier’s
attention when he
NGC 3079 appears more than five eyepiece makes Leo I difficult to by a diffuse halo. With a 16-inch
compiled his catalog. times as long as it is wide (8.0' by see, so keep Regulus outside the scope, NGC 3521 will look nearly
RAY J. GABANY
1.5'). Through a 12-inch scope at field of view. At a dark site, an twice as long as it does through
NGC 4435 and 300x, the bright center stretches 8-inch telescope at 150x reveals the smaller instrument.
NGC 4438 (The Eyes) two-thirds of the galaxy’s length. a uniform, magnitude 10.2 mist Drop south to Hydra for the
are roughly 54 million
light-years away and Not only is the Spindle measuring 12.0' by 9.3'. Frame Galaxy (NGC 3621), a
part of the larger Galaxy (NGC 3115) the showpiece Follow Leo I with the Little magnitude 8.9 spiral that lies 3.3°
formation of galaxies
called Markarian’s
of Sextans, at magnitude 8.9 it’s Pinwheel Galaxy (NGC 3184) in west-southwest of Xi (ξ) Hydrae.
Chain. DAN CROWSON one of the sky’s brightest galaxies. Ursa Major. It glows at magnitude This object is twice as long as it is
Through a 4-inch telescope, you’ll 9.8 and measures 7.8' by 7.2'. This wide (9.8' by 4.6') with a broad,
The Leo Galaxy
Cluster (Abell 1367) see an object four times as long as is a gorgeous galaxy through a evenly lit core. The halo, however,
has at least 70 it is wide (8.1' by 2.8') with a bright large scope. NGC 3184 has wide reveals mottling, which suggests
galaxies — many
of them spirals, center. Through a 12-inch scope at arms, so use high power — above spiral structure. NGC 3621’s com-
indicating that the 300x, the core looks more distinct, 400x — to spot the dark regions mon name comes from a paral-
cluster is relatively surrounded by an oval bulge. that divide them from the nucleus. lelogram of stars that surrounds it,
young and still
forming stars. Our next target is dwarf sphe- Next up is the spring sky’s making the galaxy appear framed.
DAVE DOCTOR
roidal galaxy Leo I. It’s easy to showpiece planetary nebula, the Can you access a large scope?
find, only 20' due north of Ghost of Jupiter (NGC 3242) in You’ll need one for the Leo Galaxy
Regulus (Alpha Leonis). But that Hydra. With a magnitude of 7.8, Cluster (Abell 1367). This cluster

spans 1.6° mainly to the southwest are faint, it contains many bright this target easy to observe. Through
of the star 93 Leonis. At 330 million galaxies. Four made Messier’s list an 8-inch telescope, you’ll see
light-years away, the galaxies’ light — M51, M63, M94, and M106. NGC 4449’s unusual rectangular
appears faint, but a 10-inch or And although the Silver Needle shape (5.5' by 4.1'). It has a bright
larger scope will wrangle a couple Galaxy (NGC 4244) isn’t as bright nucleus that also looks rectangular.
dozen members. For example, the as those luminaries, it’s well worth Crank the magnification past 250x
centrally placed, nearly 1'-wide glow a look. It glows at magnitude 10.4 and examine the irregular halo
of magnitude 11.8 NGC 3842 shows and measures 17.0' by 2.2'. Its disk outside this galaxy’s core.
up nicely through an 8-inch tele- is edge-on, tilting only 5° to our Stay in Canes Venatici for the
scope at a dark site. Others you’ll be line of sight. Its length is relatively Cocoon Galaxy (NGC 4490), a
able to spot include magnitude evenly illuminated, with a slightly magnitude 9.8 barred spiral that
12.7 NGC 3861, magnitude 12.7 brighter core. View NGC 4244 measures 6.4' by 3.3'. It lies 0.7°
NGC 3862, magnitude 13.3 through a 4-inch scope from a dark west-northwest of Chara. Through
NGC 3837, and magnitude 13.7 site, and you’ll understand why its an 8-inch scope, you’ll see an
NGC 3840. To guarantee success, name contains the word needle. irregularly bright oval halo (the
a good finder chart of this cluster Next up is another galactic pair “cocoon”) surrounding a bright
is a must. called The Eyes (NGC 4435 and core. If your sky is steady, look 3'
Next up is a pair of interacting NGC 4438), which lie in Virgo. north of NGC 4490’s western end
galaxies in Corvus that astrono- Together, they glow at magnitude for its magnitude 12.5 companion, BELOW LEFT:
The edge-on spiral
mers refer to as the Antennae 10.0 and measure 8.5' by 3'. irregular galaxy NGC 4485. Needle Galaxy
Galaxies because of their bright Although you’ll spot this duo I’ll end this list with a great (NGC 4565) may
look as straight as
tails. The two are NGC 4038 and through small scopes, it will take at target: the Needle Galaxy its namesake, but
its companion NGC 4039. They least a 12-inch telescope to coax out (NGC 4565) in Coma Berenices. it is in fact slightly
have a combined magnitude of any details. To find The Eyes, look In my opinion, this is the sky’s warped, probably
from interactions
10.5 and span 5.4' by 3.9'. To find 8.5° west of Vindemiatrix (Epsilon finest edge-on spiral. It glows at with other galaxies.
them, look 3.6° west-southwest of [ε] Virginis). You’ll most likely first magnitude 9.6 and measures 14.0' SERGEY TRUDOLYUBOV
Gienah (Gamma [γ] Corvi). A spot M86. Your target is 0.4° east of by 1.8'. An 8-inch scope shows a BELOW RIGHT:
4-inch telescope at a dark site will that galaxy. NGC 4438 is the more streak roughly 10' by 1.5' oriented The Cocoon Galaxy
(NGC 4490) is
reveal two faint, cottony smudges. distorted galaxy of the two. Crank northwest to southeast. A dust seen here with
The larger and brighter smudge, up the power and try to spot this lane runs the length of this object, its irregular
NGC 4038, sits to the northwest. object’s irregular outer regions. and the small bulge of the core is companion,
NGC 4485. In 2020,
A 12-inch scope at 200x shows I think you’ll like our next the easiest place to spot it. astronomers
both oval cores roughly twice as object, the irregular galaxy It’s OK to observe the objects reported that the
Cocoon Galaxy has
long as they are wide. If the seeing NGC 4449. Look for it 2.9° north- on Messier’s list many times. As a double nucleus.
is good, double the power and northwest of Chara (Beta [β] this brief list proves, however, One nucleus can be
seen in visible light
you’ll see bright and dark knots Canum Venaticorum). It glows at a there are many other worthy and one is seen
and traces of at least one tidal tail. worthy magnitude 9.6, but it’s the targets that await your viewing only in infrared and
Now point your scope 1.5° west high surface brightness that makes pleasure. Good luck! radio wavelengths.
ADAM BLOCK/MOUNT LEMMON
of magnitude 3.9 Kappa Draconis. SKY CENTER/UNIVERSITY
There you’ll find the magnitude OF ARIZONA
9.6 barred spiral NGC 4236.

While that magnitude may seem
bright, this galaxy is so huge (21.0'
by 7.5') that its surface brightness
is low, so you might not see it
through anything smaller than
a 10-inch scope. That aperture
reveals a ghostly mist three times
as long as it is wide. Larger scopes
reveal a few faint star-forming
regions. The brightest lies at the
south end of the spindle.
Have I mentioned Canes
Venatici yet? Although its stars
Michael E. Bakich is a contributing

editor of Astronomy who no longer
NGC 4565 NGC 4490
observes Messier objects in March.
2 4
1 The Large Magellanic
Cloud — seen here
hanging over the Atacama
Desert — is unmissable in
the southern sky. G. HÜDEPOHL
(ATACAMAPHOTO.COM)/ESO
2 NGC 1760/63/69/73
comprise the second
most prominent nebula
complex in the Large
Magellanic Cloud, after the
Tarantula Nebula
(NGC 2070). ALAN DYER
3 NGC 1850 is a young

super star cluster
containing the mass of
roughly 42,000 Suns.
NGC 1850A is just west
(right) of the main cluster.
STEVEN JUCHNOWSKI 3
4 The Large Magellanic

Cloud is one of the
Milky Way’s closest satellite
galaxies, with a mass
roughly 10 billion times the
Sun. It likely had a barred
spiral structure before its
arms were distorted by
gravitational interactions
with the Milky Way and the
Small Magellanic Cloud.
FERNANDO OLIVEIRA DE MENEZES
Leap into the
Large
Magellanic
Cloud
The Milky Way’s close companion is more than
just a single deep-sky object — it’s a bustling
1 galactic metropolis waiting to be explored.
BY MICHAEL E. BAKICH
THE LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD amazing 6° by 4°. And you can extend the
(LMC) is the southern sky’s greatest celestial LMC’s boundary beyond this — just use bin-
wonder. It is the Milky Way’s biggest satel- oculars or a low-power rich-field telescope.
lite galaxy, just 160,000 light-years distant, Through a 6-inch or larger scope and an
and the fourth-largest member of the Local eyepiece that gives a magnification around
Group. The LMC lies primarily in the far- 200x, slowly scan back and forth across the
southern constellation Dorado the Swordfish, LMC’s face. You’ll see lots of star clusters and
but some of it spills over into the neighbor- nebulae in the field of view. If you screw a
ing constellation Mensa the Table Mountain, nebula filter (perhaps an Oxygen-III) into
which lies even farther south. To see even your eyepiece, it will help you distinguish
part of the LMC, you must be south of the nebulae from the clusters. The filter won’t
latitude 20° north. And for it to appear even make the nebulae brighter; rather, it will
halfway up in the sky at its highest, you’ll block most of the light from stars so the clus-
need to be at latitude 25° south. ters won’t be as apparent.
With a magnitude of 0.4, the LMC is an Deep-sky objects abound in the LMC. It
easy naked-eye object even from mildly light- contains no less than 114 NGC objects. Here
polluted areas, so let’s start by looking at it as are a few that I’ve enjoyed looking at each
a whole. Under a dark sky, use just your eyes time I’ve had the chance.
to look at the LMC. You’ll see that its bright-
est region is a bar roughly 5° long by 1° wide. Crank up the power
That makes it 10 times as long and twice as Let’s start this list with NGC 1714. This tiny
wide as the Full Moon. The surrounding emission nebula (it measures only 1.2' across)
region is a fainter, oval haze measuring an sits on the western edge of the LMC just over
6° southwest of magnitude 3.8 Beta (β)
Doradus. Although it is small, its high
surface brightness lets you crank up
the magnification for a detailed view.
Through an 8-inch scope, you’ll see a
round glow with a bright northern rim.
A magnitude 6.3 star, GSC 8889:215,
lies just 8" west. And as a bonus, slightly
fainter NGC 1715 — another emission
nebula — lies 1' north of NGC 1714.
Our next target, open cluster
NGC 1755, also lies on the western
edge of the LMC’s bar, slightly south of
NGC 1714. It glows at magnitude 9.9 and
is 2.6' across. An 8-inch telescope at 100x
reveals 20 stars of magnitudes 13 and 14
packed into an area 2' wide. You’ll also see
a strong background glow from lots of
stars too faint for your scope to resolve.
A much fainter open cluster, NGC 1749,
which glows at magnitude 13.5, lies 2' to
the northwest. You’ll need a lot more than
8 inches of aperture to spot it.
Our next target — or should I say 5
group of targets, four emission nebulae
— lies about 2° north of NGC 1755.
They’re close together, too, in an area less LMC’s bar, with an apparent diameter they’re packed even closer together than
than 0.3° across. The one you’ll notice of 3.4'. It’s so bright that it glows at the previous group I described. Indeed,
first is NGC 1763. It appears as a clumpy magnitude 9.0. NGC 1962, NGC 1965, NGC 1966, and
haze that measures 5' by 3', surrounded by Point an 8-inch scope at this cluster, NGC 1970 fit into a region only 5' across.
a grouping of stars that looks like an open and you’ll see roughly 50 stars glowing at Through an 8-inch telescope at low
cluster — but it’s not. Just 7' south, you’ll magnitudes 13 and 14. The prominent power, NGC 1962 will be the most appar-
find NGC 1760. Move 7' east-southeast clump of stars on NGC 1850’s western ent, although even it appears circular and
from NGC 1763, and you’ll encounter edge, NGC 1850A, actually makes this featureless. Then crank up the magnifi-
NGC 1769. Finally, NGC 1773 lies 9' object a double cluster. cation above 200x and examine the
east-northeast of NGC 1763. Our next object, region north and east
Because the LMC is a galaxy, we NGC 1866, is another of NGC 1962. You’ll see
expect it to contain the full range of open cluster that lies in the other three nebulae
deep-sky objects. (OK, except for galax- the northern reaches of The most arcing along its rim.
ies.) Seek out NGC 1835, also along the the LMC. I think this remarkable Our next target is
western part of the bar, and you’ll be object will amaze you the other globular on
looking at a globular cluster, one of only through a 12-inch or star-forming this list, NGC 2019. It
two on this list. It glows at magnitude larger telescope. It region lies along the LMC’s
10.1 and measures 1.2' across. glows at magnitude 9.7 bar just to the east of its
NGC 1835 looks round at low power, and spans 4.5'. anywhere center. It’s not bright,
but crank up the magnification and you’ll The easiest way to is R136. glowing at magnitude
see faint extensions to the east and west find it is to start at Beta 10.9. It’s also pretty
that double its length. Two faint open Doradus and sweep small, measuring a
clusters, magnitude 12.5 NGC 1828 and 3.7° south-southwest. scant 1' in diameter.
magnitude 12.6 NGC 1830, lie 6' to the The brightest stars in this cluster glow at The reason you’ll see it, however, is
northwest. 15th magnitude, so you’ll need a large because of its small, bright central region.
Next up is the massive open cluster aperture to reveal them. Through a NGC 2019 has a collapsed core — mean-
NGC 1850. In fact, astronomers classify 14-inch scope with an eyepiece that yields ing its stars are unusually concentrated at
this as a super star cluster, one that is a magnification of 300x or higher, you’ll its center — a phenomenon that’s hap-
brighter and more massive than normal see hundreds of stars. pened in several other globular clusters
open clusters, which also may eventually Moving to the north central region of in the Magellanic Clouds.
become a globular cluster. You’ll find the LMC, you’ll come across yet another An 8-inch telescope will reveal the
NGC 1850 in the northeastern part of the clump of four emission nebulae, but core easily. It actually appears lumpy

The brightest star cluster in the Nebula, head just 0.3° east to open clus-
Tarantula Nebula and the most remark- ter NGC 2100. It glows at magnitude 9.6
able star-forming region anywhere is and measures 2.8' across. If you use an
R136, whose designation comes from the 8-inch telescope and a magnification
Radcliffe Observatory Magellanic Clouds around 200x, the first feature you’ll see
Catalogue, published in 1960. This cluster will be the compact core. You’ll need
alone glows at magnitude 9.5. The 75 higher power (and probably a bigger
spectral class O stars at its heart are scope) to resolve any of its stars. Just
among the most massive, brightest, and surrounding the core, however, you
hottest known. Its total mass is more than should see about two dozen stars.
450,000 times that of the Sun. This clus- The final object on this tour is open
ter produces the ultraviolet radiation that cluster NGC 2214. It has a diameter of
causes the Tarantula Nebula to shine. 3.6' and a magnitude of 10.9. You’ll find
5 The massive Tarantula Nebula contains

the most intense star formation in the
entire Local Group. For more on the Tarantula,
see “Untangling the Tarantula Nebula” in the
September 2021 issue. FERNANDO OLIVEIRA DE MENEZES
6 The open cluster NGC 2100 lies on the

outskirts of the Tarantula, surrounded by
tenuous wisps of gas set aglow by the energy
of the nebula’s young, blazing stars. RAY J. GABANY
rather than starlike. Crank the power Observers with even a 4-inch tele- it 4.5° east-northeast of the LMC’s center.
past 200x, and you should be able to spot scope will see a dense bar running north For a better marker, look 0.7° north-
NGC 2019’s irregular outer boundary. to south through the nebula’s center. northeast of magnitude 5.1 Nu (ν)
If you can double your aperture to Then look for the loops and filaments Doradus.
16 inches, individual stars will appear. within the gas. The longest filament A 4-inch telescope will show NGC 2214
Our next object — the Tarantula begins near the cluster’s center and as a faint haze. This is a tough nut to
Nebula — is the standout on this list and extends 7' to the south. It then heads crack, though, even through a 12-inch
the only one with a common name. It has eastward and curves an equal distance scope. Crank the magnification to 250x
two others: 30 Doradus and the True to the north. R136 is easy to spot as a or beyond and you’ll just start to resolve
Lover’s Knot. It’s also often called 1'-wide region, and if you crank up the some of the cluster’s stars at its edge.
NGC 2070, but that specifically refers to magnification, you’ll be able to pick out
the super star cluster at the nebula’s center. several dozen of its bright stars. Observe at your own pace
Because it lies so far south, most Look also for the two dark bays, one When you train a telescope on the Large
northern observers haven’t experienced slightly darker than the other, just east of Magellanic Cloud, don’t rush to see
this celestial wonder. And although it is R136. Both these regions have nebulous everything. Many of the objects I’ve just
some 160,000 light-years away, the filaments encroaching on their borders. described — the Tarantula Nebula being
Tarantula Nebula looks incredible even Their appearance led English astronomer the exception — take a bit of coaxing at
through medium-sized telescopes. William Henry Smyth to describe this the eyepiece. Believe me, your patience
Although its apparent diameter is 40' by nebula as the True Lover’s Knot. Some will be rewarded.
25', its true diameter is slightly more than accounts say that 16th-century Dutch
1,800 light-years. If it were as close as the sailors tied similar knots to remind them Michael E. Bakich is a contributing editor
Orion Nebula (M42), it would span over of lovers they’d left behind. of Astronomy who is always ready to travel
60° — one-third of the entire sky. Once you have found the Tarantula south of the equator to observe.
HAVE YOU EVER
stepped back from your
telescope, looked around
you, and felt the urge to
capture the beauti-
ful landscape and
a star-studded
sky in the same
image? Go
online and you’ll
find a deluge of
opinions on the
best camera to take
such images. However, behind
almost every shot is not just a great
camera, but a good tracking device.
Star trackers allow you to take lon-
ger exposures, making those diamonds
in the night sky pop. For 50-odd years,
I have done tripod-mounted astrophotog-
raphy, collecting images of every constel-
lation visible from latitude 35 degrees. But
the craving to capture wide-field vistas
with a blanket of stars above finally struck.
VIXEN
I began my search for a simple-to-use,

high-quality star tracker. The Vixen
Polarie U Star Tracker fit the bill.
Tech and specs

Vixen Co. of Japan, founded in 1949, is
well known for not only its outstanding
ADD THE
telescopes, but its eyepieces, binoculars,
and sturdy mounts. They have long pro-
vided equipment for astrophotography,
Polarie U
and now offer a star tracker that gives
outstanding support for widefield images
of the night sky.
When I received a small box from
Vixen containing the Polarie U tracker, I
was surprised at the compact size of the
unit. At just 1.26 pounds (0.57 kilograms)
and a mere 3.5 by 2.8 by 4.4 inches (8.9 by
TO YOUR
7.2 by 11 centimeters), it fits comfortably
into the palm of most people’s hands.
Also included in the box was a polar
alignment scope and mounting bracket.
TOOLBOX
Getting started with the unit is
straightforward. I used a Celestron alt-
azimuth mount for added stability. The
Polarie U has a detachable mounting
block on the front. I removed this to
attach a ball-head camera mount. (This is
not included with the Polarie U, but
Vixen’s star tracker will suit your observing Vixen does have one available for separate
purchase.) Then I just slipped a camera
needs, no matter your experience level. onto the ball head.
The maximum loading weight for the
BY RAYMOND SHUBINSKI base Polarie U is 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg). But

if you purchase and combine the Polarie
Multi mounting block and Dovetail PRODUCT INFORMATION
Slide Bar DD, you can reach a capacity
of 14 pounds (6.5 kg). Vixen’s Polarie U Star Tracker
On the top of the device is a band with Tracking rates: Celestial speed, 0.5x
a mode indicator. Below the indicator is celestial, solar, lunar
an on/off switch and two buttons. The Maximum load: 5.5 pounds
power switch has positions for two modes (2.5 kilograms)
of operation, marked N and S, which Power: Four AA batteries, Ni-MH or
allows you to choose whether you are in Ni-Cd rechargeable batteries, or USB
the Northern or Southern Hemisphere. Type-C external power batteries
Once the unit is turned on, the indica- Battery life: About 7 hours at 68 degrees
tor band lights up with five tracking Fahrenheit (20 degrees C)
options. The first is the half-speed track- Dimensions: 88.5mm x 72mm x 110.5mm
ing rate used for starscape photos. This Weight: 1.26 pounds (0.57 kilograms)
RAYMOND SHUBINSKI
mode splits the difference between the Price: Not available yet
moving star field and the stationary Contact: Explore Scientific (U.S. distributor)
landscape, allowing you to maximize 1010 S. 48th Street
your exposure time before blurring of Springdale, Arizona 72762
Some of my first shots with the Polarie U: While
either element becomes apparent. Next is 866.252.3811 not my best work, this star tracker has made me
a star icon, which provides full-speed excited to try some more sky photos.
celestial tracking for taking photos of star
fields with no landscape. The next two
icons are for solar and lunar tracking.
There is also a button with a phone
icon. This feature activates the built-in
Wi-Fi, which lets you link a phone or tab-
let to the Polarie U. Vixen has developed
their own app that is available for iOS
and Android. The app allows you easy
access to speed controls, custom modes,
bracketing options, and a lot more. One
nice feature is being able to remotely con-
trol the camera shutter from the app.
RAYMOND SHUBINSKI
Power for the Polarie U comes from
four AA batteries or an external power
supply connected via USB-C. Vixen says
four new AAs will last seven hours at 68
degrees Fahrenheit (20 degrees Celsius). Taking good star photos depends on a When I used the Polarie U, I was
To track the passage of stars in the number of factors. One of the most cru- brought back to the first photo of the
Northern Hemisphere, the Polarie U cial ingredients is the skill and experi- night sky I ever captured. As a kid, I had
must be aligned to Polaris, the north star. ence of the photographer. Thankfully, to be more inventive with my setups. To
(For the Southern Hemisphere, using Vixen has provided one of the best begin- take a long exposure, I covered my lens
three stars in constellation Octans will do ner’s guides I’ve ever seen to help you get with a scarf, taped the shutter button
the trick.) The basic Polarie U comes with started if you are new to this process. down, and pulled off the scarf. After five
a simple sighting tube which slides onto Another factor in taking good star minutes, I put the scarf back over the
the camera shoe on top of the unit. This photos is the quality and precision of the lens and released the shutter. The result
only provides a rough polar alignment, star tracker itself — and at this, the was my first image of Orion in classic
however. Vixen also sells a polar align- Polarie U excels. The manual recom- black and white.
ment scope that attaches to the tracker mends the half-speed starscape mode to Half a century later, technology has
with a bracket. If you plan to do more increase exposure time when capturing a made it easy for anyone to take wonder-
than basic starscape images, this would landscape with stars above, which makes ful photos of the night sky, thanks to
be worth adding to your equipment. the foreground appear to move less. With trackers like the Polarie U Star Tracker.
the camera on manual, the ISO at 1600,
Instructions included and the lens at f/2.8, I experimented with Raymond Shubinski is a contributing
To test the unit, I set up a Nikon D610 30-second exposures before moving on editor for Astronomy who loves using new
digital camera on the Polarie U to take a to longer exposures. The Polarie U astronomical equipment under clear desert
few photos under a partly cloudy sky. worked flawlessly at every exposure time. skies.
BINOCULAR UNIVERSE
Unicorn treasures Move back to Beta and glance about half a field south-
east for a triangle of 5th-magnitude stars. The corner
closest to Beta is marked by the orange star HD 48217.
The Winter Triangle hides more than just stars. Just to its west is a small wedge of a half-dozen faint stars
measuring just 7' across pointing north. You won’t find
this group plotted on star atlases because it is not a genu-
ine deep-sky object. Instead, it’s one of the sky’s many
asterisms, or unrecognized constellations — which are,
after all, ultimately just line-of-sight patterns created by
unrelated stars. I first stumbled upon this little configu-
ration more than 30 years ago as I was researching my
book Touring the Universe Through Binoculars. In the
book, I referred to it as the Unicorn’s Horn for its pointy
shape. Although the stars are relatively faint, the horn
is surprisingly easy to recognize because there are few
background stars to muddle the view. I can just make
out the horn as a misty patch through my 10x50 binocu-
lars from my suburban backyard, while all six stars are
clear through my 16x70s.
Bidding Beta farewell, head about 13° (or two binocu-
NGC 2301’s lar fields) northeast to 4th-magnitude Delta (δ)
smattering of stars
has entranced many As the harshness of the season slowly begins Monocerotis. A mere 13.5' to the northwest, Delta is
observers. What to give way to the promise of spring, let’s joined by 5th-magnitude 21 Monocerotis to create a nice
shape do you see? enjoy a few wintry targets that pass by year line-of-sight double star for low-power binoculars.
ANTHONY AYIOMAMITIS
after year with little notice. If you shift the Delta/21 Monocerotis duet toward
The stars Betelgeuse (Alpha [α] Orionis), Sirius the eastern edge of the field, open cluster NGC 2301
(Alpha Canis Majoris), and Procyon (Alpha Canis will just squeeze inside the western edge. NGC 2301 is
Minoris) form the equilateral Winter Triangle. This a delightful collection of 80 stars located about
triangle frames a void that is nearly starless apart from 2,500 light-years away. The first thing you’ll notice
a few dim points only visible from darker surround- about the cluster is a row of half a dozen faint stars set
ings. Yet inside the triangle is a treasure trove of open in a meandering line running north to south. Look
star clusters ripe for binocular viewing. carefully at about midspan along the line and
Through your binoculars, extend a line you should also detect a hazy triangular mist
from the Hunter’s belt stars, as if you are Inside the of stars too faint to resolve through most
going toward Sirius. About halfway along binoculars. Giant binoculars may resolve
and a tad to the north, you will see two [Winter some into unusual chains of stars threaded
4th-magnitude stars. The star closer to the Triangle] is across the line. Different observers see vari-
belt is Gamma (γ) Monocerotis, while the a treasure ous patterns among those stars. Copeland
star closer to Sirius is Beta (β) Monocerotis. trove of saw the wavy line of stars as a “golden worm,”
Note that Beta is a striking triple star through while Astronomy contributing editor Stephen
telescopes, but resolving them takes more
open star O’Meara once christened it Hagrid’s Dragon
magnification than most binoculars offer. clusters. after Harry Potter’s Rubeus Hagrid. To my
Beta is, however, a great reference star for eyes, the cluster’s shape is reminiscent of a
our first binocular target, open cluster bird in flight. The two wings are represented
NGC 2232. You’ll find it just 2° to the star’s north. The by the string of stars extending to either side of the
cluster’s brightest star is 10 Monocerotis, a blue-white three-sided body. Due to this appearance, I like to refer
5th-magnitude orb offset to the northwest of center. to this as the Great Bird of the Galaxy Cluster. Look for
Half a dozen 8th- and 9th-magnitude cluster stars yourself and use your imagination. Then drop me a line
trickle southward from it in two streams. You will also through my website, philharrington.net, and tell me
notice some stars northwest of 10 Monocerotis forming about it.
BY PHIL
a curved wedge, with 7th-magnitude 9 Monocerotis at Until next month, remember that two eyes are better
HARRINGTON
Phil is a longtime its northern end. The overall appearance led Leland than one.
contributor to Copeland, one of the mid-20th century’s most prolific
Astronomy and the deep-sky observers and authors, to nickname the BROWSE THE “BINOCULAR UNIVERSE” ARCHIVE AT
author of many books. cluster the Double Wedge. www.Astronomy.com/Harrington

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ASK ASTRO Astronomy’s experts from around the globe answer your cosmic questions.
remains intact after blowing away this

excess, a stellar system can experience mul-
tiple classical novae.
Kilonovae occur when two compact
objects, like binary neutron stars or a neu-
tron star and a black hole, collide. These
mergers, as their name suggest, are about
1,000 times brighter than a classical nova,
but not as bright as a supernova, which is
10 to 100 times brighter than a kilonova.
There are two basic ways to get a
supernova. The type of supernova most
people think of is a dying star’s last hurrah,
known as a type II or core-collapse super-
nova. At the end of a massive star’s life, it no
longer has the energy to support itself against
gravity and collapses, the core squeezing
itself into as tight a ball as possible. The
implosion reverberates outward, exploding
the leftover material into space. The other
type of supernova, a type Ia supernova,
occurs when a white dwarf in a binary star
system gobbles up too much material from
Astronomers
captured this
its companion. Unlike with a classical novae,
Cosmic
supernova, this white dwarf experiences a thermonuclear reaction
SN 2020fqv, in the act in its core. Once it crosses a critical mass threshold, it
of exploding within
the interacting collapses and violently expels its outer layer, tearing
fireworks
Butterfly Galaxies. itself apart. In both cases, a new stellar remnant —
NASA, ESA, R. FOLEY (UC SANTA
either a neutron star or a black hole — is born.
CRUZ), J. DEPASQUALE (STSCI)
A hypernova — sometimes called a collapsar — is a
particularly energetic core-collapse supernova.
QI WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES Scientists think a hypernova occurs when stars more
than 30 times the mass of the Sun quickly collapse into
BETWEEN SUPERNOVAE,
a black hole. The resulting explosion is 10 to 100 times
KILONOVAE, AND HYPERNOVAE? more powerful than a supernova.
Wolfgang Golser
Caitlyn Buongiorno
Tucson, Arizona
Associate Editor
AI In Latin, nova means “new.” In astronomy, that
QI
refers to a temporary bright “star” in the night HOW IS IT THAT EARTH IS THE
sky. But the causes of these brief but brilliant stars are
ONLY KNOWN PLANET WITH
varied.
Classical novae occur in a binary star system with a ACTIVE PLATE TECTONICS?
Erik McKenna
white dwarf and a star close enough together that the Stamford, Connecticut
white dwarf pulls, or accretes, material from its com-
panion. The material — mostly hydrogen — sits on the
surface of the white dwarf until enough has been gath-
ered to kick-start a nuclear fusion reaction, the same
AI Earth is special in that it has two things that
other terrestrial planets don’t: an abundance
of internal heat, from when our planet was molten
process that powers the Sun. As the hydrogen is con- rock, and liquid water. To understand why our planet
verted into heavier elements, the temperature increases, is unique in this regard, let’s first look at Earth versus
which in turn increases the rate of hydrogen burning. Mars.
At this point, the white dwarf experiences a runaway Earth is relatively large for a rocky planet. Its sheer
thermonuclear reaction, ejecting the unburnt hydro- amount of mass has allowed it to hold onto its internal
gen, which releases 10,000 to 100,000 times the energy heat over billions of years. The heat causes Earth’s sur-
our Sun emits in a year. Because the white dwarf face to deform and plays a key role in ensuring that

Earth’s outer surface layer, called the lithosphere,
doesn’t become too cold and thus too rigid to move. But
Mars is smaller than our planet. Because of this, the Red
Planet has cooled at a much faster rate. Mars’ litho-
sphere has become very rigid — too rigid to be broken
into plates.
Heating isn’t the only thing at play when it comes to
plate tectonics. Venus is about the same size as Earth,
so theoretically, one might think it’s also likely to have
moving plates. But it doesn’t. While heating is enough
to stave off a rigid lithosphere, it isn’t enough to move
Earth’s plates. That’s where liquid water comes into the ABOVE: Image
specialist Andy
QI SOME 50 YEARS AGO, ALAN

equation. On Earth, interior water lubricates the tec- Saunders analyzed
tonic plates, allowing them to flow and slide past one SHEPARD HIT SOME GOLF BALLS archival stills taken
another, but there is no water in Venus’ interior. by the astronauts and
ON THE MOON. JUST HOW FAR COULD was able to measure
To be clear, tectonic deformation is currently occur- the distance of
ring in the outer layers of Venus and Mars, and once A TOUR PRO HIT A GOLF BALL ON THE Shepard’s second
took place on Mercury. However, because the outer MOON IF THEY WEREN’T ENCUMBERED shot. NASA/JSC/ASU/ANDY
layers of these planets are not broken up into plates, we BY A SPACESUIT? SAUNDERS
Jim Knoll BELOW LEFT:

consider these planets to be one-plate planets. So, Venus
Vancouver, Washington Scientists believe that
and Mars still experience tectonics, just not plate Europa has plate
tectonics.
Earth may not be the only body in the solar system
to experience plate tectonics, however. Jupiter’s icy
AI Alan Shepard shanked his first shot into a
crater, but estimated that his second reached a
distance of about 600 feet (183 meters). Recent evidence
tectonics, similar to
Earth. This artist’s
concept illustrates
how two icy plates
moon Europa is covered in a shell of cold, brittle ice that from remastered photos taken during the mission, how- would interact on the
is believed to float atop a warmer, fluid ice layer. Like ever, suggests that Shepard managed to only hit his moon. ASTRONOMY:
ROEN KELLY, AFTER NASA/NOAH
Earth’s plates, when two plates of this cold ice hit each second golf ball some 120 feet (36.5 m). KROESE, I.NK
other, one of these plates is able to slide beneath the To be fair, Shepard wasn’t just restricted by his space-
other into Europa’s interior. Scientists have also suit. His makeshift golf club wasn’t exactly regulation
observed evidence of water upwelling to the surface of — just a 6-iron head attached to a collapsible tool
this moon, much like magma wells up from vents designed to scoop lunar rocks.
on Earth. According to PGA Tour stats for 2021, the average
Lynnae Quick tour pro off the tee imparts a ball speed of 170.4 mph
Ocean Worlds Planetary Scientist, Goddard Space Flight Center,
(274.2 km/h) and launches the ball at 10.52°. So, in lunar
Greenbelt, Maryland
gravity, an average tour pro’s tee shot would carry about
4,170 feet (1,271 m). (On Earth, air actually helps a golf
ball fly farther: Clubs impart backspin to a ball, which
helps it generate aerodynamic lift and keeps it aloft.)
But a pro could still do better on the Moon. On
EUROPA PLATE TECTONICS Earth, golfers use low launch angles to send the ball
further, minimizing the effects of drag. The SEND US YOUR
lack of air resistance on the Moon means
e , you could use a true ballistic trajectory
QUESTIONS
rittl l
old, b e shel Send your
C e r ic with the ideal launch angle of 45°.
ou t astronomy questions
So, if you were able to launch a ball at via email to askastro@
Warmer, a 45° angle at a speed of 170.4 mph astronomy.com, or
convecting (274.2 km/h) on the Moon, the ball would
portion of
write to Ask Astro,
ice shell travel about 2.21 miles (3.55 km). Bryson P.O. Box 1612,
Subducting DeChambeau, with his 2021 average ball Waukesha, WI 53187.
plate an speed of 190.72 mph (306.93 km/h), could hit Be sure to tell us
o ce your full name and
uid a lunar golf ball even farther than that: 2.76 miles
L iq where you live.
(4.58 km). Unfortunately, we
Mark Zastrow cannot answer all
Senior Editor
questions submitted.
READER GALLERY
Cosmic portraits
1
1. ROGUE WAVE OF FIRE
The billowing gas surrounding the
star AE Aurigae gives the Flaming
Star Nebula (IC 405) its name. But in
this narrowband image processed
in the Hubble palette and given
a slight shift in composition,
the tendrils take on the frothy
appearance of a rogue wave. This
image, taken over nine hours and
45 minutes with an 8-inch
telescope, is reminiscent of the
woodblock prints from the Japanese
artist Hokusai. • Chuck Ayoub
2. TAKING ITS TIME

The Nov. 19, 2021, partial lunar
eclipse was the longest in 580
years, lasting three hours and 28
minutes. Although it wasn’t a total
eclipse, it was close: Only 3 percent
of the lunar disk was outside Earth’s
umbra. At mid-eclipse, Luna was
just 5.5° from the Pleiades (M45)
in Taurus, as captured in this
composite image. • John Vermette 2

3. SOLAR ERUPTION
The Sun rises over the Iranian
peak of Mount Damavand — a
dormant stratovolcano — in
this shot framed from roughly
44 miles (70 kilometers) away.
In the foreground is Tehran’s
Milad Tower. The imager used
a Canon 6D and a 3-inch
scope to zoom in on the
scene. • Ali Shafieian
4. TALE OF
TWO NURSERIES
Some 1,000 light years away
in the constellation Perseus,
NGC 1333 is a reflection
nebula — a cloud of gas
scattering blue light from
3 young stars in the northern
half of an open cluster. By
contrast, the southern half of
the cluster is shrouded in the
dense, cold dust of the dark
nebula Barnard 205. But the
splotches of color bursting
through indicate that it, too,
is full of star formation. This
image represents 12.6 hours
of exposure with an 8-inch
scope and a Canon EOS 60D
DSLR. • Jared Bowens
5. DARK NEIGH-BULA
The Dark Horse Nebula spans
10° and seems to prance
across the Great Rift of the
Milky Way, the dark dust lane
that runs through the band of
our galaxy. Its hindquarters
and back legs make up the
Pipe Nebula, which contains
no fewer than five separate
dark nebulae listed in Edward
Emerson Barnard’s catalog.
This wide-field image was
taken with a Canon EOS Ra
4 5 mirrorless camera and an EF
50mm f/1.4 prime lens at f/4.
• Gianni Tumino
6. ALL THAT’S LEFT

W63 is the expanding shell
of debris and excited gas
resulting from a supernova
that exploded around 20,000
years ago in Cygnus. This
image was made with Hα and
OIII filters, and 38 hours of
exposure with a 4-inch scope.
• Alberto Ibañez
SEND YOUR IMAGES TO:

Astronomy Reader Gallery,
P.O. Box 1612, Waukesha,
WI 53187. Please include
the date and location of the
image and complete photo
data: telescope, camera,
filters, and exposures.
Submit images by email to
6 readergallery@
astronomy.com.
BREAKTHROUGH
HEADING STRAIGHT FOR THE HEART

Open star clusters are born from clouds of gas and dust. The relationship isn’t always obvious, however. Some clusters,
such as the Beehive (M44) in Cancer, have long since exhausted the material needed to make new stars and now appear
as isolated groups. Others remain embedded within their natal clouds and are invisible at optical wavelengths. Melotte 15,
pictured here, occupies a photogenic middle ground. Located at the center of the Heart Nebula (IC 1805) in Cassiopeia, this
cluster boasts dozens of stars, several of which contain nearly 50 solar masses. Melotte 15 lies 7,500 light-years from Earth
and appears about 1.5 million years old, mature enough that its stars shine through, but youthful enough that plenty of gas
remains nearby to create future stars. CANADA-FRANCE-HAWAII TELESCOPE/COELUM—J.-C. CUILLANDRE & G. ANSELMI

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THE THRILLA MANILLA IN CEBU CITY,
PHILLIpPINES
CHRISTOPHER GO’S
C14 HUBBLE
S PA C E T E L E S C O P E
Since the early 2000s, master astroimager and Team Celestron

member Christopher Go has had a love affair with Jupiter. After THE SECRETS TO CHRISTOPHER GO’S
working all day at his furniture business, he spends most nights STUNNING IMAGES
pointing his 14” Celestron Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope
• The right equipment – Go has used his trusty C14 since
towards the gas giant. His work has paid off, not just for him, but
he started imaging seriously more than a decade ago.
for the entire scientific community. On February 24, 2006, Go
captured an image of Jupiter and noted that a white spot, Oval • Impeccable seeing conditions – Despite being an
BA, had turned red. The spot is now known as “Red Spot Junior.” urban area, his hometown of Cebu City, Philippines,
Later, in June 2010, he and co-discoverer Anthony Wesley enjoys excellent seeing conditions.
captured a video of a fireball exploding on Jupiter. It was the first- • Years of passion and hard work
ever recording of an asteroid impacting a planet.
CHRISTOPHER GO’S C14 HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE

Aperture 14 inches 2.4 meters (7.9 feet)
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Has required major repairs No
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SOUTHERN SKY BY MARTIN GEORGE
May 2022
Darkness shades the Full Moon
Early May offers eve- The Red Planet paints Aquarius four-day sojourn through of wonders, it’s not surprising
ning skygazers only with its ruddy hue until May 19 Cetus the Whale during May’s other deep-sky standouts get
one planet, and it’s not the when it crosses into Pisces. second week, then returns to overshadowed.
most spectacular. Mercury lies Mars brightens from magni- the Fish before crossing into But you shouldn’t pass on
just 5° high in the northwest tude 0.9 to 0.6 during May, a Aries the Ram on the 31st. A the chance to view the Blue
30 minutes after sunset. At its brightening that will continue telescope shows Venus’ disk, Planetary Nebula (NGC 3918).
best on the 1st, the inner planet as it approaches opposition in which spans 15" and appears Like other planetaries, this neb-
glows at magnitude 0.5 and will December. Unfortunately, the 73 percent lit at midmonth. ula represents the death throes
be hard to spot against the planet’s 6"-diameter disk won’t A waning crescent Moon of a Sun-like star. As such a star
bright twilight. A telescope show any detail through most occults Venus on May 27. nears the end of its life, it puffs
reveals Mercury’s 8"-diameter amateur instruments. Observers in southern off its outer layers, which glow
disk and one-third-lit phase. Mars stands 16° west of Madagascar can witness this from high-energy ultraviolet
Several hours elapse before Jupiter as May begins, but the event in a dark sky. From radiation released by the dying
the next planet emerges, but the gap narrows by about 0.5° a Tiliara, Venus disappears at star’s core. Some early observ-
wait will be worth it. Saturn day. That sets up a close con- 0h50m UT and reappears at ers thought their disks looked
rises near 1 a.m. local time junction between the two 1h27m UT. The Moon takes like those of the planet Uranus,
May 1 and about two hours worlds late this month. On nearly a minute to hide and hence the name.
earlier by month’s end. The May 29, the Red Planet passes later reveal the planet’s disk. NGC 3918 lies in Centaurus,
ringed planet shines at magni- 0.6° south of the gas giant. A total lunar eclipse occurs near the northwestern corner
tude 0.7 against the backdrop As splendid as this encoun- the night of May 15/16. Viewers of Crux. Although it’s tough to
of eastern Capricornus, 2° ter may be, Jupiter has a far in South America are ideally star-hop to the nebula, you can
north of magnitude 2.8 Delta more striking embrace in early placed because the whole find it easily through a small
(δ) Capricorni. Although Delta May. On the 1st, brilliant eclipse takes place with the telescope with the help of a
ranks as the Sea Goat’s lumi- Venus stands 0.2° to Jupiter’s Moon high in a dark sky. detailed star chart. If you have
nary, Saturn appears seven upper right. Although this con- The umbral phase runs from a go-to mount, dial in a right
times brighter. junction officially took place at 2h28m UT to 5h55m UT with ascension of 11h50.3m and a
Saturn’s appearance through 19h UT on April 30, the two totality lasting from 3h29m UT declination –57°11' (2000.0
a telescope improves as it planets appear closest on the to 4h54m UT. The Moon coordinates).
climbs during the predawn 1st for observers in Australasia. should turn a beautiful orange English astronomer John
hours. As with any planet, A telescope always delivers color during the 85 minutes Herschel discovered this plan-
Saturn looks better when it’s striking views of Jupiter. In of totality. etary in 1834 while observing
high in the sky because we then mid-May, the giant world spans from the Cape of Good Hope.
see it through less of Earth’s 36" and shows a wealth of The starry sky He called it a perfect planetary
turbulent atmosphere. The detail in its colorful cloud tops. Midevenings in May provide disk and was clearly struck by
ringed world will reward your Look for two parallel dark gorgeous views of Crux the its color, writing “It is of a most
patience with stunning views. belts, one on either side of a Cross at its peak altitude in the decided independent blue
In mid-May, its beautiful ring zone that coincides with the south. Musca the Fly borders color.” He also noted an 8th-
system spans 38" and sur- planet’s equator. Jupiter’s four Crux to the south while magnitude orange star 10' to its
rounds a slightly flattened disk bright moons — Io, Europa, Centaurus the Centaur sur- north, which made the nebula’s
that measures 17" across. The Ganymede, and Callisto — also rounds the Cross on its other blue color even more obvious.
rings tilt 12° to our line of sight show up through small ama- three sides. Crux and Centaurus Through amateur instru-
and show modest structure teur scopes. hold plenty of striking deep-sky ments, NGC 3918 appears as a
through small scopes. Venus draws away from objects, including the Coal Sack round disk about 8" to 10"
The autumn sky gains a Jupiter as May progresses. The dark nebula, the Jewel Box across. Appropriately, it looks
touch of color when Mars rises magnitude –4.0 planet begins Cluster (NGC 4755), and Alpha remarkably like a larger and
a couple of hours after Saturn. the month in Pisces, makes a (α) Centauri. With this wealth bluer version of Uranus.
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STAR COLORS
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Slightly cooler stars appear white NX
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• Lower-temperature stars appear orange

VEN
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• Fainter stars can’t excite our eyes’ color
receptors, so they appear white unless you
URSA MAJOR
use optical aid to gather more light
N
BEGINNERS: WATCH A VIDEO ABOUT HOW TO READ A STAR CHART AT
www.Astronomy.com/starchart.
MAY 2022
SUN. MON. TUES. WED. THURS. FRI. SAT.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P
M
IU
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SE
P
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97
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ILLUSTRATIONS BY ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY

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S
AU I A N
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22 23 24 25 26 27 28
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29 30 31
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Note: Moon phases in the calendar vary in size due to the distance
P
LU
from Earth and are shown at 0h Universal Time.

res
Anta
_
E
M4
C
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
2 The Moon passes 1.8° south of Mercury, 14h UT
4
OPHIUCHUS
The Moon passes 0.008° south of dwarf planet Ceres, 14h UT

M8 3
5 Uranus is in conjunction with the Sun, 7h UT

E
LIBRA
The Moon is at apogee (405,285 kilometers from Earth), 12h46m UT

6 Eta Aquariid meteor shower peaks
ca
9 First Quarter Moon occurs at 0h21m UT

Spi
10 Mercury is stationary, 23h UT

PU
A
16 Full Moon occurs at 4h14m UT; total lunar eclipse

S C
O
M5
G
PEN
17 The Moon is at perigee (360,298 kilometers from Earth), 15h27m UT

SER
Mars passes 0.6° south of Neptune, 23h UT

21 Mercury is in inferior conjunction, 19h UT
22
us
The Moon passes 4° south of Saturn, 5h UT

ur
ct
Ar
Last Quarter Moon occurs at 18h43m UT

_
24 The Moon passes 4° south of Neptune, 10h UT
CE
S The Moon passes 3° south of Mars, 19h UT
I
R EN
A B
E 25 The Moon passes 3° south of Jupiter, 0h UT
S 27 The Moon passes 0.2° south of Venus, 3h UT
E
TE
N
Ö
BO 28 The Moon passes 0.3° south of Uranus, 14h UT
29 Mars passes 0.6° south of Jupiter, 0h UT
30 New Moon occurs at 11h30m UT
1
M5
OVER
1000 PRODUCTS!
INCLUDING EXCLUSIVES
EXPLORE THE FROM ASTRONOMY
UNIVERSE
Visit MyScienceShop.com today for high-quality
products curated by the Astronomy magazine
team, including:
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SOLAR ECLIPSE 2024: WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW p.

The world’s best-selling astronomy magazine

From exploring planets and moons to taking a tour of

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CONTENTS 40 ON THE COVER

4 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

For reprints, licensing, and permissions:

Dave’s Universe blog:

A cosmic gold mine

People have Earth-bound Brava, Ms. Buongiorno, Creating a neutron

speculated about the on the beautifully

Lowell Observatory is now open for

6 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

AN EXOPLANET OUTSIDE THE

ECLIPSING X-RAYS. A neutron star or

8 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

LAUNCH AND REPEAT

far, these observations have turned up nothing.

Black hole’s gravity gives it away

10 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

Strong aurorae Examine host

dazzle astronauts Detection of

In late October, an intense flare erupted from the biogenic signal

RUSSIA CARRIES OUT ANTI-SATELLITE TEST

Hubble’s catch of the day

12 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

When astronomers (4 to 10 degrees Celsius) — desertlike aridness. Pale blue

Binocular basics astronomy, partly because it allows more light to reach

14 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

16 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

LEFT: When the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s Akatsuki spacecraft

18 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

A dust storm rages

atmosphere condenses in wide as Earth and easily vis-

20 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

3 Ice crust forms 3

4 Ice crust grows 4

ABOVE: Taken using the Keck II

RIGHT: Uranus actually rotates on

22 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

In 1996, two hours

Pluto’s famous heart isn’t just a

LESS THAN FIVE YEARS AGO,

The big day: April 8, 2024

26 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

28 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

3:30 P.M. EDT

Mon Laredo rleans Tallaha

1 terre arti Tampa Orlando

Watch the sunset all around.

Time will fly. In the “Forum” section

— Continued from page 27

30 ASTRONOMY • MARCH 202 2

After 2024, another total solar eclipse won’t occur

Michael E. Bakich is an eclipsophile

THE SOLAR SYSTEM’S CHANGING LANDSCAPE AS IT APPEARS IN EARTH’S SKY.