Smithsonian Eyewitness Explorer - Rock & Fossil Hunter

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e y e w i t n e s s e x p l o r e r

ROCK &
FOSSIL
HUNTER by Ben Morgan
US Consultant Richard H. Efthim, Naturalist Center Manager
at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution
UK Consultant Dr. Douglas Palmer

SMITHSONIAN
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First American Edition, 2005
This American Edition, 2015
Published in the United States by
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Contents

4 A world of rock 40 Minerals from water


6 Rock types 42 Stalactites on string
8 Safety and equipment 44 Changing landscape
10 Become a rock hound 46 Freeze and thaw
12 Rock stars 48 Ice Age spotter
14 Start a collection 50 Polished pebbles
16 Erupting volcano 52 Plant power
18 On the lava trail 54 Sandstone sand castles
20 Colored crystals 56 Fossil spotter
22 Grow your own gems 58 Hunt for fossils
24 Glittering geodes 60 Fake fossils
26 How hard is it? 62 Make a fossil bone
28 The streak test 64 Fake shelly limestone
30 Acid test 66 Trapped in amber
32 Make paint from minerals 68 Fossil mud pie
34 Here, there, and everywhere 70 Glossary
36 Rocks from space 72 Index
38 Glow in the dark

BE SAFE! IMPORTANT NOTE TO PARENTS CHILDREN—BE SAFE!


Some of the activities in this book require adult supervision. Symbols are READ THIS BEFORE STARTING ANY ACTIVITIES!
used to indicate where an activity must only be done with the help of an adult.
An "Important" box gives further information about any risks involved and 1 Tell an adult before you do any of the activities in this book as you may
appropriate safety precautions to take. Please carefully check which activities need an adult to supervise the activity.
require adult supervision and supervise your child where indicated. 2 Pay attention to the following symbols:

Activities shown with this symbol must You need an adult to


only be done with the help of an adult. help you with an activity.

Take extra care when


Take extra care
doing this activity. IMPORTANT
with an activity.
Provides safety
Always ensure that your child follows
information and indicates 3 Read the “Important” boxes—these provide safety information and let
instructions carefully. The author and
whether an activity can be you know which activities may be messy and should only be carried out
the publisher cannot take responsibility
messy. Follow the guidance
for any accident or injury that occurs in suitable places.
notes on those activities
because the reader has not followed 4 Follow the instructions carefully.
which are messy and
the instructions properly and will not
should be carried out only
be responsible for any loss or damage
in suitable places.
allegedly arising from any of the
activities in this book.
4
Giant’s Causeway
A world of rock
LEARN ABOUT ROCKS, MINERALS, CRYSTALS, AND FOSSILS, AND HOW THE EARTH IS STRUCTURED

At the Giant’s Causeway in


Northern Ireland, pillars of rock
Rock is the main ingredient in planet Earth. run like stepping stones into the
sea. They formed 60 million years
Nearly everything under your feet is rock. ago when lava solidified into
a type of rock called basalt.
It may be buried out of sight, but it’s always
there. Rocks are full of surprises and
secrets. They give us precious gems, gold,
and vital resources such as iron and glass.
Written into rock is a record of Earth’s
fascinating history, preserved as fossils.

This microscopic view


shows interlocking
crystals of the minerals
that make up basalt rock

THIRD ROCK FROM THE SUN


After Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago, it became Crust
hot and molten. The heaviest materials, such as
iron, mostly sank to the center, while lighter
materials, such as rock-forming minerals, Hot,
floated to the top. As a result, Earth now has soft rock
Molten (mantle)
a layered structure, like a soft-boiled egg. In
core
the center is a hot, partly liquid core of iron.
Around the core is a deep layer of hot, soft
rock (the mantle), and around that is a brittle
crust of cold, hardened rock, like an eggshell.

Inside Earth s
Planet Earth is a gigantic ball of rock and metal.
Most of the metal is in the core, and most of the
rock is in the outer layers.
5
a What is rock?

LEARN ABOUT ROCKS, MINERALS, CRYSTALS, AND FOSSILS, AND HOW THE EARTH IS STRUCTURED
A typical rock is a mixture of solid
chemicals called minerals, which are
pressed tightly together like puzzle pieces.
If you look closely, you can sometimes see
the separate minerals as grains (small
crystals) in a rock. Most rocks are hard and
brittle, but some crumble to
powder when you rub them.

Malachite

f What is a mineral?
Minerals are naturally occurring solids that
are inorganic (not from living things) and usually
made of crystals. Ice is a mineral because it fits this
definition. So are the tiny, shiny grains in sand, which
consist of the mineral quartz. There are thousands of
different minerals, including diamond, gold, and salt.
Most rocks are made of a
limited range, called the
rock-forming minerals.

Tourmaline crystals

What is a crystal? f
A crystal is a solid chemical with a regular, geometrical
shape. Crystals typically have smooth, flat faces that meet
in sharp edges. They often look shiny or glassy. Their shape
comes from the regular arrangement of atoms inside the
crystal. In many rocks the crystals are too small to see,
but they are there, nevertheless, by the thousands. In rare
cases, crystals may grow as large as telephone poles.

Tyrannosaurus skull
What is a fossil? s
A fossil is a relic of a living thing that died
thousands, or millions, of years ago. Most fossils
are remains of creatures that no longer exist, such
as dinosaurs. Hard parts of their bodies, such as
bones, were buried. Over time, minerals replaced
these organic materials, turning them into rock. Some
fossils, such as footprints, are merely impressions.
6

Rock types
FIND OUT ABOUT THE THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCK: IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY, AND METAMORPHIC

Scientists can classify almost all rocks into one of three


main types, depending on how the rocks form. The types
are known as igneous rock, sedimentary rock, and
metamorphic rock. Over millions of years, each type
can slowly change into one of the others in an endless
Pink granite
process called the rock cycle.

Basalt

Igneous rock
About 90 percent of the rock in Earth’s crust is Sandstone
igneous. Igneous rock forms when molten rock cools
and solidifies. When this happens underground,
the molten rock (magma) solidifies slowly, giving
crystals time to form. The magma becomes a hard, Sedimentary rock
crystalline rock with large grains, such as granite. Sand, mud, and even the remains of living
Igneous rock can also form on Earth’s surface when organisms can all turn into rock. These
lava escapes from a volcano. The lava solidifies sediments settle on the sea floor, building up
quickly, especially if it flows into water, as in the in layers. Over time, deep layers are compressed
picture below. It forms rock with no, or very by the weight of the sediment on top, and water
tiny, visible crystals, such as basalt. seeping through the layers deposits minerals that
glue the sediment particles together. As a result,
Lava flowing into the sediment becomes sedimentary rock.
the sea, Hawaii Limestone, shale, and sandstone all form this
way. The layers are sometimes visible as
horizontal bands called strata.

Vermilion Cliffs,
Utah
7
The rock cycle

FIND OUT ABOUT THE THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCK: IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY, AND METAMORPHIC
The rock in Earth’s crust is continually Rivers wash Ice and rain eat
being destroyed and recycled. Rock on sediment into away at mountains
the sea
the surface is worn down to fragments
Lava builds up into
and eventually settles to become new mountains
sedimentary rock. Rock underground
is melted to form igneous rock, or
squashed and cooked, by the heat
of molten rock to form metamorphic
rock. Movements in Earth’s crust
lift underground rock back
to the surface.

Underground rock
layers are crushed and
folded by pressure

Sediment Molten rock Heat from molten


builds up on oozes back to rock transforms the
the sea floor the surface surrounding rock

THE MOVING CRUST


Although it looks rock solid, Earth’s crust
is moving. The crust is glued to the mantle
Mylonite below, and the mantle churns slowly about
like very thick syrup. As a result, the crust
has broken into huge fragments called
Metamorphic rock plates. In some places, molten rock seeps
Deep underground, rock can be subjected to intense up between the fragments and pushes
heat and pressure. These forces, while not melting them apart. In other places, two plates
the rock outright, can cause minerals to recrystallize crunch together, and the weaker plate is
in new forms. The result is a hard, crystalline type of forced deep underground, where the rock
rock called metamorphic rock, which frequently has heats up and melts. These movements
wavy or stripy patterns. Metamorphic rock often keep the rock in Earth’s crust moving
forms in mountainous regions, where Earth’s crust in an endless cycle.
is buckling and folding under tremendous pressure.
Examples include marble, slate, and mylonite.
Mantle

Mount McKinley,
Alaska

Earth’s crust
is broken
into plates
8

Safety and equipment


FIND OUT WHAT SAFETY MEASURES AND EQUIPMENT ARE NECESSARY FOR THE ACTIVITIES IN THIS BOOK

You don’t need any special gear to start


learning about rocks and fossils, but the
equipment on this page may be useful. f Hand lens
A x10 hand lens helps expert rock
If you go hunting for rocks and fossils, take collectors to identify their finds
by inspecting the grain. It isn’t
the following safety precautions: wear highly essential for beginners.
visible clothing and make sure an adult
accompanies you; don’t climb cliffs or enter
working quarries, and avoid the base of cliffs
after storms. If you visit the coast, check tide
times and avoid places that are dangerous
Protective goggles
when the tide comes in.
Safety hat
and gloves
a Boots
Wear sturdy boots with ankle
protection when walking on rough
or rocky ground. Wear waterproof
boots in wet or muddy places.

Brightly colored
safety hats are best

Safety equipment s
A hard hat is essential anywhere with a risk of rock
falls, such as a quarry or cliff base. Wear strong fabric
gloves for handling rough or sharp material. If you stand
near someone who’s using a rock hammer, wear safety
goggles. Hard hats, fabric gloves, and safety goggles Wear rubber or
can all be bought from hardware stores. plastic gloves when
handling chemicals

HANDLING CHEMICALS
Some activities in this book involve chemicals
that must not touch your eyes, mouth, and skin.
When using such chemicals, wear protective gloves and
goggles. Don’t touch your eyes or lips while wearing the
gloves. Afterward, throw away disposable gloves and
wash your hands thoroughly. Read the manufacturer’s
instructions before using crystal kits, modeling resin,
or plaster of Paris, and make sure you have adult
supervision at all times. The symbol above appears
when adult supervision is required.
9

IMPORTANT

FIND OUT WHAT SAFETY MEASURES AND EQUIPMENT ARE NECESSARY FOR THE ACTIVITIES IN THIS BOOK
Map and compass s
Certain areas of land are A map and compass will help you
protected by law. Don’t to find your site, and can give you
collect rocks or fossils in an exact reference for the location.
these places without It is very important to record the
permission. Wherever you location of rock, fossil, and mineral
look for rocks and fossils, finds for future reference.
follow the code of conduct
on page 11.

It’s best to keep maps


in waterproof wallets
A rock hammer is useful Wrap up delicate finds
for breaking up large rocks to protect them
a Penknife
Rock hammer s A penknife is handy for prying
A rock, or geological, rocks and fossils, scratching
hammer is very useful off dirt, or identifying minerals
for splitting rocks or by the scratch test
breaking fossils away (see page 26).
from bedrock. Only adults
should use them, and a a Trowel
carpenter’s hammer A trowel is used for
should never be used carefully scraping away
instead because the mud or other soft
metal head may splinter. sediment. When used
Protective goggles should properly, the edge of the
always be worn by the trowel will catch solid
person using the rock items, such as flints, or
hammer, and by anyone fossils buried in the mud.
nearby, because rock
splinters can fly off
in any direction. Use sample bags and
containers that can be sealed

Wrapping materials s
Fossils can be surprisingly delicate—wrap them in
newspaper, bubble wrap, or cloth. Small plastic
bags or containers are useful for tiny specimens.

BUYING ROCKS AND FOSSILS


Many collectors buy rocks, minerals, or
fossils from specialty shops as well as
collecting them in the field. You can also
buy cheap rocks and fossils over the
Internet, but be sure you know what
you’re buying, since minerals are toxic.
f Notepad and pen
Only buy fossils from reputable suppliers—
When you find an interesting rock
some of the best-looking commercial
or fossil, write down the location
fossils are fakes.
with a notepad and pen. Do this
when you make a find, not when you
get home. Keep the note wrapped Cut and polished agates
with the specimen.
10

Become a rock hound WHAT YOU WILL NEED


SEARCH FOR AS MANY ROCKS OF DIFFERENT TYPES AND COLORS AS YOU CAN FIND

• Bag for collecting


Hunting for rocks is enormous rocks
fun—nothing beats the excitement • Water
of discovering rare minerals or • Dishpan
• Scrub brush
shiny crystals with your own • Penknife
eyes. All that you really need • Bleach
Hand lens • Magnifying glass
to become a rock hound is a pair
of sharp eyes and a bit of patience. It also helps Bleach is poisonous,
if you plan your trips in advance—if you know so use only with
where to look, your hunts will be much adult supervision.
more fruitful.

On the beach
A beach is a good
IMPORTANT
place to look for
To be a good rock hound, interesting rocks.
you need to follow certain
safety procedures. See
pages 8–9 for guidance.

Walk slowly as you look at the ground


1 and collect as many different types of rock
as you can: hard, soft, smooth, shiny, rough,
crumbly, flat, and so on. If you’re with a friend,
take the rainbow challenge: see who can find
the most colors. Put the best small specimens
in a bag. Don’t worry if they’re dirty—you can
clean them at home. Stromatolite

WHERE TO COLLECT ROCKS


There are two different kinds of site where
interesting rocks are easy to find: outcrops
and deposits. Outcrops are places such as Shelly limestone
cliffs and quarries, where the bedrock
that normally lies hidden below ground Obsidian
is exposed. Deposits are places where
small, loose stones collect, such as
beaches, river beds, and fields.
a River beds
Hard-wearing stones accumulate as gravel in
rivers and streams. If you’re very lucky, you
might find gemstones among the gravel.
11

SEARCH FOR AS MANY ROCKS OF DIFFERENT TYPES AND COLORS AS YOU CAN FIND
CODE OF CONDUCT
Remember to behave sensibly when
collecting rocks and minerals. Always
seek permission before entering, or
collecting rocks from, private land.
A rock hammer should be used as little
as possible, and only by an adult. Don’t
use it in protected areas, such as national
parks. Wherever possible, collect from
fallen rocks, rubble, or scree rather than
hammering outcrops. If you open any
gates, close them behind you. Don’t leave
litter or disturb animals, and don’t collect
rocks from walls or buildings.

f On the hunt
It’s better to collect loose, fallen rock than
hammering outcrops, but don’t climb rubbly
slopes like this one—they are dangerous.

Clean the rocks when you get home.


2 Brush off loose dirt, or scrape it off with
a penknife. Then wash the rocks in warm water
with a little detergent. Use a scrub brush
to remove dirt, or leave very dirty rocks to soak
overnight. If a rock has a green stain caused by
algae, ask an adult to soak it in water containing
a dash of bleach.

Leave the rocks to dry, then inspect


3 them with a magnifying glass. Can you
see individual grains or crystals? Feel the rocks
carefully to see which ones are hard or crumbly. Use a scrub brush to
The rocks you’ve collected will be very useful remove mud and grit
from your rocks
for the activities in this book. You can also use
them to start a collection (see page 14).
12

Rock stars
RESEARCH FAMOUS STRUCTURES AROUND THE WORLD AND DISCOVER WHICH ROCKS THEY ARE MADE FROM

You don’t have to go to the country to see


rocks—just take a stroll in town. When you
know how to spot granite, sandstone, and
limestone, you’ll see them in buildings
everywhere. Throughout history, people have
used rocks to build with. Usually, they made Stonehenge f
do with local rocks, but sometimes they looked The builders of Stonehenge in
England used a Welsh rock called
farther afield. As the structures on this page dolerite. Unless the rock had been
show, the rocks often tell a fascinating story. carried to England by glaciers, the
builders must have dragged
each rock 155 miles (250 km).

The Pyramids s
The pyramids in Egypt are made largely of fossils.
They were built with a rock called nummulitic
limestone, which formed 50 million years ago
from the shells of small sea organisms. It
took 30,000 men at least 20 years to build
the biggest pyramid. It was the world’s
tallest building for 4,000 years.

RECYCLED ROCK
Building materials such as bricks, cement, and concrete
are all recycled rock. Bricks come from clay that is shaped
into blocks and cooked or dried in the sun to harden. Cement
and plaster are made with minerals, such as calcite and
gypsum, which are heated to drive out water and then
powdered. When water is added, crystals form and make
them set solid. Concrete is a mass of cement and pebbles.

Making bricks s
These Indian villagers are making clay bricks. Clay forms when
the minerals in rocks such as granite rot and crumble. Rivers
wash away the clay, which then settles as mud.
13
The marble is inlaid

RESEARCH FAMOUS STRUCTURES AROUND THE WORLD AND DISCOVER WHICH ROCKS THEY ARE MADE FROM
with sapphires and
other precious stones

a Taj Mahal
An Indian emperor built
the Taj Mahal as a tomb
for his favorite wife. He
used the most expensive
rocks possible, including
white marble and 28 types
of precious stone.

Empire State Building s


The pyramids were Like many modern
originally covered in buildings, the Empire State
a smooth, shiny white Building in New York City is
layer of limestone
faced with limestone and
granite. These rocks are
attractive, easy to work and
polish, yet strong enough
to carry great weight.

Mesa Verde f Djenné Mosque f


The cliff dwellings at Mesa The Djenné Mosque in Mali,
Verde, Colorado, were built Africa, is the world’s largest
13 centuries ago from soft mud-brick building. The sun-
sandstone. The builders baked mud bricks were glued
had to cut the sandstone together with mud mortar and
by hand using stone axes. plastered with more mud.
14

Start a collection WHAT YOU WILL NEED


START A LABELED COLLECTION OF ROCKS, FOSSILS, OR MINERALS

• Your collection
For most rock hounds, building a collection • White correcting fluid,
is the most important part of their hobby. or white stickers and
A collection grows better and better over craft glue
• Black, fine-point
time, and the best specimens can be arranged permanent marker pen
to make a spectacular display. You can collect • 2 index card files
rocks, fossils, or minerals, but most people • Specimen trays (see
right), matchbox trays,
specialize in either fossils or minerals. or egg cartons
Whatever you collect, it’s important to label • Cotton balls or tissue
all your specimens and keep a careful record paper
• Magnifying glass
of everything you know about them.

Assemble your specimens. Put


1 a small dab of correcting fluid
on an unimportant part of the bottom Fill out an index card
of each one and let it dry. Alternatively,
2 for each specimen, writing
use a small white sticker. Stickers its allocated number at the top
will eventually drop off, so of the card. Note the type of rock
you’ll need to add extra or the name of the mineral or
glue to prevent this from fossil (if you know it) under the
happening. Use the number. Also jot down where
permanent marker pen each specimen came from and
to write a reference any other interesting details.
number on each mark or As you learn more about your
sticker, starting with 1. collection, add the new information
to the cards. Keep the cards in
Index card file numerical order in the file.

Magnifying
glass

Correcting
fluid

Cotton ball
15

START A LABELED COLLECTION OF ROCKS, FOSSILS, OR MINERALS


MAKING SPECIMEN TRAYS
Put your best You can buy specimen trays Score along
specimens in a box from mineral shops, or make the lines
and keep them on your own. Cut out a square or
display in your room
rectangle of posterboard,
according to the size of the
specimen, and draw on the lines
shown on the template below.
Ask an adult to score along the
lines, then cut out each corner.
Fold the scored lines, and tape
the corners together, as shown
in the pictures on the right. Tape

Prepare a second index


3 card with the name of the
rock, fossil, or mineral at the top
and its number under the name.
Keep these cards in alphabetical
Individual order in a separate card file. You
specimen can then look up specimens both
tray template by name and by number.

Place each specimen in a small card


4 tray (see above). Put tissue paper
or cotton balls under delicate specimens.
Arrange all your specimen trays in a
drawer or large box to display them.
16

Erupting volcano WHAT YOU WILL NEED


BURY A BOTTLE IN SAND TO CREATE A VOLCANO AND MAKE IT ERUPT VIOLENTLY

• Small plastic bottle


When volcanoes erupt, molten rock gushes • Water
from the ground as lava. Some volcanoes • Measuring cup
erupt gently, but others explode with a bang, • Tray or baking sheet
• Sand
blown open by a blast that can hurl millions • Tablespoon
of tons of rock debris into the sky. By making • Bicarbonate of soda
a homemade volcano, you can see why • Red food coloring
• Dishwashing liquid
eruptions can be • Funnel (if available)
so violent. Sand • Vinegar

Pour enough warm water


3 into the cup to fill the bottle
Plastic bottle
two-thirds full. Add two heaped
tablespoons of bicarbonate
of soda and stir well. Add
Pile up sand around a tablespoon each of
2 the bottle to make a food coloring and
volcano shape. Be careful dishwashing liquid
not to let any sand fall to the cup.
down the bottle neck.

Rinse out a small


1 plastic soda bottle,
then use a measuring cup
to figure out how much water
the bottle holds. Empty the
bottle and place it on a tray.

Make your volcano


more realistic by
placing rocks,
plastic trees, or
models around it

IMPORTANT
This experiment can be
messy, so check with an
adult where you should do
it. Outdoors on a flat
surface, such as a driveway
or sidewalk, is a good idea.
17
Carefully pour the liquid
4

BURY A BOTTLE IN SAND TO CREATE A VOLCANO AND MAKE IT ERUPT VIOLENTLY


from the cup into the bottle,
using a funnel if you have one. VIOLENT VOLCANOES
If you don’t, pour the liquid
very slowly and carefully. Really violent eruptions are caused
by gas bubbles, as in the homemade
volcano in this activity. When molten
rock is trapped underground, high
pressure keeps gases dissolved inside
it. But if the lava breaks through the
surface, the pressure suddenly drops
and the gas forms bubbles, pushing
up the lava like soda exploding
from a bottle.

Ash cloud s
Mount Augustine in Alaska
erupts, with tons of
scalding ash and rubble
hurled high into the sky.

Be prepared for the


5 eruption, which happens
very quickly. Measure 1⁄2 cup
of vinegar and pour it into the
bottle. Jump back, keeping
your eyes on the volcano.

HANDY TIP
If the sand doesn’t stick
to the bottle, add a little
water to it.
18

On the lava trail IMPORTANT


FIND OUT HOW VISCOSITY AFFECTS THE WAY LAVA FLOWS AND VOLCANOES GROW

Molasses is sticky and


messy, so put the plates
Lava is a bit like molasses. When it’s very on a wipe-clean surface,
hot, it becomes thin and runny, but as it cools such as a kitchen counter,
and be careful as you pour.
down, it becomes thicker and stickier. As a
result, the temperature of lava, as well as the
minerals contained within the lava, affect
the way volcanoes grow—as
this activity shows.

Molasses can
from refrigerator

Put a can of molasses, Viscous consistency


1 unopened, in the of cold molasses
refrigerator overnight. The
next day, open the can and
pour the molasses onto a
plate. See how thick the
molasses has become, and
how it piles up on the plate
to form a heap. When a
liquid is thick like this,
we call it viscous.

THE COOL THING ABOUT LAVA TUBES


In Hawaii you can walk across flowing lava without
burning your feet. The very runny lava from Kilauea
Volcano flows for miles in streams, and the surface
of a stream sometimes cools and hardens to form a
crust. Hot lava carries on flowing beneath the crust,
forming a “lava tube” that is insulated by the roof,
and so able to flow even further. When the lava finally
stops flowing, the tube hardens into a twisting tunnel
that people can actually walk through.

Collecting lava s
A scientist takes a sample from a lava tube at Kilauea
Volcano, Hawaii, one of the world’s most active volcanoes.
It has been flowing with lava continuously since 1983.
19
Volcano shapes
WHAT YOU WILL NEED

FIND OUT HOW VISCOSITY AFFECTS THE WAY LAVA FLOWS AND VOLCANOES GROW
The shape of a volcano depends largely on how
• 2 cans of molasses runny the lava is. Cool lava, or lava containing
• 2 plates lots of silica, is very viscous. It builds up into
a steep, conical volcano, or a dome volcano.
• Heatproof bowl or pan
It can also plug a volcano’s central vent, causing
• Boiling water pressure to build up, and so producing explosive
eruptions. Lava that is very hot and contains a
Ask an adult to pour lower level of silica minerals tends to be runny.
the boiling water and It erupts gently and spreads a long way, building
to put the can in up slowly to form a gently sloping mountain
the water. called a shield volcano.

Vent
Side vent Layers of
ash and lava

Magma chamber
deep underground

Conical volcano f
Molasses Conical volcanoes grow from thick, viscous lava, or
can from pan from ash and rubble that rain down from explosive
of hot water eruptions. Some are “composite volcanoes,” made
Smooth, flowing
consistency of of alternating layers of both ash and lava.
warmed molasses

Vent

Layers
of lava

Shield volcano f
Runny lava travels a long way before cooling and
solidifying. It builds up into a gently sloping shield
volcano. The islands of Hawaii formed this way.

Steep Vent
Ask an adult to do this part of rounded slope
2 the experiment for you. Boil some
water and pour it into a heatproof bowl.
Then place the other can of molasses, Layers of
unopened, in the bowl. Leave the thick lava
molasses to warm up for half an hour.
Dome volcano f
Open the can and pour the warm Very viscous lava that cools quickly can barely flow.
3 molasses onto a plate. You’ll find
It grows into a rounded heap, forming a dome volcano.
that the molasses is much runnier, and These sometimes form in the craters of volcanoes
spreads quickly to form a wide, flat puddle. that have blown apart.
20

Colored crystals
GROW JEWEL-LIKE COLORED CRYSTALS FROM A RANGE OF HOUSEHOLD INGREDIENTS

HANDY TIP
Crystals are the building blocks of rocks. To make “amethyst” crystals,
They form when minerals solidify into regular mix together blue and
red food coloring.
shapes with flat, often shiny faces and sharp
edges. You can find out more about crystals
by growing your own from some common
household ingredients. Sugar crystals can take
several weeks to grow

Put 3 or 4 tablespoons
1 of sugar in the measuring
cup and pour on about a cup of hot
water. Stir until no more sugar will
dissolve. If all the sugar dissolves
within 1–2 minutes, add another
tablespoon. Stir for 2 more minutes.
Let the solution cool for 5 minutes.

Meanwhile, tie a paper clip


2 to a piece of string and wrap
the string around the middle of a
pencil. Lay the pencil across the
top of the jar so that the paper clip
is suspended about 1 in (2 cm)
above the bottom of the jar.

Lift off the pencil. Pour


3 sugar solution into the jar
until just over three-fourths full.
Add 3–4 drops of food coloring. Put
the pencil back on the jar. Make a
note of the color and the substance
dissolved (sugar).

CHEMICAL COLORINGS
Salt crystals form on
The colors of gems often come the bottom of the jar as
from chemical impurities, just as well as on the paper clip
your home-grown crystals are
colored by additives. Rubies and Repeat the above steps
sapphires are both varieties of the 4 using salt in the second
mineral corundum, which is colorless jar, and Epsom salts in the third.
Cross with when pure. Rubies get their red from
different- Add a different food coloring
colored chromium, while sapphires are colored to the jars so you can tell them
sapphires various colors by iron and titanium. apart. Make a note of the color
and contents of each jar.
21
Crystal shapes

GROW JEWEL-LIKE COLORED CRYSTALS FROM A RANGE OF HOUSEHOLD INGREDIENTS


Crystals have distinctive shapes because
CRYSTALS IN ROCK of the way atoms line up inside them,
Many rocks contain crystals large and the shape is a useful clue to a
enough to see. The grains in mineral’s identity. All crystals can be
granite are interlocking crystals placed in one of six main classes
of three minerals: mica (black), according to their symmetry.
quartz (gray), and feldspar (pink
and white). These crystals grow aCubic crystals are
large because granite forms slowly very symmetrical,
Magnified which means you
when molten rock cools underground.
granite keep seeing the same shape
if you turn them around.
Diamonds are cubic.
Pyrite

a Monoclinic crystals
have much less symmetry
Epsom salt than cubic crystals. The
crystals are long shape repeats only once
and spiky, and as you turn them around.
grow very quickly
Selenite

aTriclinic crystals
are the least
symmetrical of all
the crystal shapes. They
WHAT YOU WILL NEED have no equal sides or
angles and can look like
• Tablespoon a jumble of flat faces. Axinite
• White sugar
• Measuring cup aTetragonal
• Hot water crystals typically
• 3 paper clips have a rectangular
• String shape, with equal sides
and angles. They look a
• 3 pencils
bit like elongated cubes.
• 3 glass jars
• Food coloring Idocrase
• Salt
• Epsom salts aOrthorhombic
• Gloves and goggles crystals are long
and have tapered
ends, like a rectangle with
Wear gloves and the corners chipped off.
goggles when using The mineral topaz forms
Epsom salts. gemstones this shape. Barite

aHexagonal and
trigonal crystals have
Check each solution after 30 minutes to see if six sides. Rubies,
5 crystals are forming. Leave them undisturbed for sapphires, emeralds,
at least 2 weeks and make a daily check. Do the crystals and snowflakes all
grow at different speeds or have different shapes? belong to this class. Beryl
22

Grow your own gems


MAKE A FAKE GEMSTONE BY GROWING A SINGLE LARGE CRYSTAL USING ALUM

In rare conditions, exceptionally beautiful IMPORTANT


and hard-wearing crystals form in igneous Wear goggles to protect
or metamorphic rock to become gemstones. your eyes from splashes,
and wear protective gloves
The element carbon can crystallize into a when handling the alum
diamond, the most precious jewel of all, and solution. If some of the
solution should splash
the minerals corundum and beryl can form onto your skin, wash it off
rubies, sapphires, and emeralds. Gemstones immediately with lots of
cold water. Do not put the
are highly prized for their beauty and rarity. alum in your mouth.
You’re unlikely to find any when rock hunting,
so why not try making a fake?

WHAT YOU WILL NEED


• Protective goggles
• Protective gloves
• Measuring cup
• Kitchen scale
• Hot water
• Alum (available from
toy stores in crystal-
growing kits, or from
some supermarkets
as a pickling salt)
• Mixing stick
• Plate
• Tweezers
• String ARE DIAMONDS FOREVER?
• Pencil Diamonds are famous for the way
• Glass tumbler they sparkle. A cut diamond reflects
• Old saucepan more light than other gems and
splits the light into colors, giving
Ask an adult to the diamond its “fire.” They are Cut
also famous for being the hardest diamonds
supervise the use
substance known—no other mineral
of alum and to help can scratch them. But they’re far
you heat the from indestructible. Like coal and
alum solution. other forms of carbon, they can burn.
23

MAKE A FAKE GEMSTONE BY GROWING A SINGLE LARGE CRYSTAL USING ALUM


The fake gem grows as
the alum in the solution
crystallizes onto it

Put the empty cup on the


1 scale and set it to zero. Put
on the goggles and gloves. Pour
11⁄4 cups (300 ml) of hot water
into the cup, then add 31⁄2 oz
(100 g) of alum. Remove the
cup from the scale and stir the
solution with the mixing stick
until no more alum will dissolve.

Pour a third of a cup of the


2 solution onto a plate and leave
in a warm place to dry. Cover the
cup and set it aside. Alum crystals
will form quickly on the bottom of
the plate as the liquid cools. Let the
crystals grow as large as possible.
This will take about 2 or 3 hours.

Carefully remove one of the


3 best crystals with tweezers. Tie a
piece of string around it and wrap the
string around the middle of a pencil.

Crystals will also have formed on the


4 bottom of the cup and you will need to
redissolve them. Pour the solution into a pan
and heat it, then pour it back into the cup and
HANDY TIP swish it around until all the crystals have
Add red food coloring dissolved. Let the solution cool for 5 minutes.
to make a ruby, or green
to make an emerald. Pour some of the solution into the tumbler and
5 hang the crystal tied to the pencil in the solution.
Leave the crystal for a few days to grow into a “diamond.”
24

Glittering geodes WHAT YOU WILL NEED


MAKE A BEAUTIFUL FAKE GEODE BY GROWING CRYSTALS IN A GRAPEFRUIT SKIN

• Grapefruit or orange
In areas where there are porous rocks, you • Aluminum foil
may come across a dull rock shaped like a • Plaster of Paris
potato on the ground. These “potato stones” • Bowl
• Spatula
are called geodes and are highly prized by • Protective goggles
mineral collectors. If the rock is sliced in half, • Protective gloves
inside is a cavity lined with crystals. You can • Alum (available in
crystal-growing kits
make a fake geode in a grapefruit skin, using or from supermarkets
the chemical alum to form the crystals. as a pickling salt)
• Hot water
• Measuring cup
• Measuring scale
• Food coloring
(optional)
Cut a grapefruit
1 or large orange Ask an adult to
in half and remove the supervise the
flesh. Line the fruit with use of alum.
some aluminum foil.

Mix about a cup of plaster of Paris powder


2 in a bowl, following the instructions on the
package. Leave for 10 minutes, or until it thickens,
then spread it over the foil inside the grapefruit
with a spatula to form a thick, irregular layer.
Before it sets, put on the goggles and gloves, and
sprinkle over some alum crystals. Leave for half
an hour for the plaster to harden.

Measure about 11⁄4 cups


3
(300 ml) of hot water in a jug
and add 31⁄2 oz (100 g) of alum. Stir
until no more will dissolve. To make an
“amethyst” geode, add a teaspoon each
of red and blue food coloring. Let cool
for 5–10 minutes. Stand the grapefruit
in a cup or bowl and fill it with the alum
solution. Leave for a few days, topping
up with more solution as it evaporates.
25

MAKE A BEAUTIFUL FAKE GEODE BY GROWING CRYSTALS IN A GRAPEFRUIT SKIN


HOW GEODES FORM
Geodes form in cavities in porous rock. Fluids
rich in dissolved minerals, such as quartz,
seep into the cavity. The quartz crystallizes
on the inner surface, and the crystals can
grow big enough to fill the geode. When the
rock erodes, a chunk may break off. The
hard crystals hold the chunk together,
while the outside wears down to form
a dull-looking, potato-shaped rock.

Amethyst geode s
This geode is full of amethyst crystals—
a purple form of quartz. The crystals are
translucent and shaped like pyramids.

After several days, pour You can paint the


4 off the solution and peel outside to make it
away the rind and foil to reveal look more like a rock
your beautiful “geode”!

IMPORTANT
Do not swallow alum. If
some should splash onto
your skin, wash it off
immediately with lots of
cold water. Wear goggles
to protect your eyes
from splashes, and wear
protective gloves when
handling the alum solution.
26

How hard is it? IMPORTANT


FIND OUT HOW THE HARDNESS TEST WORKS BY SCRATCHING A RANGE OF HOUSEHOLD OBJECTS

Get permission from an


adult before scratching
A good way of identifying a mineral is to see household objects, and
how easy it is to scratch. All minerals have don’t use anything valuable
like glassware, new cutlery,
a “hardness” rating from 1 to 10 on Mohs ornaments, or jewelry.
scale of hardness (see below), and those with
a high number can scratch anything with a
lower number on the scale. If you don’t
have a collection of minerals, you
can try out the hardness test
using household items.

MOHS SCALE
The German mineralogist Friedrich
Mohs developed the hardness scale
in 1812. The scale is based on the
10 minerals shown below, starting
with talc, which has a hardness of
1. Some everyday equivalents are
given alongside the minerals.

Scale Mineral Equivalent

1 Talc Ice = 1.5

2 Gypsum Fingernail = 2.5

3 Calcite Penny = 3.5

4 Fluorite Iron nail = 4.5

5 Apatite Penknife blade


= 5.5

6 Orthoclase Hard steel file


= 6.5

7 Quartz Sandpaper = 7.5

8 Topaz Emery board


= 8.5 Put the items Try scratching each
1 to be scratched 2 test object with your
9 Corundum Ruby = 9
in one pile and the fingernail, which has a hardness
10 Diamond No equivalent scratching tools in of 2.5. Anything it can scratch
another. List the test must have a lower hardness.
objects in a notepad. Make a note of the results.
27

FIND OUT HOW THE HARDNESS TEST WORKS BY SCRATCHING A RANGE OF HOUSEHOLD OBJECTS
MINERALS FOR WRITING
Chalk and pencil lead are both good for “Lead”
writing because they contain soft minerals pencil
that rub off easily. Oddly, classroom chalk is
no longer made from chalk, and pencil lead
is not made from lead. Classroom chalk is
actually the mineral gypsum, which has a
hardness of 2. Pencil lead is the mineral
graphite, the hardness of which varies from
1 to 2 (clay is added to make it harder). Classroom
“chalk”

WHAT YOU WILL NEED


• Household objects to
scratch: classroom
chalk, copper coin,
brick, old cutlery,
crockery, and glass
• Scratching tools:
bronze or copper coin,
iron nail, penknife, steel
file, and sandpaper
• Notepad and pen

Ask an adult to
help you use the
HANDY TIP penknife, steel file,
Start by making short and sandpaper.
scratches with the scratching
tools and don’t apply too
much pressure.

Now try scratching each object with Repeat the scratch test with the iron nail,
3 a copper coin. Does it leave a scratch 4 which has a hardness of 4.5. How easily
or just a colored streak where the metal has can the nail scratch the coins? With an adult
rubbed off on something harder? The coin helping you, try scratching the objects with a
has a hardness of 3.5, which is low, so most penknife blade, a steel file, and sandpaper. Now
objects are likely to scratch the coin, rather try to work out the hardness of each test object,
than vice versa. Jot down the results. then write down your conclusions.
28

The streak test WHAT YOU WILL NEED


LEARN HOW THE STREAK TEST CAN HELP IDENTIFY MINERALS

• Porcelain tiles with


A mineral’s color can help you identify it, white, unglazed backs
but colors can be misleading. The mineral • Selection of minerals,
quartz, for example, comes in many colors. such as amethyst,
azurite, calcite,
A better way of assessing color is to do a chrysocolla, hematite,
streak test, which always gives the same iron pyrite, limonite,
result. You can look up the streak and quartz
color of every mineral in a field
guide. This test applies
only to minerals,
not rocks.
Iron pyrite is golden
but makes a greenish
black streak

Chrysocolla can be
green or blue but
makes a white streak

Scratch the
COLORS OF QUARTZ 1 mineral along the
back of a tile to make a
Pure quartz is colorless, but chemical impurities streak. Keep doing this until the
can make it purple (amethyst), pink, green, color is clear. Repeat with all
red, yellow, or black. Quartz is also hard and the minerals you want to test.
transparent, so colored forms make good
gemstones. But whatever the color, the If the mineral is too hard
streak that it makes is 2 to make a streak, ask an
always white. adult to crush a small amount
with a hammer. The color of
Smoky quartz Pink quartz the streak is really just the
color of a mineral’s powder.
29
Calcite can be Quartz makes

LEARN HOW THE STREAK TEST CAN HELP IDENTIFY MINERALS


several colors but a white streak
always makes a
white streak Amethyst is
purple but
makes a
white streak

Limonite varies from


yellow to black but
makes a yellow-
brown streak

Hematite is gray,
brown, or black but
makes a dark
red streak

IMPORTANT
Although the minerals used
in this experiment aren’t
toxic, it is very important
Azurite leaves a that you don’t put minerals
pale blue streak in your mouth.

LIGHT AND LUSTER


As well as looking at a mineral’s color and
streak, geologists look at its luster—how it Calcite produces
reflects or transmits light, making it shiny a double image
or dull. This is also an important clue to a
mineral’s identity. Some minerals are shiny
Greasy
like metals (metallic luster), others glisten like
glass (vitreous or glassy luster), and others
are pearly, greasy, or silky. Minerals may
be transparent, which means you can see
through them; translucent, which means
they let light through; or opaque, which
means they don’t let any light through.
Metallic Transparent
30

Acid test IMPORTANT


FIND OUT HOW ROCKS MADE OF CARBONATE MINERALS REACT WITH ACID

The chalk you use for


this activity must be real
One of the easiest minerals to identify is chalk, not classroom chalk,
calcite—the main ingredient in chalk and which, confusingly, is
made of gypsum.
limestone. Calcite reacts with liquids that
are acidic, such as vinegar. If you drop a rock
made of calcite into vinegar, it will fizz and
bubble. In this activity, the reaction between
calcite and vinegar causes a dramatic
color change.

First you need to prepare


1 the indicator liquid, which
shows how acidic a solution
is. Boil some red cabbage for
about 10 minutes and strain
the water into a pitcher. Dilute
it until it’s transparent but
Pour the
still strongly colored. Pour diluted cabbage
the diluted cabbage water water into glass
into the two tumblers. tumblers

Only a few drops


of white vinegar
are needed

Now you need to make


2 the solution acidic. Add a tiny
amount of white vinegar, drop by drop,
to each tumbler. As soon as the liquid Crush the
turns pink, stop adding vinegar. chalk to a
powder to
speed up the
reaction
WHAT ARE ACIDS?
Acids are chemicals that taste sour
(like vinegar) and have certain chemical
properties. We measure how acidic a
solution is with a dye called an indicator,
which changes color. Red cabbage contains
a natural indicator that is normally purple
but turns pink in acid. When you added
chalk to the tumbler, calcite reacted with
the acid and “neutralized” it, making the
water turn back to purple. Testing acidity with
indicator paper
31

WHAT YOU WILL NEED

FIND OUT HOW ROCKS MADE OF CARBONATE MINERALS REACT WITH ACID
• Small red cabbage,
sliced
• Water
• Saucepan
• Pitcher
• Two clean glass
tumblers
• White vinegar
• Real chalk or a piece
of soft limestone
• Teaspoon

Ask an adult to help


you boil the red
cabbage.

A pink color
shows that the
liquid is acidic

A purple or blue Stir a teaspoon of crushed chalk into


color shows
3 one tumbler. Calcite in the chalk reacts
that chalk has with the acid and neutralizes it, turning the
“neutralized” solution purple. See if the same reaction
the acid happens with other rocks, such as limestone.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Rain is naturally slightly acidic because it contains small
amounts of the gas carbon dioxide, forming carbonic acid.
When rain falls on chalk and limestone, the acid reacts with
calcite in the rock and
slowly dissolves it. This
process, called chemical
weathering, can wear away
hills and hollow out huge
caverns underground.

Guilin Hills, China s


These spectacular hills
are the remains of a vast
block of limestone that
was eaten away by rain.
32

Make paint from minerals


GRIND MINERALS TO MAKE A POWDER AND MIX WITH A BINDING AGENT TO MAKE PAINT

Since the earliest times, people have used


colorful minerals to make paint. Unlike paints WHAT YOU WILL NEED
made from plants and animals, mineral paints • Dust mask
hold their color well over time. But they can be • Soft minerals, such
as red ocher, chalk,
difficult to make, especially if the mineral is
and charcoal
rock-hard. Soft minerals, like red ocher and • Mortar and pestle
chalk, are the simplest to make into paints • 2 shallow bowls
because they are easy to crush. Harder • Egg
• Kitchen towel
minerals, like azurite and malachite, are • Mixing stick
difficult to crush, but they produce brilliant • Paintbrush and paper
blue and green colors.
Wear a dust mask when
crushing minerals—
some may be an
inhalation risk.

Wearing a dust mask, Tip the powder into a


1 grind a mineral (red
2 shallow bowl and add
ocher here) with a mortar and a few drops of water. Stir the
pestle to make a fine powder. powder and water together You need to add a
The finer you grind the powder, with the pestle until it 3 binding agent to the
the smoother the paint will be. becomes a smooth paste. paste to stop it turning to dust
when it dries. Egg yolk works
well, but it has to be separated
from the egg white. Crack
PIGMENTS AND DYES open an egg and carefully
pour out the white, leaving the
Pigments and dyes are substances yolk in the shell. Roll the yolk
used to create intense colors. very gently in kitchen towel to
Dyes dissolve in water and clean it, then put it in a bowl.
soak into absorbent
materials, such as fabric,
coloring them throughout.
Pigments work in a different HANDY TIP
way. They don’t dissolve, so
White craft glue can be
they are ground into powder and used
to make paint. Most modern pigments Azurite, once an used as a binding agent
and dyes are synthetic. important source instead of egg yolk.
of blue paint
33

GRIND MINERALS TO MAKE A POWDER AND MIX WITH A BINDING AGENT TO MAKE PAINT
CAVE PAINTINGS

Horse cave painting, Lascaux, France

The finest cave paintings in the


world are in Lascaux, western
France. About 17,000 years ago,
prehistoric painters decorated
the walls of the cave with wild
animals, mysterious symbols, and
monsters that were half human
and half animal. The paints that
they used were made from ocher,
iron oxide, and charcoal.

Dip your paintbrush


in water if your paint
Look up cave starts to dry out
paintings in
books or on the
Internet and
find one you
want to copy

IMPORTANT
Add a tiny amount of If you make paint from
4 yolk to the paste—about very hard minerals, ask an
one-third the amount of paste. adult to crush them. Don’t
Stir it in with a mixing stick. use any yellow or orange
Your paint is now ready to use. minerals, which can
be toxic.

Try making a prehistoric


5 cave painting with your
mineral paints. Use clay or red
ocher for the red paint, chalk to
make white paint for highlights,
and charcoal to make black
paint for shadows and outlines.
34

Here, there, and everywhere


FIND OUT HOW MANY EVERYDAY OBJECTS ARE MADE FROM MINERALS

Minerals are everywhere. We use them to build


houses and cars, to make computers and TVs, and to
wash our clothes, clean our teeth, cook food, and eat
with. Even the paper in this book contains at least
three of the minerals shown below (talc, clay, and
mica). Anything in your home that isn’t made from
plants and animals is probably made from
minerals, but do you know which ones?

Test yourself 13
Can you guess which of the
minerals below are used to make
these household objects? Cover the 12
answers, write down your guesses, then
check your results. The test is hard, so you
may not get many right, but when you know
the answers, you can impress your friends
with your mineral expertise.

Corundum Fluorite Graphite


Chromite
Bauxite

Illite (clay) Kaolinite (clay) Magnetite (iron ore) Mica Quartz


35

FIND OUT HOW MANY EVERYDAY OBJECTS ARE MADE FROM MINERALS
ANSWERS
5
1. Ballpoint pen nibs are made of a strong
metal called tungsten, which comes
from wolframite.

2. Calculators and other electronic gadgets


contain microchips made with silicon, the
second most common element in Earth’s
6 crust. Silicon comes from quartz and many
other minerals.

3. Glitter nail polish contains flakes of the


shiny mineral mica.

4. Salt is the mineral halite.

5. Terra-cotta pots are made from a clay


mineral called illite.

6. Frying pans are made from iron, which


comes from hematite and magnetite, or
8
from aluminum, which comes from bauxite.
The coating on a nonstick pan is made
with the chemical fluorine, from fluorite.
7
7. Plates and other crockery are made with
kaolinite, the main mineral in China clay.
9
8. Glass is made from the mineral quartz
in sand. The sand is melted and mixed with
other ingredients before being shaped.

9. Cutlery is usually made of stainless steel,


which is a mixture of two metals: iron and
chromium. Chromium is added to stop the
iron rusting. Iron comes from “iron ores,” such
as hematite and magnetite; chromium comes
from the mineral chromite.
10

11 10. Talcum powder is a powdered form of talc,


the softest mineral known.

11. Pencil “lead” is not lead but graphite. Clay


is added to make the lead harder.

12. Emery boards are good for filing nails


because they contain the very hard mineral
corundum. Only the mineral diamond is
Halite Hematite (iron ore) harder than corundum.

13. Incandescent light bulbs contain a fine


filament made of the metal tungsten, which
comes from wolframite. Tungsten glows when
it gets very hot, but it doesn’t melt easily.

Talc Wolframite
36

Rocks from space WHAT YOU WILL NEED


COLLECT MICROMETEORITES FROM OUTDOORS AND EXAMINE THEM UNDER A MICROSCOPE

• Magnet
Every day, about 500 tons of dust and rock • Paper cup
from space collides with planet Earth. Much • String
of this space debris burns up as it enters the • Sheet of white paper
• Magnifying glass
atmosphere, producing streaks of light called • Tweezers
shooting stars. However, particles smaller • Microscope
than a millimeter wide can sometimes slip • Glass slide
through the air without getting hot enough
to burn. These micrometeorites float through
the sky as dust, and they fall to the ground in
rain. With a powerful magnet—and a bit of
luck—you stand a chance of finding one.

Place a powerful magnet in


1 a paper cup and tie a loop of
string to the top of the cup to make
a micrometeorite collector. Take the
collector outside on a dry day and
gently tap it over areas of ground that
are dry (but that do get wet after rain)
and seldom disturbed by people or
vehicles. Good places to try include
the ground around downspouts
and undisturbed lawns.

When black specks have Use a magnifying glass and


2 appeared on the bottom of the cup,
3 tweezers to pick out particles
take it indoors and place the cup on some that look spherical and less than 1⁄50 in
clean white paper. Remove the magnet (half a millimeter) wide. These could be
and tap the cup to shake off the specks. micrometeorites made of iron or nickel,
which are magnetic. Particles that are
not spherical will be flecks of iron
HANDY TIP from other sources.
Don’t touch the dust with
the magnet as it will stick to
the magnet and be hard
to remove.
37

COLLECT MICROMETEORITES FROM OUTDOORS AND EXAMINE THEM UNDER A MICROSCOPE


WHAT IS A METEORITE?

The loop of string


makes a handle

Use the most powerful


magnet you have

Artist’s impression of a meteorite hitting Earth

Space rocks that land on Earth’s surface


are called meteorites. Most are fragments of
broken asteroids (colossal rocks that orbit the
Sun); those made of iron come from the cores
of asteroids. Only about 500 meteorites bigger
than a football hit Earth each year and most
of these end up in the sea.

Place the magnet in


the bottom of the cup

If you have a microscope, put the Iron crystals in


4 best particles on a glass slide and micrometeorite
examine them. Micrometeorites often
look smooth because the surface melts
as they enter Earth’s atmosphere. You Under the
can also use a microscope to search microscope s
for micrometeorites in the dust that This is what an iron
appears on cars after rain. This dust micrometeorite looks like
comes from high in the sky and through a powerful electron
contains desert sand and volcanic ash, microscope. The surface is
which may have traveled thousands smooth and round, but crystals
of miles, as well as micrometeorites. of metal are visible.
38

Glow in the dark


DISCOVER HOW SOME MINERALS CAN PRODUCE THEIR OWN LIGHT

b
a

If you shine ultraviolet (UV) light on certain


minerals, they glow with extraordinary colors. c

We call this glow fluorescence. Some minerals


e
always fluoresce with the same color, but
d
others vary according to the impurities they
contain. And some minerals continue to glow
Daylight dullness f
when you switch off the UV lamp, producing All these rocks appear dull in
a ghostly light called phosphorescence. daylight, but they are transformed
under a UV lamp (see below).

Fantastic fluorescence
Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions and
precautions when using a UV lamp, and make sure
you have adult supervision. To check minerals for
fluorescence, hold them under a long-wave UV
lamp in a dark room. Fluorescent minerals are
not common, but you can buy them from rock
and mineral shops. You can also use a UV
lamp to search for fluorescent materials
in your home. Paper and fabrics often
contain fluorescent brightening agents,
and Day-Glo marker pens contain
fluorescent dyes. Teeth and fingernails
contain the fluorescent mineral apatite.
You can also use a UV lamp to hunt spiders
and scorpions at night—some species have a
fluorescent organic chemicals in their skin. Calcite

LET THERE BE LIGHT!


Another way to make rocks glow
is to rub them together. Take two
pieces of milky quartz into a very
dark room and wait 10 minutes for
your eyes to adapt. Rub the rocks
forcefully and look for an orangey
HANDY TIP
glow—called triboluminescence.
Alternatively, crunch on wintergreen- Inexpensive long-wave
flavored candies in a dark room UV lamps are often sold
while looking in a mirror. as “black lights” or
Friction produces an orange glow disco lights.
39

DISCOVER HOW SOME MINERALS CAN PRODUCE THEIR OWN LIGHT


WHAT CAUSES FLUORESCENCE?
When ultraviolet light strikes a fluorescent
mineral, the atoms in the mineral absorb
energy from the light. Tiny particles called
electrons, which form the outside of these
atoms, become “excited.” The electrons
then lose the extra energy they have
absorbed by emitting particles of visible
The long-wave
light, which we see as a colored glow.
UV lamp causes
these minerals to
glow in the dark

Dancing in the dark f


Long-wave UV lamps are often used in dance
clubs, where they make fluorescent materials,
such as glow sticks, emit light in vivid colors.

Blue
aragonite

Opal

WHAT YOU WILL NEED


• Long-wave UV lamp
• Fluorescent minerals,
such as aragonite,
Sodalite d
calcite, opal, sodalite,
and wernerite.

e The UV lamp must


Wernerite be bought and
used with adult
supervision.
40

Minerals from water


EVAPORATE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WATER TO REVEAL THE MINERALS THEY CONTAIN

As rain seeps through the ground, it


dissolves some of the minerals in rock.
Mineral water, seawater, river water,
and tap water almost always contain
minerals picked up in this way. You
can’t usually see them, but you can
often taste them. In this activity,
you can make them visible.

WHAT YOU WILL NEED Seawater

• Four clean, unscratched


CD cases, or small
squares of completely
clear plastic, such as file
folders or sandwich bags
• Four different types
of water (see step 1)
• Teaspoon

Collect water from four


1 different sources, such
as rainwater, tap water, seawater,
and bottled mineral water.

WHERE’S THE WATER GONE?


The salt flats in Death Valley, California,
formed in the same way as the cloudy
mineral patches on the CD cases in this
activity. About 50,000 years ago, Death
Valley was a gigantic lake some 90 miles
(145 km) long and 600 ft (180 m) deep.
When the Ice Age ended, between 14,000
and 10,000 years ago, California became
hotter and drier, and the lake dried out
completely. Today, all that remains is the
parched lake bed, which is covered with
a thick crust of mineral salts.
Mineral salts cover Death Valley, once a vast lake
41

EVAPORATE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WATER TO REVEAL THE MINERALS THEY CONTAIN


ALL FURRED UP
One of the most common minerals
in tap water is calcium bicarbonate,
which comes from limestone.
Calcium bicarbonate makes
water “hard.” When hard water
boils, heat turns it into calcium
carbonate, which is insoluble.
Bottled This forms most of the furry lime
mineral scale you find in electric kettles.
water

Lime scale on a
kettle element

Rainwater

Tap water

Wipe a flat surface,


2 such as a table or
windowsill, clean. Wash your
hands thoroughly so that you Leave the water to
don’t leave greasy fingerprints
4
on the CD cases. Holding the
3 Put a teaspoon
of water from each
evaporate completely,
then hold each CD case up to
cases by their edges, place sample in the middle of each the light. If there are minerals
them gently on the table, being CD case so it forms a puddle in the water, you will see cloudy
careful not to scratch them. without spilling over the edge. white patches on the case.
42

Stalactites on string
MAKE A MINI-STALACTITE USING EPSOM SALTS, TWO JARS OF WATER, AND SOME STRING

HANDY TIP
Don’t use nylon or polyester
Stalactites and stalagmites are made of the string because it won’t
absorb the liquid so well.
mineral calcite, which comes from limestone.
Since rain is mildly acidic, it dissolves calcite
as it seeps through the ground, hollowing
out tunnels, potholes, and caves. Dripping
The string soaks
water then redeposits the calcite in icicle up the Epsom
salts solution
shapes. With Epsom salts, you can recreate
this process in miniature.

Pour the hot water and


1 Epsom salts into the pitcher.
Stir for several minutes until no
more Epsom salts dissolve (there
should be a residue of Epsom salts
at the bottom of the pitcher).

Paper clip
attached to end
Pour the solution into the of the string
2 jars. Cut a length of string
or yarn, dunk it in a jar, then run it
between your fingers to remove any
excess liquid. Attach paper clips to
each end, and place one in each jar.
Position the jars so the string sags
in the middle. Place a saucer
underneath to catch the drips.

After an hour, a drip of liquid—


3 the start of the stalactite—
should have formed where the string
sags. If the string is completely dry,
replace it with a more absorbent
type of string or yarn. If the saucer Let the experiment run
is full of liquid, replace the string 4 for a few days, checking
with a less absorbent material or the string daily to see how
remove a little liquid from each jar. long the stalactite has become.
43

MAKE A MINI-STALACTITE USING EPSOM SALTS, TWO JARS OF WATER, AND SOME STRING
WHY DO STALACTITES FORM?
Your Epsom salts stalactite formed because
some of the water evaporated as it dripped
off the string, causing dissolved Epsom salts
to turn back into crystals. A similar thing
happens in limestone caves. As cave water
drips through air, some of it evaporates.
As a result, calcite crystallizes out of the
solution and grows into a stalactite.

What’s the difference? s


The following saying might be useful: StalaCtites
cling tightly to the Ceiling. StalaGmites grow from
the Ground and might reach the stalactites.

A stalactite
grows from
the top down

WHAT YOU WILL NEED


• Gloves and goggles
A stalagmite • 2 cups of Epsom
grows from
the bottom up salts
• 2 cups of hot water
• Large pitcher
• Mixing stick
• 2 glass jars
• Cotton string or yarn
• 2 paper clips
• Saucer

Wear gloves and


goggles when using
Epsom salts.
44
Weathered tor s
Changing landscape
DISCOVER HOW WEATHERING AND EROSION TRANSFORM THE LANDSCAPE

The granite “tors” of


southern England are
If you could speed up time, you’d see the rocks slowly being eaten away
by weathering. Rain, which
on Earth’s surface crumbling and washing is slightly acidic, attacks
certain minerals, such as
away, as though they were made of sand. The the feldspar in granite. The
processes that destroy and carry away rock feldspar turns into clay and
washes away. The grains of
are called weathering and erosion. When quartz that are left behind
rocks weather, they crumble, rot, and dissolve. crumble into sand. Dramatic
swings in temperature can
The debris is then washed or blown away in also weaken rocks, and water
the process of erosion. Weathering and can split them when it seeps
into crevices and freezes.
erosion usually happen slowly, but they are
constantly at work, changing the landscape.
You can see evidence of them everywhere.

Before the land eroded,


the top of this butte
was at ground level

SMASHING TEST
Some rocks stand up to weathering and
erosion much better than others, and this
often affects the way landscapes evolve.
To see which rocks are toughest, place
a selection in a plastic box. If possible,
include granite, sandstone, and limestone.
Shake the box as violently as you can for 30
seconds, then open the lid and look inside.

a Cracking up
Soft rocks like sandstone crumble much
more easily than hard rocks like granite.
Sandstone may completely disintegrate.
45
Types of erosion

DISCOVER HOW WEATHERING AND EROSION TRANSFORM THE LANDSCAPE


Water, wind, and ice all contribute to
the process of erosion, shifting billions
of tons of rock debris every year and
carrying it relentlessly downhill. Much of
the debris ends up dumped in floodplains,
deltas, or the sea.

River s
Rock debris, in
the form of sand,
silt, and clay, is
transported long
distances by rivers.
The gritty water
also eats away at
the surroundings,
creating valleys.

Sea s
d Monument Valley Pounding waves
The flat-topped “buttes” in Monument Valley, erode the coast,
Utah, are all that remain of an ancient sandstone undercutting cliffs
landscape that has been worn away by erosion. and making them
Flat-topped hills like this can form when a cap collapse. As the
coast retreats,
of hard rock protects the
crumbling arches
softer, underlying rock and towers of rock
from erosion. are left behind.

Wind s
The wind erodes the
land in deserts. It
picks up fine dust
and carries it far
away. Sand is
blasted against
rocks, sculpting
them into weird and
wonderful shapes.

Earth s
Landslides happen
when unstable
heaps of eroded
rubble and earth
suddenly collapse.
They are often
triggered by
earthquakes or
torrential rain.

Ice s
Glaciers pick
up rock rubble as
they slide slowly
forward. The rubble
scrapes the land,
carving out valleys.
46

Freeze and thaw WHAT YOU WILL NEED


REPEATEDLY FREEZE AND THAW A COLLECTION OF ROCKS TO SEE WHAT HAPPENS TO THEM

Given enough time, water can alter or destroy • 10 different rocks,


including several
rocks, including the very hardest ones. One sedimentary rocks
way that water attacks rocks is through the such as sandstone,
action of ice. Liquid water seeps into pores limestone, clay,
or chalk
and crevices in rock, and then freezes when • Plastic sandwich box
the temperature drops. As the water freezes, • Notepad
it expands, exerting enough pressure to split • Pen
• Water
the rock into chunks. With this activity, you can
see the “freeze–thaw” process for yourself.
As the rock’s surface
breaks down, water
seeps deeper into it

Arrange 10 different rocks in the bottom


1 of a plastic sandwich box. Sketch the
arrangement in a notepad so you can remember
which rock is which. Note the names of the rocks,
if you know them, or write a brief description, such
as “hard, shiny, and pink.” Cover the rocks with
water, seal the lid, and place the box in the freezer.

Leave the box in the freezer overnight


2
so that the water freezes completely.
Take the box out of the freezer and place it
in the sink while the ice thaws. Once the
ice has turned to water, remove the lid.
Look at the rocks and gently touch them
with your fingers. Have any broken
or started to crumble?

WEIGHT-LIFTING ICE
Fill a strong glass bowl with
water, then rest a saucer on
top. Place a heavy weight (up
to 9 lb/4 kg) on the saucer,
and put it in the freezer for
24 hours. When you remove it
from the freezer, you will see
that the ice has lifted the saucer HANDY TIP
and weight off the bowl.
Make the ice out of
boiled water—it
Expanding ice lifts
will be less cloudy.
the saucer and weight
47

REPEATEDLY FREEZE AND THAW A COLLECTION OF ROCKS TO SEE WHAT HAPPENS TO THEM
THE DESTRUCTIVE POWER OF ICE
A good place to see the weathering
power of ice is on mountains. In these
In spring, cold, wet places, water often freezes
snow melts at night but thaws in the morning.
during the day The endless cycle of freezing and
but freezes
thawing slowly but steadily eats away
again at night
at the rock, making it crumble into
piles of rubble called scree. These
fragments have a greater surface
Scree litters area, making the weathering process
the bottom work even faster. Over time and in
of the mountain certain conditions, the power of ice
and water can wear whole mountains
Scree at Wheeler Peak, Nevada down to nothing.

Softer rocks
appear crumbly

Each time the Pour out the water and let the rocks dry
water freezes, ice 4 before inspecting them. Count them and
crystals attack compare them to your sketch to see which have
the rock
changed the most. Sandstone will have a soft,
crumbly surface, and chalk may have broken
Replace the lid on the box and put the apart. Sedimentary rocks will have softened the
3 box back in the freezer, adding more most, and igneous rocks, such as granite, will
water to the box, if necessary, to cover the probably be unaffected. Porous rocks, which
rocks. Freeze and thaw the rocks at least contain lots of tiny holes, weather most quickly
five more times, and over several days. because water can seep into them easily.
48

Ice Age spotter


LEARN HOW TO SPOT ICE AGE FEATURES IN THE LANDSCAPE

For much of the past 2 million years, Earth was in the grip of a
freezing period called the Ice Age. Sheets of ice 1.5 miles
(2.4 km) thick stretched from the North Pole to beyond
the Great Lakes. Canada and much of northwest Europe
disappeared under an ice sheet bigger than Antarctica.
The ice melted 14–10,000 years ago, but it left its mark
all over the landscapes
Glacial valleys are usually
of North America broad with steep sides,
forming a “U” shape
and Europe.

SLOW-FLOWING RIVERS OF ICE


A glacier is a river of ice that flows extremely slowly, by a
few inches a day at most. Its source is high on a mountain,
where snow builds up annually and compresses underlying
layers into ice. The ice flows downhill, scraping the land
with tremendous force and tearing boulders off the
ground. Rubble sticks to the bottom of a glacier,
forming an abrasive surface that makes the
ice even more destructive.

a Hubbard Glacier
Glaciers are still at work in many places.
This glacier in Alaska, with its 300-ft-
(90-m-) high terminal wall, flows to the
sea, where it breaks up into icebergs.
49
Yosemite Valley Ice Age features

LEARN HOW TO SPOT ICE AGE FEATURES IN THE LANDSCAPE


A good place to spot Ice Age features is Yosemite If you live in North America or Europe, look
Valley, California. The broad, steep-sided valley was out for Ice Age features next time you go out
carved out of solid granite by a massive glacier. in the country. Some of the features below are
Smaller, adjoining glaciers carved out shallower, very common, especially in hilly areas. You can
U-shaped valleys that often have waterfalls where see similar features in places that still have
they meet the main valley. These are glaciers, like high mountains.
called hanging valleys.
a Arête
An arête is a
steep-sided,
Hanging sharp-edged ridge
valley formed between
two glaciers that
carved neighboring
valleys. Hiking on
an arête gives
sweeping views.

Cirque s
A cirque is a rounded
basin found high in
hills, carved out long
ago by the mass of
ice at the source
of a glacier. Often,
a cirque fills with
water, forming a
lake called a tarn.

a Erratic
An erratic is an
enormous boulder
that has been
carried by glaciers,
and eventually
dumped far away
from its place of
origin after the
ice has melted.

a Horn
A horn is a pyramid-shaped
mountain peak, created by several
glaciers eroding different sides
of the same mountain. The
Matterhorn in Switzerland
is a famous example of
a glacial horn.
50

Polished pebbles WHAT YOU WILL NEED


POLISH ROCKS IN A ROCK TUMBLER UNTIL THEY ARE PERFECTLY SMOOTH AND SHINY

• Coarse rocks
Rock tumblers can turn drab lumps of rock • Rock tumbler
into beautiful shiny pebbles and semiprecious • Grinding grit (coarse,
stones. Professional rock tumblers are medium, and fine)
• Polishing grit
expensive, but many toy stores stock small, • Water
inexpensive tumblers that do just the same • Sieve or colander
job and come with a selection of rocks to • Scrub brush
get you started. Once you’ve mastered the Check the rock tumbler’s
technique, try polishing rocks you’ve collected instruction manual for
yourself. The results are often surprising and the type and number of
rocks to use, and how
sometimes spectacular. long you should
tumble them for.

The rocks look


dull and rough
before tumbling

Coarse grit

NATURAL ROCK TUMBLERS


Next time you visit a river, look out for smooth, shiny
pebbles. Just like the stones in the rock tumbler in this Choose the
activity, pebbles form when rocks are worn down by
1 rocks you want to polish.
tumbling in gritty water. It takes thousands of years Make sure they are suitable for
for pebbles to form naturally, and only the toughest your rock tumbler by checking
minerals survive. As a result, rivers are a good the instruction manual.
place to look for hard minerals such as
quartz and gemstones. Wash the rocks
2 thoroughly and place
a White water them in the tumbler. Add
Rocks are eventually the coarse grinding grit and
worn into smooth, shiny water, according to the
pebbles in fast-moving manual, and switch on the
water, such as this tumbler. Depending on how
mountain stream. rough the rocks are, this
stage may take up to a week.
51

POLISH ROCKS IN A ROCK TUMBLER UNTIL THEY ARE PERFECTLY SMOOTH AND SHINY
This rock tumbler has
timer buttons that stop
the machine after
a preset period

IMPORTANT
Rinse the rocks outside
rather than over a sink
because the grit could
block a drain.

HANDY TIP
Rocks with interesting
colors or patterns look the
After the first tumble,
the rocks look round best when polished.
and smooth

The rocks are shiny


after the final tumble
in polishing grit
Fine grit

Polishing grit

Stop the tumbler and Stop the tumbler, wash Put the rocks back in
3 tip the contents into
4 everything thoroughly,
5 the tumbler with the final
a sieve. Rinse away the grit and repeat the process with polishing grit and tumble again
with plenty of fresh water. fine grit. After tumbling, according to the manual.
Clean the inside of the drum clean the rocks and tumbler
thoroughly with a damp cloth. even more thoroughly than
Put the washed rocks back in before so that the rocks
the tumbler with medium grit won’t get scratched
and water, and tumble for in the final stage.
about 4–7 days (or as long as Use a scrub brush
the instruction manual says). to clean them, and
make sure the
tumbler is spotless.
52

Plant power
GROW BROAD BEANS IN PLASTER OF PARIS AND SEE HOW THEIR ROOTS MAKE THE PLASTER CRACK

If you’ve ever seen buckled and cracked


WHAT YOU WILL NEED
pavement around a tree, you’ll know that plant
roots can exert tremendous forces on their • Mixing stick, such
as a lollipop stick
surroundings. These forces can break down rock, • Plaster of Paris
speeding up the process of weathering. You can • Plastic cup
recreate the effect in miniature by growing broad • Broad beans
bean seedlings in a cup of plaster of Paris.

With a mixing stick, make


1 up enough plaster of Paris
(following the instructions on the Mixing
package) to fill the plastic cup about stick
two-thirds full. Add the mixture
to the cup.
Plaster of Paris visible
through plastic cup

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
Living things contribute to the process of weathering
in lots of ways. Bacteria and algae flourish in damp
rock crevices, and lichens can grow across bare rock.
All these organisms make the rock surface damp and
acidic. The water and acid attack minerals, weakening
the rock. Seeds that germinate in rock crevices
expand as they draw in water, just as the broad
beans did in this activity. The force of this expansion
can be powerful enough to split the rock, especially
if it has already started to weather. Burrowing
animals, like the hamster below, also help speed
up the weathering process. As they tunnel through
the ground, they not only break up soft rock but
also stir the fragments into the soil.

a Roots through rock


Tree roots can work their way into
crevices in soft rock. When the
roots grow and expand, they
can eventually break the
rock apart.
53

GROW BROAD BEANS IN PLASTER OF PARIS AND SEE HOW THEIR ROOTS MAKE THE PLASTER CRACK
WHERE DOES SOIL COME FROM?
When rock weathers and crumbles, the
particles build up on the ground and mix
with rotting organic matter to form soil.
The type of rock in soil affects its
characteristics. Soil containing
lots of clay is sticky and holds Clay
water well, but soil with lots of
sand or chalk is crumbly and lets water
through. Soil speeds up the process of
weathering by trapping water and acids
that attack minerals in rock.
Chalk

Broad bean plant When the plaster of Paris has


growing in plaster 2 thickened but not set, push three
of Paris or four broad beans into it. Make sure the
top quarter of each bean is visible above
the surface of the plaster.

Watch the beans for at


3 least a week. The beans
will start to germinate and their
roots will crack the plaster. When
the plants have grown some
leaves, remove the plaster from
the cup and take a closer look.

Roots penetrate
the plaster of Paris

HANDY TIP
Add a teaspoon of water
to the cup each day so the
seedlings don’t dry out
and die.
54

Sandstone sand castles WHAT YOU WILL NEED


MAKE SAND CASTLES USING DIFFERENT BINDING AGENTS TO FIND OUT HOW SANDSTONE FORMS

• 6 plastic cups
Sandstone is a common type of sedimentary • Sand
rock. It forms when buried sand slowly • 5 clear plastic bags
solidifies as minerals crystallize between the • Tablespoon
• Salt
sand grains, gluing them together. You can • Water
recreate this process with sand, water, and • Newspaper
a range of different • Tray
• Marker pen
binding agents. • Plaster of Paris powder
• Corn starch
• Garden soil
• Pitcher of water

Plaster of Paris plus sand


Salt plus sand

THE SAND CYCLE


Sand comes from rocks that have been slowly broken The sands of time d
down (weathered) by rain, ice, heat, and other forces. As rocks weather over thousands of
Many minerals in the rocks break down into clay, but years, they crumble into smaller and
quartz, which is very tough, survives as sand grains. smaller particles. Eventually, only
Rivers wash these away and dump them in seas tiny grains of sand are left.
and lakes, where they build up in layers. Over
long periods, water trickling through the layers
deposits minerals such as silica and calcite, which
crystallize and “cement” the grains together. And
so the sand turns back into new rock: sandstone.
55

IMPORTANT

MAKE SAND CASTLES USING DIFFERENT BINDING AGENTS TO FIND OUT HOW SANDSTONE FORMS
ROCK BANDS As this activity can be
very messy, especially the
Sedimentary rocks form layer by layer as debris
final step, it is best to do
settles on the floor of a lake or sea, or as windblown
it outdoors.
sand or dust settles on the ground. When the rocks are
exposed again at the surface, millions of
years later, the layers are often visible
as bands, or “strata,” with the youngest
strata closest to the top. Geologists can
work out the relative age of the strata
by identifying any fossils in them.

Vermilion Cliffs in Arizona


formed from desert sand dunes

Sand on its own

Soil plus sand


Corn starch plus sand Leave the tray
4 somewhere dry until
Fill a plastic cup with the sand castles dry out
2 the mixture and press completely and harden.
Almost fill a plastic cup down on the top to make it Touch them carefully with
1 with sand and empty it even. Place a thick layer of your fingers. The plaster of
into one of the bags. Add 2–3 newspaper on a tray and tip out Paris castle will feel the most
tablespoons of salt. Shake the the sand to form a sand castle. solid, while the sand-and-water
bag. Add 4–5 tablespoons of Label it “Salt plus sand.” castle will feel the most fragile.
water. Mix the contents by
squeezing the bag until the Repeat these steps Place the tray carefully
mixture is wet enough to
3 to make three more
5 on the ground. Fill a
form a sand castle. sand castles, but instead of pitcher with water and gently
adding salt to the sand, use pour about the same amount
plaster of Paris, corn starch, of water over each sand castle.
and then soil. Crumble the soil Which ones wash away most
well with your hands and easily? Which is the toughest?
remove any stones. Finally, When you know the answer,
make a fifth sand castle with why not make a long-lasting
just sand and water. sand sculpture?
56

Fossil spotter
FIND OUT WHAT KINDS OF FOSSILS TO LOOK FOR WHEN YOU GO FOSSIL HUNTING

If you go hunting for fossils, it helps to know


what to look for. The most common fossils
are not bones of land animals like
dinosaurs, but the remains of small sea
f Brachiopod
creatures. Sea animals fossilize more Most fossils with two hinged shells
easily because the muddy sea floor can are bivalves or brachiopods. Both
sides of a brachiopod’s shell are
preserve them. Usually only the hardest symmetrical; bivalves have left and
right shells that are mirror images.
body parts survive, such as shells,
teeth, and bones.

a Belemnite
Bullet-shaped fossils are the internal shells of
animals called belemnites, which were very much
like modern squid. Like squid, they had long,
torpedo-shaped bodies, ten arms, and an ink sac.

Ammonites were very common


during the age of the dinosaurs

a Ammonite
These sea animals look a little
like snails, but were in fact fast-
swimming predators. Their
shells were divided into
compartments, with the
animal in the largest,
outer compartment.
As the animal grew,
it added new
compartments,
forming a spiral.
The largest
ammonites grew
to 6 ft (2 m) wide.
57
How fossils form

FIND OUT WHAT KINDS OF FOSSILS TO LOOK FOR WHEN YOU GO FOSSIL HUNTING
Special circumstances are needed for fossils
to form. As a result, only a tiny fraction of
the prehistoric animals that lived on Earth
became fossilized (and only a tiny fraction
of those have been found). The pictures
below show how a fish might become
fossilized on the
sea floor.
f Fish fossil
It’s rare to find a whole fossil fish, but fossilized
teeth—especially shark teeth—are very common. The dead fish
This fossil is of a bony fish that lived about 50 settles in mud
million years ago. Our backbones first evolved in a on the sea floor
group of primitive fish over 500 million years ago.
f Death
The fish dies and sinks to the sea floor. Worms
Crinoids used feathery arms and microbes eat the soft parts of its body as it
to trap tiny sea creatures sinks into the mud.
drifting through the water

A layer of slimy
mud buries the
skeleton and
helps preserve it

f Burial
Silt and sand build up over the skeleton,
burying it. Deep in the mud there is less
oxygen, so the decaying process slows down.

New layers of
f Crinoid sediment build
Crinoids, or sea lilies, look like up on top
flowers, but they are animals
Armor-plated related to starfish. They still exist
The mud is
bodies protected but were more common in the past. compressed
trilobites from They anchor themselves to the sea into rock
attack floor by a long stalk.
f Rock formation
Over thousands of years, the mud turns
into rock, such as shale or limestone. The
a Trilobite skeleton is slowly replaced by minerals
Trilobites scuttled and turns into rock.
around on the sea floor
like lobsters 590–250 Fossil becomes
million years ago. Their visible as the
fossils are common rock erodes
because they molted
as they grew. Many had f Discovery
large eyes made of Millions of years later, movements in Earth’s
transparent crystals crust have brought the rock to the surface of
of the mineral calcite. the land, where the fossil may be discovered.
58

Hunt for fossils


FIND OUT HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL FOSSIL HUNTER

Hunting for fossils is a great hobby. Provided


you choose the right site, fossils are
surprisingly easy to find. To find a good site
in your area, check the Internet or contact
a local museum. The best sites are often
places where sedimentary rocks are
eroding rapidly, such as beaches, cliffs,
and quarries. These sites can be
dangerous, so be sure to follow the
safety precautions on pages 8–9.

Fossil fern
Look for interesting patterns in
the rock, such as this fossil fern
in sandstone. You can also find good
fossils in limestone, clay, and chalk.

IMPORTANT
Some fossil sites are
private or protected by law.
Don’t enter the site without
permission. Don’t collect or
keep fossils until you’ve
checked the rules for
the site.

Depending on the site you


1 choose, you might find fossils
by walking slowly and scanning the
ground, by cracking open soft rocks,
or by scraping mud. Excellent fossils
are often found lying among gravel.

Wrap your fossils carefully in paper or cloth to protect


2 them and put them in a bag. Jot down where you found
each fossil. When you get home, clean the fossils gently with
a toothbrush. Remove any stubborn grit with a
penknife. Soak fossils from a beach in cold
water to remove salt. Broken fossils can
be mended with craft glue; fragile
fossils can be painted with diluted
craft glue to seal the surface.
Field guides help
This sea snail lived you identify fossils
300 million years ago
59
Geological timescale
WHAT YOU WILL NEED

FIND OUT HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL FOSSIL HUNTER


Sedimentary rocks are laid down in strata
(layers), with younger strata on top of older ones.
• Paper or cloth for By studying sedimentary rocks over the world,
wrapping fossils geologists have identified a sequence of major
• Notepad and pen strata, each containing a distinctive group of
• Shoulder bag fossils. The names of these strata correspond to
• Toothbrush major periods in Earth’s history. Together they
• Bucket of water form what scientists call the geological column.
• Highly visible clothing
• Sturdy boots Million
Period years ago
Make sure you are Ice Age; Quaternary 1.8
accompanied by an humans emerge
adult and follow the Continents take
code of conduct present shape;
on page 11. birds and mammals
replace dinosaurs

Tertiary 66
Dinosaurs disappear
at the end of the
Cretaceous period
VISITING MUSEUMS Cretaceous 145
A good way to find out about the fossils
in your area is to visit a natural history Tyrannosaurus
museum. Large museums don’t just have Age of the Jurassic 200
dinosaur skeletons—they also have dozens dinosaurs
of small fossils of the kind you’re likely to Triassic 251
find on beaches or in quarries. Museum Reptiles become
exhibits may show you what the animals Permian 299
common
used to look like, how they lived, and the
kind of environment they inhabited. Museum Swampy tropical
staff may help you identify your fossils and forests cover land
Carboniferous 359
will tell you if they’re valuable.

Insects and land


plants evolve
Devonian 419

Fish are Sea snails


common; first
Tyrannosaurus rex land animals
reconstructed from
fossilized bones Silurian 443
Brachiopods
and trilobites
are common
Ordovician 485
To identify your fossil, look in a field Shelled animals
3 Trilobite
guide or take it to a local museum. You suddenly become
common Cambrian 542
need to keep a record of where you found the
fossil because the location is an important clue For billions of
to the age of the fossil and its identity, which years, most life 4.6 billion
makes it more valuable. is microscopic Precambrian years ago
60

Fake fossils WHAT YOU WILL NEED


CREATE FAKE FOSSILS OR COPY REAL FOSSILS USING A PLASTICINE MOLD AND A PLASTER CAST

• Plasticine or modeling
Most fossils are not ancient, hardened bodies clay
but mineral replicas. They normally take • Rolling pin
millions of years to form, but you can make • Petroleum jelly
• Objects to “fossilize,”
your own rocky replica in just a day from such as seashells,
plaster of Paris. Use this technique to make plastic toys, or a
copies of real fossils, or to “fossilize” real fossil, such as
an ammonite
anything from plastic toys to • Heavy paper
your own hand print. • Plaster of Paris
• Water
• Small plastic container

Fossilized
seashell
HANDY TIP Fake pterodactyl
fossil
If you use modeling clay for
your mold, keep it and let
it harden to make an
“imprint” fossil.

Press the object you want to


2 “fossilize” into the Plasticine.
Knead a large piece of (If you use a real fossil, wrap it in
1 Plasticine until it becomes plastic wrap to stop it from picking
soft and easy to shape, then up petroleum jelly or Plasticine.)
make a thick, round shape Remove the object from the
out of it. Flatten the top with Plasticine, taking care not
a rolling pin and smear to damage the mold. The
petroleum jelly over the top. mold is now ready to use.
61

CREATE FAKE FOSSILS OR COPY REAL FOSSILS USING A PLASTICINE MOLD AND A PLASTER CAST
IMPRESSIVE FOSSILS
Many fossils form in exactly the same way as you
made your fake fossils with a mold and cast—as
impressions in clay, mud, or other soft sediments.
The impression fills up
with a different kind of
sediment, gets buried,
and hardens over time
to form rock. Fossil
impressions can preserve
all sorts of structures,
from dinosaur footprints
to delicate leaves and the
feathers of the very
first bird.

Fossilized leaves s
This fossilized impression
of a horsetail plant was
formed around 300 million
years ago.

Copy of an
ammonite
fossil

Plaster of Paris

Paper to contain
plaster of Paris Wait for the plaster
5 to thicken, then pour it
Cut out a strip of paper about 2 in into the mold. Leave for a
3 (5 cm) wide and 12 in (30 cm) long. day to set, then carefully
Gently push it partway into the Plasticine remove your fossil. To
to form a circle around the mold. make the fossil look
more realistic, paint
Mix the plaster of Paris with water, it a slightly different
4 following the instructions on the color from the base.
packet, in the container. Add yellow food Chip the edges off the
coloring for a sandy color, or black ink to base so that it looks
make it gray. For a gritty texture, add sand. more like a real rock.
62

Make a fossil bone


DISCOVER HOW POROUS MATERIALS BECOME MINERALIZED AS THEY TURN INTO FOSSILS

HANDY TIP
If the sponge doesn’t soak
Bone, wood, and other organic substances are up the liquid, put on some
protective gloves and give
porous, which means they’re riddled with tiny it a squeeze.
holes. When porous substances fossilize, water
seeps into them, depositing mineral crystals.
Watch this process yourself by
“fossilizing” a bath sponge.

WHAT YOU WILL NEED


• Synthetic bath sponge
• Felt-tip pen
• Scissors
• Protective gloves and
goggles
• Epsom salts
• Measuring cup
• Hot water
• Mixing stick
• Plastic container
• Magnifying glass

Wear gloves and


goggles when using
Epsom salts.

Pour about a cup of


2 hot water into a large
measuring cup, then add
about 2⁄3 of a cup of Epsom The Epsom salts
salts to the cup. Stir until no solution soaks
more salts will dissolve. If you through the sponge
like, add a few drops of food
coloring so that you can see
the solution soak into the
sponge bone.
Bone outline
made with Place the bone in a
felt-tip pen
3 plastic container and
pour in some Epsom salts
With a felt-tip pen, solution, until about one-third
1 draw a bone shape on of the bone is covered. The
the sponge. Cut out the bone sponge should start to soak
with a pair of scissors. up the solution.
63

DISCOVER HOW POROUS MATERIALS BECOME MINERALIZED AS THEY TURN INTO FOSSILS
FROM TREES TO ROCKS
Some 225 million years ago, the state
of Arizona was a land of giant conifer
trees, dinosaurs, and other reptiles.
Remnants of the mighty forest still litter
the ground at Petrified Forest National Park,
where trees were toppled by a great flood,
and buried under vast piles of silt that
slowed their decay. Over millennia, water
trickling through the ground “petrified”
the wood, replacing it completely with
multicolored quartz crystals.
Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona

ANCIENT BONES
The fossilized bones of dinosaurs
and other prehistoric beasts are
not really bones at all—over time,
most bones are completely replaced by
rock. The soft parts of a dead animal rot
away first, leaving the hard parts like bones,
teeth, and claws. These are porous just
like your sponge, which means water can
seep into them. Eventually, water trickling
through the ground dissolves the bone
and deposits other minerals in its place,
such as silica, calcite, or pyrite. These
minerals form a rock—a replica of the
Crystals form in
original animal, which is then said to
the small holes be “mineralized,” or “petrified.”
in the sponge and
on its surface

Leave the sponge for a


4 few days, turning it daily.
When the solution has nearly dried
out, pick up the bone. It should feel
Eryops, an amphibian living
heavier and harder. Look at the crystals 286 million years ago
that have formed with a magnifying glass.
64

Fake shelly limestone


DISCOVER HOW SHELLY LIMESTONE FORMS BY MAKING A FAKE VERSION WITH PLASTER OF PARIS AND SHELLS

Some types of limestone are made almost entirely


of fossils. Often the fossils are too small or fragmented
to recognize, but in shelly limestone they are very
clear. If you split open a shelly limestone, you’ll find
beautifully preserved seashells that have been hidden
for millions of years. With a bit of cunning, you can
make convincing fake shelly limestone.

The plaster sets


to form a “matrix”
around the
shells

WHAT YOU WILL NEED


• Seashells
• Plaster of Paris
• Plastic container
• Plasticine or
modeling clay
• Mallet or hammer
• Chisel

Ask an adult to use


the mallet and
chisel for you.

Mix the plaster of Paris Plaster of Paris


2 with water, following the mixed with shells
instructions on the package, in the
plastic container. Stir in your shells.
For white limestone, leave it
as it is. For a sandy color,
make the plaster with
cold black coffee, or add
yellow food coloring.
Add sand to make it feel
gritty. Make a rough-
Collect a variety of seashells shaped mold with
1 from a beach. Break up some Plasticine and pour
of them into smaller pieces. in your mixture.
65

DISCOVER HOW SHELLY LIMESTONE FORMS BY MAKING A FAKE VERSION WITH PLASTER OF PARIS AND SHELLS
HOW CHALK FORMS
Chalk is a type of limestone made from
microscopic fossils. The fossils usually
come from tiny algae called coccolithophores,
which float in the sea. Their shells are made
of overlapping plates (coccoliths). When
Coccolithophore
coccolithophores die, their shells drop to shell magnified
the sea floor and fall apart. Over millions
of years, they build up and are compressed
to form chalk.
White chalk cliffs s
The chalk in the towering cliffs of the English south
coast consists mostly of coccolith fossils that fell to
the sea floor more than 65 million years ago.

THE REAL THING


Shelly limestone, which forms
on the floor of tropical seas, is
made from the shells and
body parts of dead sea
animals. The most
common shells are from
animals called bivalves
and brachiopods, but you
can also find snail shells
Freshwater
and ammonites. Other
snails
types of limestone are
made of fossil corals,
or the stalks of elegant animals called
crinoids (sea lilies). In Bermuda, people
build houses from a local shelly limestone
called coquina, and you can
see hundreds of fossils
embedded in the walls.
Let the plaster
3 harden overnight.
“Demold” your fake
limestone and ask an
adult to split it open
with a mallet, or
hammer and chisel. Brachiopod
Inspect the small bits shells
of shell and pebble
embedded in the rock.
Sea
Hit the chisel snails
very gently—the
plaster will
break easily
66

Trapped in amber WHAT YOU WILL NEED


MAKE A FAKE AMBER STONE WITH AN INSECT PRESERVED INSIDE IT

• Dead insects
The most perfect fossils of all form when animals • Plasticine or
get trapped in pine resin—the sticky gum that modeling clay
oozes from wounded trees. Pine resin forms • Pebble
• Petroleum jelly
an airtight seal that preserves an animal’s body. • Protective gloves
Over thousands of years, the resin turns into • Clear modeling resin
a hard golden material called (available from art
supply stores)
amber. With modeling resin, you • Yellow food coloring
can make an “amber” fossil of or turmeric
an insect overnight. • Cocktail stick

Modeling resin must


Trapped insect in
Mold created be handled with great
real amber
with a pebble care and not ingested.
Ask an adult to
mix the resin.

Collect a few dead insects and To color the resin yellow, add a tiny
1 choose the most intact specimen. 4 drop of yellow food coloring, or a
Good places to look for dead insects are very, very tiny pinch of turmeric. Turmeric
cobwebs and indoor windowsills. will give a slightly less
clear “amber.” HANDY TIP
Create a pebble-shaped mold with
2 Plasticine or modeling clay. Do this by If the insect is fragile, half-fill
pushing a smooth pebble into the clay, pulling the mold with resin, put
it out, and then widening the bottom of the in the insect, then fill
Almost fill
cavity with a finger. Take care to keep the inner the mold to the top.
surface of the cavity smooth. Line the inside with resin
of the mold with a little petroleum jelly.

Get an adult to mix the modeling


3 resin, following the manufacturer’s
instructions carefully, and wearing
protective gloves. Usually there are two
parts to the mixture—the resin and a
hardener—which need to be combined.
67

MAKE A FAKE AMBER STONE WITH AN INSECT PRESERVED INSIDE IT


BRINGING BACK THE DINOSAURS
In the film Jurassic Park, a scientist extracts
dinosaur DNA from a mosquito in amber and
brings dinosaurs back to life. This could never
happen in reality because DNA disintegrates in
fossils. Other body parts, however, are superbly
preserved in amber. Insects 100 million years
old look as if they died only yesterday, and their
tiny mouthparts and wings appear intact under a
microscope. Even small lizards and frogs have
been preserved in amber. Thanks to amber
fossils, scientists know that bees, ants, flies,
and all the other main types of insect were
present on Earth 100 million years ago. Hatching dinosaurs (a scene from Jurassic Park)

This ant will


stay preserved
for years

The top surface of the


resin is clearest

Pour the resin into the After 24 hours (or when Amber jewelry
5 mold, taking care not to 6 the manufacturer’s You can turn your amber fossil
overfill it. Drop the insect on instructions say that the resin into a necklace or keyring. Ask
the surface and push it down is solid), remove the amber an adult to drill a small hole
very gently into the resin with stone from the mold and through the fossil so that you
a cocktail stick. wash it with soapy water. can attach a chain to it.
68

Fossil mud pie


BURY OBJECTS IN A MUD PIE AND THEN EXCAVATE THEM LIKE A PALEONTOLOGIST

Professional fossil hunters (paleontologists) spend weeks


at a time digging through soil, sand, and rock for fossils.
To protect the fossils, they scrape away the soil very gently,
removing it layer by layer. To find out how to dig for fossils,
make a fossil mud pie. This is
WHAT YOU WILL NEED
more fun if you do it with a
• Objects to bury (see friend and swap mud pies.
step 1 for examples)
• Garden soil (clay-rich But don’t let your friend
soil works best) see what you hide
• Garden spade in yours!
• Bucket
• Mug
• Old mixing bowl or large
plastic container
• Water This mud pie is
flat, but yours can
• Trowel or screwdriver be any shape
• Paintbrush
• Toothpick Excavate your fossils
• Tweezers slowly and carefully,
working from the
edge of the mud pie
An adult may need
to help you dig
up the soil.

Search your home or


1 garden for hard, dead HANDY TIP
objects that might make
fossils in the future, such 3 Transfer about six
mugs of the broken-up If your soil is very crumbly or
as bones, shells, seeds, soil to an old mixing bowl or sandy, add flour and water
and pebbles. Include a few plastic container. Add half to make it stickier.
“human artifacts” as well, a cup of water and mix with
such as coins, marbles, and your hands to form a very
small plastic models. thick mud. Add more water
as necessary until the mud is Once your fossil mud
Collect three or four thick enough to form into a
5 pie has set, swap it
2 spadefuls of soil in a solid lump, but isn’t runny. with your friend’s. Carefully
bucket. Ask an adult to break excavate the fossils with
up the soil with the spade, then Mold the mud into a trowel or screwdriver,
use your hands to crumble it 4 a large clod and bury brushing the soil away gently
as finely as possible. Remove your “fossils” inside it. with a paintbrush. If you find
any stones or bits of wood, and Leave it to set in the bowl a small delicate item, use a
break up any lumps of soft or container in a dry place toothpick or tweezers to
clay with your fingers. for a few days. remove it gently from the pie.
69

BURY OBJECTS IN A MUD PIE AND THEN EXCAVATE THEM LIKE A PALEONTOLOGIST
IMPORTANT
Check with an adult that
the mug and mixing bowl
you use for the experiment
are not still used for
drinks and food. It’s best
to do this experiment
outdoors—it could
be messy.

RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST


Digging for fossils is only one part of a
paleontologist’s job. When a skeleton has
been excavated, the paleontologist must
put together the pieces of the skeleton like
a jigsaw puzzle. The bones are analyzed
for any signs of disease or injury, and
the rock around the bones is searched
for clues about when and where
the animal or person lived, and the
probable cause of death.

Fossil rhinoceros s
Paleontologists excavate a
10-million-year-old rhino in
Nebraska. It was killed by a cloud
of volcanic ash, which hardened
around the body, preserving it.
70

Glossary
GLOSSARY

Alum A salt that is sometimes Desert An arid region that Hanging valley A tributary
used as a fixative in dyeing. Its typically receives less than or small valley that enters
chemical name is potassium 10 in (250 mm) of rain a year. a main valley on one of its
aluminium sulphate. sides and at a higher level.
Dinosaur A member of a This occurs because the
Arête A narrow mountain prehistoric family of reptiles main valley has been eroded
ridge formed between two that lived from 230 million more deeply, usually by
glacial valleys or cirques. years ago up to 65 million years a glacier.
ago. Their closest living
Basalt The most common type relatives include birds Horn A steep-sided mountain
of volcanic rock, formed as and crocodiles. peak, formed by erosion by
lava cools and hardens. several glaciers.
Erosion The wearing away
Bedrock The layer of rock and removal of exposed land Igneous rock A type of
underneath loose material by water, wind, and ice. rock that forms as magma
such as soil or sand. or lava cools and hardens.
Erratic A large rock that Intrusive igneous rock
Calcite The main mineral has been carried by a glacier forms underground from
in limestone and chalk. and dropped far from its magma; extrusive igneous
Its chemical name is place of origin. rock forms on Earth’s
calcium carbonate. surface from lava.
Fossil The remains, traces,
Cirque A steep-sided, bowl- or impressions of organisms, Lava Molten rock that
shaped hollow in a mountain, such as plants and animals, is forced out of a volcano
carved out by a glacier. that lived millions of years ago. during an eruption onto
Earth’s surface.
Clay Mineral particles that Geode A stone containing
are smaller than about a crystal-lined cavity. Luster The way a mineral
0.00008 in (0.002 mm) wide, shines. It is affected by light
and are common in soil and Glacier A large mass of ice reflecting off the surface
sediment. Clay forms by the that forms on land and flows of the mineral.
weathering of granite and slowly downhill under its
other rocks. own weight. Magma Molten rock that
is deep underground, in
Crust The outer layer of Grain A particle of a Earth’s mantle or crust.
Earth that lies over the mineral. Rocks can be
mantle. There are two main described as fine grained Mantle The layer of
types of crust: continental or coarse grained Earth between the outer
and oceanic. depending on the size core and the crust. The
of the particle. mantle is made of solid rock
Crystal A geometric form of that is very hot and slightly
a mineral or other solid, with Greenhouse effect The process viscous, allowing it to flow
naturally formed plane faces by which heat, radiated from and circulate over long
that reflect the arrangement the ground, is trapped by gases periods of time.
of the atoms that make it up. in the atmosphere, such as
carbon dioxide, leading to Matrix The mass of rock in
Deposit To lay down a material global warming. which larger crystals or fossils
such as sand, mud, or gravel are embedded. Another word
in a new location. Groundmass see matrix for matrix is groundmass.
71

GLOSSARY
Metamorphic rock A type Recrystallization The Strata A sequence of
of rock that has been formation of new mineral rock formations that can
changed by intense heat and/ grains in a rock while the tell a story of geological
or pressure, causing physical rock is in a solid state. process over time.
and chemical changes as
well as the partial melting Rock A solid mixture, or Streak The color that a
and recrystallizing of aggregate, of minerals. Rocks powdered mineral makes
its minerals. are divided into three main when rubbed across an
groups: igneous, sedimentary, unglazed tile.
Meteor A rock that burns and metamorphic.
up as it enters Earth’s Tectonic Of the landforms
atmosphere, forming a Rock cycle The continuous and rock masses created
shooting star. cycle through which old and affected by forces within
rocks are transformed into the plates that make up
Meteorite A rock from new ones. Earth’s crust.
space that falls to Earth’s
surface without completely Scree A mass of loose Translucent Of a material that
burning up. rubble and gravel on a light is able to pass through,
mountain slope, caused but that is not clear enough to
Micrometeorite A microscopic by weathering. look through.
meteorite.
Sediment Mud, sand, or Transparent Clear enough to
Mineral A naturally other particles that settle look through.
occurring mixture of on the sea floor or other
chemicals that has certain calm environment. Ultraviolet light An invisible
regular characteristics, such form of radiation that has
as atomic structure and Sedimentary rock A type a shorter wavelength than
chemical composition. of rock that forms when visible light.
Minerals are the building sediment is compressed
blocks of rocks. and cemented. The sediment Viscous Of a thick and syrupy
may consist of eroded rock liquid—viscous liquids flow
Mohs scale A scale used debris or of organic remains, less quickly than runny liquids.
to measure the relative such as the mineral shells
hardness of minerals. of sea organisms. Volcano A vent or fissure
in Earth’s crust through
Ore A rock from which a Silica A hard mineral that is which molten rock and hot
metal is mined. the main component of sand. gases escape. The molten
It occurs naturally as quartz, rock typically piles up
Period A division of and its chemical name is around the vent, forming
geological time during. silicon dioxide. a mountain.

Plate A large fragment of Stalactite An icicle-shaped Weathering The breaking


Earth’s crust, also known deposit of calcite hanging from down of rocks or minerals
as a tectonic plate. the roof of a cave. by way of dissolving or by
crumbling into gradually
Porous Solid matter Stalagmite A deposit of calcite smaller particles of force.
containing a large number shaped like an upside-down
of tiny holes that let liquids icicle that rises from the floor
or gases pass through. of a cave.
72

Index
INDEX

acid test 30–1 fluorescence 38–9 paints 32–3


alum 22–3, 24–5 fossils 5, 56–69 phosphorescence 38
amber 66–7 fakes 60–1 pigments 32
amethyst 25, 29 formation 57 plants, weathering rocks 52–3
hunting for 58–9, 68–9 polishing rocks 50–1
basalt 4, 6 freeze-thaw process 46–7
beaches 10–11 quartz 25, 28, 29
biological weathering 52–3 gems 20, 22–3
bones, fossil 62–3 geodes 24–5 rain 31, 40
bricks 12 geological timescale 59 rock: rock cycle 7
buildings 12–13 glaciers 48–9 searching for 10–11
glowing minerals 38–9 types of 6–7
calcite 29, 30, 42 granite 6, 12, 13, 21, 44
calcium bicarbonate 41 graphite 27 safety 8
carbon 22 salt 20, 40
cave paintings 33 hardness, minerals 26–7 sand 54–5
caves 42, 43 sandstone 6, 12, 13, 44, 45, 54–5
chalk 27, 30, 31, 53, 65 ice 45, 46–9 scratch test 26–7
chemical weathering 31 Ice Age 48–9 sedimentary rock 6, 7, 54–5, 58
clay 53 igneous rock 6, 7, 22 shelly limestone 64–5
collecting rocks 14–15 iron, micrometeorites 36–7 soil 53
color: crystals 20 space debris 36–7
identifying minerals 28–9 landscapes 44–5 stalactites and stalagmites 42–3
pigments and dyes 32 lava 6, 16, 18–19 streak test 28–9
crystals 5 light, fluorescence 38–9
colors 20 lime scale 41 ultraviolet (UV) light 38–9
geodes 24–5 limestone 12–13, 30, 31, 41,
growing 20–3 42–3, 44, 64–5 vinegar, acid test 30–1
shapes 21 luster, identifying minerals 29 volcanoes 6, 16–19

diamonds 22 magma 6, 19 water: erosion 45, 46–7


dinosaurs 5, 59, 61, 63 metamorphic rock 6, 7, 22 minerals in 40–1
dyes 32 meteorites 37 weathering 31, 44–5, 47, 52–3
micrometeorites 36–7
Earth 4, 7 minerals 5
Epsom salts 20–21, 42–3, 62–3 hardness 26–7
equipment 8–9 identifying 28–31
erosion 44–5 Mohs scale of hardness 26
eruptions, volcanoes 16–17 mud pies, fossil 68–9

The author would like to thank: Lindsay Hebberd 13tc, /Patrik Giardino 13r, 61cra, /Josh Schachter 49br; University
Richard Tayler for minerals and advice; /Sandro Vannini 13bc, /Tom Bean 13bl, of Southampton/Joe Kaplonek
Susan Brown at Rockwatch 47tl, 48–49, /D.W. Peterson 18br, /Bettmann ([email protected]) 37bl;
(www.rockwatch.org.uk) for ideas. 33tr, /James Pomerantz 39tr, /Bob Krist
40bl, /ChromoSohm Inc, Joseph Sohm 55tl, / The publishers would also like to thank the
Model Jack Williams James L. Amos 58–59t, /George H. H. Huey following photographers:
62tr, /Annie Griffiths Belt 69br; Dorling Paul Bricknell, Jane Burton, Centaur Studios,
Index Hilary Bird Kindersley: /courtesy Hunterian Museum Andy Crawford, Mike Dunning, Andreas
(University of Glasgow) 10c, /courtesy Natural Einsiedel, Lynton Gardiner, Steve Gorton,
The publishers would like to thank the History Museum, London 10br, 20bl, 21l, 29br, Frank Greenaway, Graham High, Glenn L.
following for their kind permission to 32b, 34 (bauxite, Illite, Corundum, Magnetite, Huss, Colin Keates, Dinesh Khanna, Dave
reproduce their photographs: Fluorite), 55bl, 57tl, 59bra, 62br, 65bra, cr, King, Harry Taylor, Kim Taylor, Peter Wilson.
a=above; b=below; c=center; l=left; 67br, /courtesy Royal Museum of Scotland
r=right; t=top 56–57c, /courtesy Naturmuseum
Alamy: /Jon Arnold Images/James Senckenburg, Frankfurt 59bc; Moviestore All other images © Dorling Kindersley.
Montgomery: 31br; Ardea: /Bob Gibbons 45 Collection: 67tr; NHPA:/Daniel Heuclin
(sea erosion), /Robyn Stewart 45br, /Francois 44–45b, /James Warwick 45 (wind erosion), For further information see:
Gohier 49crb, /Kenneth W. Fink 52bl; /Otto Pfister 45bra; Science Photo Library: www.dkimages.com
Collections: /Peter Wilson 10bl, /Paul Watts /Dirk Wiersma 4c, 4–5t, /Bill Bachman 9br,
44–45t, /Simon Warner 49tr, /David Bowie /Alan Sirulnikoff 11cr, /Lawrence Lawry
65tr; Corbis: /Brenda Tharp 6bl, /Ron Watts 22br, /Andrew Lambert Photography
6bc, /Don Mason 7b, /Frank Lane Picture 30bc, /Mike Agliolo 37tr, /Francoise Sauze
Agency/Derek Hall 9–10t, /Roger Ressmeyer 41tr. /Bernhard Edmaier 48bl, WG 65tc;
12tr, /Eye Ubiquitous/Bennett Dean 12br, / Still Pictures 17tr, 45tr, 49cra, 50bl,

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