Smithsonian Eyewitness Explorer - Rock & Fossil Hunter
Smithsonian Eyewitness Explorer - Rock & Fossil Hunter
Smithsonian Eyewitness Explorer - Rock & Fossil Hunter
ROCK &
FOSSIL
HUNTER by Ben Morgan
US Consultant Richard H. Efthim, Naturalist Center Manager
at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution
UK Consultant Dr. Douglas Palmer
SMITHSONIAN
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First American Edition, 2005
This American Edition, 2015
Published in the United States by
DK Publishing, 345 Hudson Street
New York, New York 10014
Inside Earth s
Planet Earth is a gigantic ball of rock and metal.
Most of the metal is in the core, and most of the
rock is in the outer layers.
5
a What is rock?
LEARN ABOUT ROCKS, MINERALS, CRYSTALS, AND FOSSILS, AND HOW THE EARTH IS STRUCTURED
A typical rock is a mixture of solid
chemicals called minerals, which are
pressed tightly together like puzzle pieces.
If you look closely, you can sometimes see
the separate minerals as grains (small
crystals) in a rock. Most rocks are hard and
brittle, but some crumble to
powder when you rub them.
Malachite
f What is a mineral?
Minerals are naturally occurring solids that
are inorganic (not from living things) and usually
made of crystals. Ice is a mineral because it fits this
definition. So are the tiny, shiny grains in sand, which
consist of the mineral quartz. There are thousands of
different minerals, including diamond, gold, and salt.
Most rocks are made of a
limited range, called the
rock-forming minerals.
Tourmaline crystals
What is a crystal? f
A crystal is a solid chemical with a regular, geometrical
shape. Crystals typically have smooth, flat faces that meet
in sharp edges. They often look shiny or glassy. Their shape
comes from the regular arrangement of atoms inside the
crystal. In many rocks the crystals are too small to see,
but they are there, nevertheless, by the thousands. In rare
cases, crystals may grow as large as telephone poles.
Tyrannosaurus skull
What is a fossil? s
A fossil is a relic of a living thing that died
thousands, or millions, of years ago. Most fossils
are remains of creatures that no longer exist, such
as dinosaurs. Hard parts of their bodies, such as
bones, were buried. Over time, minerals replaced
these organic materials, turning them into rock. Some
fossils, such as footprints, are merely impressions.
6
Rock types
FIND OUT ABOUT THE THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCK: IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY, AND METAMORPHIC
Basalt
Igneous rock
About 90 percent of the rock in Earth’s crust is Sandstone
igneous. Igneous rock forms when molten rock cools
and solidifies. When this happens underground,
the molten rock (magma) solidifies slowly, giving
crystals time to form. The magma becomes a hard, Sedimentary rock
crystalline rock with large grains, such as granite. Sand, mud, and even the remains of living
Igneous rock can also form on Earth’s surface when organisms can all turn into rock. These
lava escapes from a volcano. The lava solidifies sediments settle on the sea floor, building up
quickly, especially if it flows into water, as in the in layers. Over time, deep layers are compressed
picture below. It forms rock with no, or very by the weight of the sediment on top, and water
tiny, visible crystals, such as basalt. seeping through the layers deposits minerals that
glue the sediment particles together. As a result,
Lava flowing into the sediment becomes sedimentary rock.
the sea, Hawaii Limestone, shale, and sandstone all form this
way. The layers are sometimes visible as
horizontal bands called strata.
Vermilion Cliffs,
Utah
7
The rock cycle
FIND OUT ABOUT THE THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCK: IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY, AND METAMORPHIC
The rock in Earth’s crust is continually Rivers wash Ice and rain eat
being destroyed and recycled. Rock on sediment into away at mountains
the sea
the surface is worn down to fragments
Lava builds up into
and eventually settles to become new mountains
sedimentary rock. Rock underground
is melted to form igneous rock, or
squashed and cooked, by the heat
of molten rock to form metamorphic
rock. Movements in Earth’s crust
lift underground rock back
to the surface.
Underground rock
layers are crushed and
folded by pressure
Mount McKinley,
Alaska
Earth’s crust
is broken
into plates
8
Brightly colored
safety hats are best
Safety equipment s
A hard hat is essential anywhere with a risk of rock
falls, such as a quarry or cliff base. Wear strong fabric
gloves for handling rough or sharp material. If you stand
near someone who’s using a rock hammer, wear safety
goggles. Hard hats, fabric gloves, and safety goggles Wear rubber or
can all be bought from hardware stores. plastic gloves when
handling chemicals
HANDLING CHEMICALS
Some activities in this book involve chemicals
that must not touch your eyes, mouth, and skin.
When using such chemicals, wear protective gloves and
goggles. Don’t touch your eyes or lips while wearing the
gloves. Afterward, throw away disposable gloves and
wash your hands thoroughly. Read the manufacturer’s
instructions before using crystal kits, modeling resin,
or plaster of Paris, and make sure you have adult
supervision at all times. The symbol above appears
when adult supervision is required.
9
IMPORTANT
FIND OUT WHAT SAFETY MEASURES AND EQUIPMENT ARE NECESSARY FOR THE ACTIVITIES IN THIS BOOK
Map and compass s
Certain areas of land are A map and compass will help you
protected by law. Don’t to find your site, and can give you
collect rocks or fossils in an exact reference for the location.
these places without It is very important to record the
permission. Wherever you location of rock, fossil, and mineral
look for rocks and fossils, finds for future reference.
follow the code of conduct
on page 11.
Wrapping materials s
Fossils can be surprisingly delicate—wrap them in
newspaper, bubble wrap, or cloth. Small plastic
bags or containers are useful for tiny specimens.
On the beach
A beach is a good
IMPORTANT
place to look for
To be a good rock hound, interesting rocks.
you need to follow certain
safety procedures. See
pages 8–9 for guidance.
SEARCH FOR AS MANY ROCKS OF DIFFERENT TYPES AND COLORS AS YOU CAN FIND
CODE OF CONDUCT
Remember to behave sensibly when
collecting rocks and minerals. Always
seek permission before entering, or
collecting rocks from, private land.
A rock hammer should be used as little
as possible, and only by an adult. Don’t
use it in protected areas, such as national
parks. Wherever possible, collect from
fallen rocks, rubble, or scree rather than
hammering outcrops. If you open any
gates, close them behind you. Don’t leave
litter or disturb animals, and don’t collect
rocks from walls or buildings.
f On the hunt
It’s better to collect loose, fallen rock than
hammering outcrops, but don’t climb rubbly
slopes like this one—they are dangerous.
Rock stars
RESEARCH FAMOUS STRUCTURES AROUND THE WORLD AND DISCOVER WHICH ROCKS THEY ARE MADE FROM
The Pyramids s
The pyramids in Egypt are made largely of fossils.
They were built with a rock called nummulitic
limestone, which formed 50 million years ago
from the shells of small sea organisms. It
took 30,000 men at least 20 years to build
the biggest pyramid. It was the world’s
tallest building for 4,000 years.
RECYCLED ROCK
Building materials such as bricks, cement, and concrete
are all recycled rock. Bricks come from clay that is shaped
into blocks and cooked or dried in the sun to harden. Cement
and plaster are made with minerals, such as calcite and
gypsum, which are heated to drive out water and then
powdered. When water is added, crystals form and make
them set solid. Concrete is a mass of cement and pebbles.
Making bricks s
These Indian villagers are making clay bricks. Clay forms when
the minerals in rocks such as granite rot and crumble. Rivers
wash away the clay, which then settles as mud.
13
The marble is inlaid
RESEARCH FAMOUS STRUCTURES AROUND THE WORLD AND DISCOVER WHICH ROCKS THEY ARE MADE FROM
with sapphires and
other precious stones
a Taj Mahal
An Indian emperor built
the Taj Mahal as a tomb
for his favorite wife. He
used the most expensive
rocks possible, including
white marble and 28 types
of precious stone.
• Your collection
For most rock hounds, building a collection • White correcting fluid,
is the most important part of their hobby. or white stickers and
A collection grows better and better over craft glue
• Black, fine-point
time, and the best specimens can be arranged permanent marker pen
to make a spectacular display. You can collect • 2 index card files
rocks, fossils, or minerals, but most people • Specimen trays (see
right), matchbox trays,
specialize in either fossils or minerals. or egg cartons
Whatever you collect, it’s important to label • Cotton balls or tissue
all your specimens and keep a careful record paper
• Magnifying glass
of everything you know about them.
Magnifying
glass
Correcting
fluid
Cotton ball
15
IMPORTANT
This experiment can be
messy, so check with an
adult where you should do
it. Outdoors on a flat
surface, such as a driveway
or sidewalk, is a good idea.
17
Carefully pour the liquid
4
Ash cloud s
Mount Augustine in Alaska
erupts, with tons of
scalding ash and rubble
hurled high into the sky.
HANDY TIP
If the sand doesn’t stick
to the bottle, add a little
water to it.
18
Molasses can
from refrigerator
Collecting lava s
A scientist takes a sample from a lava tube at Kilauea
Volcano, Hawaii, one of the world’s most active volcanoes.
It has been flowing with lava continuously since 1983.
19
Volcano shapes
WHAT YOU WILL NEED
FIND OUT HOW VISCOSITY AFFECTS THE WAY LAVA FLOWS AND VOLCANOES GROW
The shape of a volcano depends largely on how
• 2 cans of molasses runny the lava is. Cool lava, or lava containing
• 2 plates lots of silica, is very viscous. It builds up into
a steep, conical volcano, or a dome volcano.
• Heatproof bowl or pan
It can also plug a volcano’s central vent, causing
• Boiling water pressure to build up, and so producing explosive
eruptions. Lava that is very hot and contains a
Ask an adult to pour lower level of silica minerals tends to be runny.
the boiling water and It erupts gently and spreads a long way, building
to put the can in up slowly to form a gently sloping mountain
the water. called a shield volcano.
Vent
Side vent Layers of
ash and lava
Magma chamber
deep underground
Conical volcano f
Molasses Conical volcanoes grow from thick, viscous lava, or
can from pan from ash and rubble that rain down from explosive
of hot water eruptions. Some are “composite volcanoes,” made
Smooth, flowing
consistency of of alternating layers of both ash and lava.
warmed molasses
Vent
Layers
of lava
Shield volcano f
Runny lava travels a long way before cooling and
solidifying. It builds up into a gently sloping shield
volcano. The islands of Hawaii formed this way.
Steep Vent
Ask an adult to do this part of rounded slope
2 the experiment for you. Boil some
water and pour it into a heatproof bowl.
Then place the other can of molasses, Layers of
unopened, in the bowl. Leave the thick lava
molasses to warm up for half an hour.
Dome volcano f
Open the can and pour the warm Very viscous lava that cools quickly can barely flow.
3 molasses onto a plate. You’ll find
It grows into a rounded heap, forming a dome volcano.
that the molasses is much runnier, and These sometimes form in the craters of volcanoes
spreads quickly to form a wide, flat puddle. that have blown apart.
20
Colored crystals
GROW JEWEL-LIKE COLORED CRYSTALS FROM A RANGE OF HOUSEHOLD INGREDIENTS
HANDY TIP
Crystals are the building blocks of rocks. To make “amethyst” crystals,
They form when minerals solidify into regular mix together blue and
red food coloring.
shapes with flat, often shiny faces and sharp
edges. You can find out more about crystals
by growing your own from some common
household ingredients. Sugar crystals can take
several weeks to grow
Put 3 or 4 tablespoons
1 of sugar in the measuring
cup and pour on about a cup of hot
water. Stir until no more sugar will
dissolve. If all the sugar dissolves
within 1–2 minutes, add another
tablespoon. Stir for 2 more minutes.
Let the solution cool for 5 minutes.
CHEMICAL COLORINGS
Salt crystals form on
The colors of gems often come the bottom of the jar as
from chemical impurities, just as well as on the paper clip
your home-grown crystals are
colored by additives. Rubies and Repeat the above steps
sapphires are both varieties of the 4 using salt in the second
mineral corundum, which is colorless jar, and Epsom salts in the third.
Cross with when pure. Rubies get their red from
different- Add a different food coloring
colored chromium, while sapphires are colored to the jars so you can tell them
sapphires various colors by iron and titanium. apart. Make a note of the color
and contents of each jar.
21
Crystal shapes
a Monoclinic crystals
have much less symmetry
Epsom salt than cubic crystals. The
crystals are long shape repeats only once
and spiky, and as you turn them around.
grow very quickly
Selenite
aTriclinic crystals
are the least
symmetrical of all
the crystal shapes. They
WHAT YOU WILL NEED have no equal sides or
angles and can look like
• Tablespoon a jumble of flat faces. Axinite
• White sugar
• Measuring cup aTetragonal
• Hot water crystals typically
• 3 paper clips have a rectangular
• String shape, with equal sides
and angles. They look a
• 3 pencils
bit like elongated cubes.
• 3 glass jars
• Food coloring Idocrase
• Salt
• Epsom salts aOrthorhombic
• Gloves and goggles crystals are long
and have tapered
ends, like a rectangle with
Wear gloves and the corners chipped off.
goggles when using The mineral topaz forms
Epsom salts. gemstones this shape. Barite
aHexagonal and
trigonal crystals have
Check each solution after 30 minutes to see if six sides. Rubies,
5 crystals are forming. Leave them undisturbed for sapphires, emeralds,
at least 2 weeks and make a daily check. Do the crystals and snowflakes all
grow at different speeds or have different shapes? belong to this class. Beryl
22
• Grapefruit or orange
In areas where there are porous rocks, you • Aluminum foil
may come across a dull rock shaped like a • Plaster of Paris
potato on the ground. These “potato stones” • Bowl
• Spatula
are called geodes and are highly prized by • Protective goggles
mineral collectors. If the rock is sliced in half, • Protective gloves
inside is a cavity lined with crystals. You can • Alum (available in
crystal-growing kits
make a fake geode in a grapefruit skin, using or from supermarkets
the chemical alum to form the crystals. as a pickling salt)
• Hot water
• Measuring cup
• Measuring scale
• Food coloring
(optional)
Cut a grapefruit
1 or large orange Ask an adult to
in half and remove the supervise the
flesh. Line the fruit with use of alum.
some aluminum foil.
Amethyst geode s
This geode is full of amethyst crystals—
a purple form of quartz. The crystals are
translucent and shaped like pyramids.
IMPORTANT
Do not swallow alum. If
some should splash onto
your skin, wash it off
immediately with lots of
cold water. Wear goggles
to protect your eyes
from splashes, and wear
protective gloves when
handling the alum solution.
26
MOHS SCALE
The German mineralogist Friedrich
Mohs developed the hardness scale
in 1812. The scale is based on the
10 minerals shown below, starting
with talc, which has a hardness of
1. Some everyday equivalents are
given alongside the minerals.
FIND OUT HOW THE HARDNESS TEST WORKS BY SCRATCHING A RANGE OF HOUSEHOLD OBJECTS
MINERALS FOR WRITING
Chalk and pencil lead are both good for “Lead”
writing because they contain soft minerals pencil
that rub off easily. Oddly, classroom chalk is
no longer made from chalk, and pencil lead
is not made from lead. Classroom chalk is
actually the mineral gypsum, which has a
hardness of 2. Pencil lead is the mineral
graphite, the hardness of which varies from
1 to 2 (clay is added to make it harder). Classroom
“chalk”
Ask an adult to
help you use the
HANDY TIP penknife, steel file,
Start by making short and sandpaper.
scratches with the scratching
tools and don’t apply too
much pressure.
Now try scratching each object with Repeat the scratch test with the iron nail,
3 a copper coin. Does it leave a scratch 4 which has a hardness of 4.5. How easily
or just a colored streak where the metal has can the nail scratch the coins? With an adult
rubbed off on something harder? The coin helping you, try scratching the objects with a
has a hardness of 3.5, which is low, so most penknife blade, a steel file, and sandpaper. Now
objects are likely to scratch the coin, rather try to work out the hardness of each test object,
than vice versa. Jot down the results. then write down your conclusions.
28
Chrysocolla can be
green or blue but
makes a white streak
Scratch the
COLORS OF QUARTZ 1 mineral along the
back of a tile to make a
Pure quartz is colorless, but chemical impurities streak. Keep doing this until the
can make it purple (amethyst), pink, green, color is clear. Repeat with all
red, yellow, or black. Quartz is also hard and the minerals you want to test.
transparent, so colored forms make good
gemstones. But whatever the color, the If the mineral is too hard
streak that it makes is 2 to make a streak, ask an
always white. adult to crush a small amount
with a hammer. The color of
Smoky quartz Pink quartz the streak is really just the
color of a mineral’s powder.
29
Calcite can be Quartz makes
Hematite is gray,
brown, or black but
makes a dark
red streak
IMPORTANT
Although the minerals used
in this experiment aren’t
toxic, it is very important
Azurite leaves a that you don’t put minerals
pale blue streak in your mouth.
FIND OUT HOW ROCKS MADE OF CARBONATE MINERALS REACT WITH ACID
• Small red cabbage,
sliced
• Water
• Saucepan
• Pitcher
• Two clean glass
tumblers
• White vinegar
• Real chalk or a piece
of soft limestone
• Teaspoon
A pink color
shows that the
liquid is acidic
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Rain is naturally slightly acidic because it contains small
amounts of the gas carbon dioxide, forming carbonic acid.
When rain falls on chalk and limestone, the acid reacts with
calcite in the rock and
slowly dissolves it. This
process, called chemical
weathering, can wear away
hills and hollow out huge
caverns underground.
GRIND MINERALS TO MAKE A POWDER AND MIX WITH A BINDING AGENT TO MAKE PAINT
CAVE PAINTINGS
IMPORTANT
Add a tiny amount of If you make paint from
4 yolk to the paste—about very hard minerals, ask an
one-third the amount of paste. adult to crush them. Don’t
Stir it in with a mixing stick. use any yellow or orange
Your paint is now ready to use. minerals, which can
be toxic.
Test yourself 13
Can you guess which of the
minerals below are used to make
these household objects? Cover the 12
answers, write down your guesses, then
check your results. The test is hard, so you
may not get many right, but when you know
the answers, you can impress your friends
with your mineral expertise.
FIND OUT HOW MANY EVERYDAY OBJECTS ARE MADE FROM MINERALS
ANSWERS
5
1. Ballpoint pen nibs are made of a strong
metal called tungsten, which comes
from wolframite.
Talc Wolframite
36
• Magnet
Every day, about 500 tons of dust and rock • Paper cup
from space collides with planet Earth. Much • String
of this space debris burns up as it enters the • Sheet of white paper
• Magnifying glass
atmosphere, producing streaks of light called • Tweezers
shooting stars. However, particles smaller • Microscope
than a millimeter wide can sometimes slip • Glass slide
through the air without getting hot enough
to burn. These micrometeorites float through
the sky as dust, and they fall to the ground in
rain. With a powerful magnet—and a bit of
luck—you stand a chance of finding one.
b
a
Fantastic fluorescence
Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions and
precautions when using a UV lamp, and make sure
you have adult supervision. To check minerals for
fluorescence, hold them under a long-wave UV
lamp in a dark room. Fluorescent minerals are
not common, but you can buy them from rock
and mineral shops. You can also use a UV
lamp to search for fluorescent materials
in your home. Paper and fabrics often
contain fluorescent brightening agents,
and Day-Glo marker pens contain
fluorescent dyes. Teeth and fingernails
contain the fluorescent mineral apatite.
You can also use a UV lamp to hunt spiders
and scorpions at night—some species have a
fluorescent organic chemicals in their skin. Calcite
Blue
aragonite
Opal
Lime scale on a
kettle element
Rainwater
Tap water
Stalactites on string
MAKE A MINI-STALACTITE USING EPSOM SALTS, TWO JARS OF WATER, AND SOME STRING
HANDY TIP
Don’t use nylon or polyester
Stalactites and stalagmites are made of the string because it won’t
absorb the liquid so well.
mineral calcite, which comes from limestone.
Since rain is mildly acidic, it dissolves calcite
as it seeps through the ground, hollowing
out tunnels, potholes, and caves. Dripping
The string soaks
water then redeposits the calcite in icicle up the Epsom
salts solution
shapes. With Epsom salts, you can recreate
this process in miniature.
Paper clip
attached to end
Pour the solution into the of the string
2 jars. Cut a length of string
or yarn, dunk it in a jar, then run it
between your fingers to remove any
excess liquid. Attach paper clips to
each end, and place one in each jar.
Position the jars so the string sags
in the middle. Place a saucer
underneath to catch the drips.
MAKE A MINI-STALACTITE USING EPSOM SALTS, TWO JARS OF WATER, AND SOME STRING
WHY DO STALACTITES FORM?
Your Epsom salts stalactite formed because
some of the water evaporated as it dripped
off the string, causing dissolved Epsom salts
to turn back into crystals. A similar thing
happens in limestone caves. As cave water
drips through air, some of it evaporates.
As a result, calcite crystallizes out of the
solution and grows into a stalactite.
A stalactite
grows from
the top down
SMASHING TEST
Some rocks stand up to weathering and
erosion much better than others, and this
often affects the way landscapes evolve.
To see which rocks are toughest, place
a selection in a plastic box. If possible,
include granite, sandstone, and limestone.
Shake the box as violently as you can for 30
seconds, then open the lid and look inside.
a Cracking up
Soft rocks like sandstone crumble much
more easily than hard rocks like granite.
Sandstone may completely disintegrate.
45
Types of erosion
River s
Rock debris, in
the form of sand,
silt, and clay, is
transported long
distances by rivers.
The gritty water
also eats away at
the surroundings,
creating valleys.
Sea s
d Monument Valley Pounding waves
The flat-topped “buttes” in Monument Valley, erode the coast,
Utah, are all that remain of an ancient sandstone undercutting cliffs
landscape that has been worn away by erosion. and making them
Flat-topped hills like this can form when a cap collapse. As the
coast retreats,
of hard rock protects the
crumbling arches
softer, underlying rock and towers of rock
from erosion. are left behind.
Wind s
The wind erodes the
land in deserts. It
picks up fine dust
and carries it far
away. Sand is
blasted against
rocks, sculpting
them into weird and
wonderful shapes.
Earth s
Landslides happen
when unstable
heaps of eroded
rubble and earth
suddenly collapse.
They are often
triggered by
earthquakes or
torrential rain.
Ice s
Glaciers pick
up rock rubble as
they slide slowly
forward. The rubble
scrapes the land,
carving out valleys.
46
WEIGHT-LIFTING ICE
Fill a strong glass bowl with
water, then rest a saucer on
top. Place a heavy weight (up
to 9 lb/4 kg) on the saucer,
and put it in the freezer for
24 hours. When you remove it
from the freezer, you will see
that the ice has lifted the saucer HANDY TIP
and weight off the bowl.
Make the ice out of
boiled water—it
Expanding ice lifts
will be less cloudy.
the saucer and weight
47
REPEATEDLY FREEZE AND THAW A COLLECTION OF ROCKS TO SEE WHAT HAPPENS TO THEM
THE DESTRUCTIVE POWER OF ICE
A good place to see the weathering
power of ice is on mountains. In these
In spring, cold, wet places, water often freezes
snow melts at night but thaws in the morning.
during the day The endless cycle of freezing and
but freezes
thawing slowly but steadily eats away
again at night
at the rock, making it crumble into
piles of rubble called scree. These
fragments have a greater surface
Scree litters area, making the weathering process
the bottom work even faster. Over time and in
of the mountain certain conditions, the power of ice
and water can wear whole mountains
Scree at Wheeler Peak, Nevada down to nothing.
Softer rocks
appear crumbly
Each time the Pour out the water and let the rocks dry
water freezes, ice 4 before inspecting them. Count them and
crystals attack compare them to your sketch to see which have
the rock
changed the most. Sandstone will have a soft,
crumbly surface, and chalk may have broken
Replace the lid on the box and put the apart. Sedimentary rocks will have softened the
3 box back in the freezer, adding more most, and igneous rocks, such as granite, will
water to the box, if necessary, to cover the probably be unaffected. Porous rocks, which
rocks. Freeze and thaw the rocks at least contain lots of tiny holes, weather most quickly
five more times, and over several days. because water can seep into them easily.
48
For much of the past 2 million years, Earth was in the grip of a
freezing period called the Ice Age. Sheets of ice 1.5 miles
(2.4 km) thick stretched from the North Pole to beyond
the Great Lakes. Canada and much of northwest Europe
disappeared under an ice sheet bigger than Antarctica.
The ice melted 14–10,000 years ago, but it left its mark
all over the landscapes
Glacial valleys are usually
of North America broad with steep sides,
forming a “U” shape
and Europe.
a Hubbard Glacier
Glaciers are still at work in many places.
This glacier in Alaska, with its 300-ft-
(90-m-) high terminal wall, flows to the
sea, where it breaks up into icebergs.
49
Yosemite Valley Ice Age features
Cirque s
A cirque is a rounded
basin found high in
hills, carved out long
ago by the mass of
ice at the source
of a glacier. Often,
a cirque fills with
water, forming a
lake called a tarn.
a Erratic
An erratic is an
enormous boulder
that has been
carried by glaciers,
and eventually
dumped far away
from its place of
origin after the
ice has melted.
a Horn
A horn is a pyramid-shaped
mountain peak, created by several
glaciers eroding different sides
of the same mountain. The
Matterhorn in Switzerland
is a famous example of
a glacial horn.
50
• Coarse rocks
Rock tumblers can turn drab lumps of rock • Rock tumbler
into beautiful shiny pebbles and semiprecious • Grinding grit (coarse,
stones. Professional rock tumblers are medium, and fine)
• Polishing grit
expensive, but many toy stores stock small, • Water
inexpensive tumblers that do just the same • Sieve or colander
job and come with a selection of rocks to • Scrub brush
get you started. Once you’ve mastered the Check the rock tumbler’s
technique, try polishing rocks you’ve collected instruction manual for
yourself. The results are often surprising and the type and number of
rocks to use, and how
sometimes spectacular. long you should
tumble them for.
Coarse grit
POLISH ROCKS IN A ROCK TUMBLER UNTIL THEY ARE PERFECTLY SMOOTH AND SHINY
This rock tumbler has
timer buttons that stop
the machine after
a preset period
IMPORTANT
Rinse the rocks outside
rather than over a sink
because the grit could
block a drain.
HANDY TIP
Rocks with interesting
colors or patterns look the
After the first tumble,
the rocks look round best when polished.
and smooth
Polishing grit
Stop the tumbler and Stop the tumbler, wash Put the rocks back in
3 tip the contents into
4 everything thoroughly,
5 the tumbler with the final
a sieve. Rinse away the grit and repeat the process with polishing grit and tumble again
with plenty of fresh water. fine grit. After tumbling, according to the manual.
Clean the inside of the drum clean the rocks and tumbler
thoroughly with a damp cloth. even more thoroughly than
Put the washed rocks back in before so that the rocks
the tumbler with medium grit won’t get scratched
and water, and tumble for in the final stage.
about 4–7 days (or as long as Use a scrub brush
the instruction manual says). to clean them, and
make sure the
tumbler is spotless.
52
Plant power
GROW BROAD BEANS IN PLASTER OF PARIS AND SEE HOW THEIR ROOTS MAKE THE PLASTER CRACK
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
Living things contribute to the process of weathering
in lots of ways. Bacteria and algae flourish in damp
rock crevices, and lichens can grow across bare rock.
All these organisms make the rock surface damp and
acidic. The water and acid attack minerals, weakening
the rock. Seeds that germinate in rock crevices
expand as they draw in water, just as the broad
beans did in this activity. The force of this expansion
can be powerful enough to split the rock, especially
if it has already started to weather. Burrowing
animals, like the hamster below, also help speed
up the weathering process. As they tunnel through
the ground, they not only break up soft rock but
also stir the fragments into the soil.
GROW BROAD BEANS IN PLASTER OF PARIS AND SEE HOW THEIR ROOTS MAKE THE PLASTER CRACK
WHERE DOES SOIL COME FROM?
When rock weathers and crumbles, the
particles build up on the ground and mix
with rotting organic matter to form soil.
The type of rock in soil affects its
characteristics. Soil containing
lots of clay is sticky and holds Clay
water well, but soil with lots of
sand or chalk is crumbly and lets water
through. Soil speeds up the process of
weathering by trapping water and acids
that attack minerals in rock.
Chalk
Roots penetrate
the plaster of Paris
HANDY TIP
Add a teaspoon of water
to the cup each day so the
seedlings don’t dry out
and die.
54
• 6 plastic cups
Sandstone is a common type of sedimentary • Sand
rock. It forms when buried sand slowly • 5 clear plastic bags
solidifies as minerals crystallize between the • Tablespoon
• Salt
sand grains, gluing them together. You can • Water
recreate this process with sand, water, and • Newspaper
a range of different • Tray
• Marker pen
binding agents. • Plaster of Paris powder
• Corn starch
• Garden soil
• Pitcher of water
IMPORTANT
MAKE SAND CASTLES USING DIFFERENT BINDING AGENTS TO FIND OUT HOW SANDSTONE FORMS
ROCK BANDS As this activity can be
very messy, especially the
Sedimentary rocks form layer by layer as debris
final step, it is best to do
settles on the floor of a lake or sea, or as windblown
it outdoors.
sand or dust settles on the ground. When the rocks are
exposed again at the surface, millions of
years later, the layers are often visible
as bands, or “strata,” with the youngest
strata closest to the top. Geologists can
work out the relative age of the strata
by identifying any fossils in them.
Fossil spotter
FIND OUT WHAT KINDS OF FOSSILS TO LOOK FOR WHEN YOU GO FOSSIL HUNTING
a Belemnite
Bullet-shaped fossils are the internal shells of
animals called belemnites, which were very much
like modern squid. Like squid, they had long,
torpedo-shaped bodies, ten arms, and an ink sac.
a Ammonite
These sea animals look a little
like snails, but were in fact fast-
swimming predators. Their
shells were divided into
compartments, with the
animal in the largest,
outer compartment.
As the animal grew,
it added new
compartments,
forming a spiral.
The largest
ammonites grew
to 6 ft (2 m) wide.
57
How fossils form
FIND OUT WHAT KINDS OF FOSSILS TO LOOK FOR WHEN YOU GO FOSSIL HUNTING
Special circumstances are needed for fossils
to form. As a result, only a tiny fraction of
the prehistoric animals that lived on Earth
became fossilized (and only a tiny fraction
of those have been found). The pictures
below show how a fish might become
fossilized on the
sea floor.
f Fish fossil
It’s rare to find a whole fossil fish, but fossilized
teeth—especially shark teeth—are very common. The dead fish
This fossil is of a bony fish that lived about 50 settles in mud
million years ago. Our backbones first evolved in a on the sea floor
group of primitive fish over 500 million years ago.
f Death
The fish dies and sinks to the sea floor. Worms
Crinoids used feathery arms and microbes eat the soft parts of its body as it
to trap tiny sea creatures sinks into the mud.
drifting through the water
A layer of slimy
mud buries the
skeleton and
helps preserve it
f Burial
Silt and sand build up over the skeleton,
burying it. Deep in the mud there is less
oxygen, so the decaying process slows down.
New layers of
f Crinoid sediment build
Crinoids, or sea lilies, look like up on top
flowers, but they are animals
Armor-plated related to starfish. They still exist
The mud is
bodies protected but were more common in the past. compressed
trilobites from They anchor themselves to the sea into rock
attack floor by a long stalk.
f Rock formation
Over thousands of years, the mud turns
into rock, such as shale or limestone. The
a Trilobite skeleton is slowly replaced by minerals
Trilobites scuttled and turns into rock.
around on the sea floor
like lobsters 590–250 Fossil becomes
million years ago. Their visible as the
fossils are common rock erodes
because they molted
as they grew. Many had f Discovery
large eyes made of Millions of years later, movements in Earth’s
transparent crystals crust have brought the rock to the surface of
of the mineral calcite. the land, where the fossil may be discovered.
58
Fossil fern
Look for interesting patterns in
the rock, such as this fossil fern
in sandstone. You can also find good
fossils in limestone, clay, and chalk.
IMPORTANT
Some fossil sites are
private or protected by law.
Don’t enter the site without
permission. Don’t collect or
keep fossils until you’ve
checked the rules for
the site.
Tertiary 66
Dinosaurs disappear
at the end of the
Cretaceous period
VISITING MUSEUMS Cretaceous 145
A good way to find out about the fossils
in your area is to visit a natural history Tyrannosaurus
museum. Large museums don’t just have Age of the Jurassic 200
dinosaur skeletons—they also have dozens dinosaurs
of small fossils of the kind you’re likely to Triassic 251
find on beaches or in quarries. Museum Reptiles become
exhibits may show you what the animals Permian 299
common
used to look like, how they lived, and the
kind of environment they inhabited. Museum Swampy tropical
staff may help you identify your fossils and forests cover land
Carboniferous 359
will tell you if they’re valuable.
• Plasticine or modeling
Most fossils are not ancient, hardened bodies clay
but mineral replicas. They normally take • Rolling pin
millions of years to form, but you can make • Petroleum jelly
• Objects to “fossilize,”
your own rocky replica in just a day from such as seashells,
plaster of Paris. Use this technique to make plastic toys, or a
copies of real fossils, or to “fossilize” real fossil, such as
an ammonite
anything from plastic toys to • Heavy paper
your own hand print. • Plaster of Paris
• Water
• Small plastic container
Fossilized
seashell
HANDY TIP Fake pterodactyl
fossil
If you use modeling clay for
your mold, keep it and let
it harden to make an
“imprint” fossil.
CREATE FAKE FOSSILS OR COPY REAL FOSSILS USING A PLASTICINE MOLD AND A PLASTER CAST
IMPRESSIVE FOSSILS
Many fossils form in exactly the same way as you
made your fake fossils with a mold and cast—as
impressions in clay, mud, or other soft sediments.
The impression fills up
with a different kind of
sediment, gets buried,
and hardens over time
to form rock. Fossil
impressions can preserve
all sorts of structures,
from dinosaur footprints
to delicate leaves and the
feathers of the very
first bird.
Fossilized leaves s
This fossilized impression
of a horsetail plant was
formed around 300 million
years ago.
Copy of an
ammonite
fossil
Plaster of Paris
Paper to contain
plaster of Paris Wait for the plaster
5 to thicken, then pour it
Cut out a strip of paper about 2 in into the mold. Leave for a
3 (5 cm) wide and 12 in (30 cm) long. day to set, then carefully
Gently push it partway into the Plasticine remove your fossil. To
to form a circle around the mold. make the fossil look
more realistic, paint
Mix the plaster of Paris with water, it a slightly different
4 following the instructions on the color from the base.
packet, in the container. Add yellow food Chip the edges off the
coloring for a sandy color, or black ink to base so that it looks
make it gray. For a gritty texture, add sand. more like a real rock.
62
HANDY TIP
If the sponge doesn’t soak
Bone, wood, and other organic substances are up the liquid, put on some
protective gloves and give
porous, which means they’re riddled with tiny it a squeeze.
holes. When porous substances fossilize, water
seeps into them, depositing mineral crystals.
Watch this process yourself by
“fossilizing” a bath sponge.
DISCOVER HOW POROUS MATERIALS BECOME MINERALIZED AS THEY TURN INTO FOSSILS
FROM TREES TO ROCKS
Some 225 million years ago, the state
of Arizona was a land of giant conifer
trees, dinosaurs, and other reptiles.
Remnants of the mighty forest still litter
the ground at Petrified Forest National Park,
where trees were toppled by a great flood,
and buried under vast piles of silt that
slowed their decay. Over millennia, water
trickling through the ground “petrified”
the wood, replacing it completely with
multicolored quartz crystals.
Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona
ANCIENT BONES
The fossilized bones of dinosaurs
and other prehistoric beasts are
not really bones at all—over time,
most bones are completely replaced by
rock. The soft parts of a dead animal rot
away first, leaving the hard parts like bones,
teeth, and claws. These are porous just
like your sponge, which means water can
seep into them. Eventually, water trickling
through the ground dissolves the bone
and deposits other minerals in its place,
such as silica, calcite, or pyrite. These
minerals form a rock—a replica of the
Crystals form in
original animal, which is then said to
the small holes be “mineralized,” or “petrified.”
in the sponge and
on its surface
DISCOVER HOW SHELLY LIMESTONE FORMS BY MAKING A FAKE VERSION WITH PLASTER OF PARIS AND SHELLS
HOW CHALK FORMS
Chalk is a type of limestone made from
microscopic fossils. The fossils usually
come from tiny algae called coccolithophores,
which float in the sea. Their shells are made
of overlapping plates (coccoliths). When
Coccolithophore
coccolithophores die, their shells drop to shell magnified
the sea floor and fall apart. Over millions
of years, they build up and are compressed
to form chalk.
White chalk cliffs s
The chalk in the towering cliffs of the English south
coast consists mostly of coccolith fossils that fell to
the sea floor more than 65 million years ago.
• Dead insects
The most perfect fossils of all form when animals • Plasticine or
get trapped in pine resin—the sticky gum that modeling clay
oozes from wounded trees. Pine resin forms • Pebble
• Petroleum jelly
an airtight seal that preserves an animal’s body. • Protective gloves
Over thousands of years, the resin turns into • Clear modeling resin
a hard golden material called (available from art
supply stores)
amber. With modeling resin, you • Yellow food coloring
can make an “amber” fossil of or turmeric
an insect overnight. • Cocktail stick
Collect a few dead insects and To color the resin yellow, add a tiny
1 choose the most intact specimen. 4 drop of yellow food coloring, or a
Good places to look for dead insects are very, very tiny pinch of turmeric. Turmeric
cobwebs and indoor windowsills. will give a slightly less
clear “amber.” HANDY TIP
Create a pebble-shaped mold with
2 Plasticine or modeling clay. Do this by If the insect is fragile, half-fill
pushing a smooth pebble into the clay, pulling the mold with resin, put
it out, and then widening the bottom of the in the insect, then fill
Almost fill
cavity with a finger. Take care to keep the inner the mold to the top.
surface of the cavity smooth. Line the inside with resin
of the mold with a little petroleum jelly.
Pour the resin into the After 24 hours (or when Amber jewelry
5 mold, taking care not to 6 the manufacturer’s You can turn your amber fossil
overfill it. Drop the insect on instructions say that the resin into a necklace or keyring. Ask
the surface and push it down is solid), remove the amber an adult to drill a small hole
very gently into the resin with stone from the mold and through the fossil so that you
a cocktail stick. wash it with soapy water. can attach a chain to it.
68
BURY OBJECTS IN A MUD PIE AND THEN EXCAVATE THEM LIKE A PALEONTOLOGIST
IMPORTANT
Check with an adult that
the mug and mixing bowl
you use for the experiment
are not still used for
drinks and food. It’s best
to do this experiment
outdoors—it could
be messy.
Fossil rhinoceros s
Paleontologists excavate a
10-million-year-old rhino in
Nebraska. It was killed by a cloud
of volcanic ash, which hardened
around the body, preserving it.
70
Glossary
GLOSSARY
Alum A salt that is sometimes Desert An arid region that Hanging valley A tributary
used as a fixative in dyeing. Its typically receives less than or small valley that enters
chemical name is potassium 10 in (250 mm) of rain a year. a main valley on one of its
aluminium sulphate. sides and at a higher level.
Dinosaur A member of a This occurs because the
Arête A narrow mountain prehistoric family of reptiles main valley has been eroded
ridge formed between two that lived from 230 million more deeply, usually by
glacial valleys or cirques. years ago up to 65 million years a glacier.
ago. Their closest living
Basalt The most common type relatives include birds Horn A steep-sided mountain
of volcanic rock, formed as and crocodiles. peak, formed by erosion by
lava cools and hardens. several glaciers.
Erosion The wearing away
Bedrock The layer of rock and removal of exposed land Igneous rock A type of
underneath loose material by water, wind, and ice. rock that forms as magma
such as soil or sand. or lava cools and hardens.
Erratic A large rock that Intrusive igneous rock
Calcite The main mineral has been carried by a glacier forms underground from
in limestone and chalk. and dropped far from its magma; extrusive igneous
Its chemical name is place of origin. rock forms on Earth’s
calcium carbonate. surface from lava.
Fossil The remains, traces,
Cirque A steep-sided, bowl- or impressions of organisms, Lava Molten rock that
shaped hollow in a mountain, such as plants and animals, is forced out of a volcano
carved out by a glacier. that lived millions of years ago. during an eruption onto
Earth’s surface.
Clay Mineral particles that Geode A stone containing
are smaller than about a crystal-lined cavity. Luster The way a mineral
0.00008 in (0.002 mm) wide, shines. It is affected by light
and are common in soil and Glacier A large mass of ice reflecting off the surface
sediment. Clay forms by the that forms on land and flows of the mineral.
weathering of granite and slowly downhill under its
other rocks. own weight. Magma Molten rock that
is deep underground, in
Crust The outer layer of Grain A particle of a Earth’s mantle or crust.
Earth that lies over the mineral. Rocks can be
mantle. There are two main described as fine grained Mantle The layer of
types of crust: continental or coarse grained Earth between the outer
and oceanic. depending on the size core and the crust. The
of the particle. mantle is made of solid rock
Crystal A geometric form of that is very hot and slightly
a mineral or other solid, with Greenhouse effect The process viscous, allowing it to flow
naturally formed plane faces by which heat, radiated from and circulate over long
that reflect the arrangement the ground, is trapped by gases periods of time.
of the atoms that make it up. in the atmosphere, such as
carbon dioxide, leading to Matrix The mass of rock in
Deposit To lay down a material global warming. which larger crystals or fossils
such as sand, mud, or gravel are embedded. Another word
in a new location. Groundmass see matrix for matrix is groundmass.
71
GLOSSARY
Metamorphic rock A type Recrystallization The Strata A sequence of
of rock that has been formation of new mineral rock formations that can
changed by intense heat and/ grains in a rock while the tell a story of geological
or pressure, causing physical rock is in a solid state. process over time.
and chemical changes as
well as the partial melting Rock A solid mixture, or Streak The color that a
and recrystallizing of aggregate, of minerals. Rocks powdered mineral makes
its minerals. are divided into three main when rubbed across an
groups: igneous, sedimentary, unglazed tile.
Meteor A rock that burns and metamorphic.
up as it enters Earth’s Tectonic Of the landforms
atmosphere, forming a Rock cycle The continuous and rock masses created
shooting star. cycle through which old and affected by forces within
rocks are transformed into the plates that make up
Meteorite A rock from new ones. Earth’s crust.
space that falls to Earth’s
surface without completely Scree A mass of loose Translucent Of a material that
burning up. rubble and gravel on a light is able to pass through,
mountain slope, caused but that is not clear enough to
Micrometeorite A microscopic by weathering. look through.
meteorite.
Sediment Mud, sand, or Transparent Clear enough to
Mineral A naturally other particles that settle look through.
occurring mixture of on the sea floor or other
chemicals that has certain calm environment. Ultraviolet light An invisible
regular characteristics, such form of radiation that has
as atomic structure and Sedimentary rock A type a shorter wavelength than
chemical composition. of rock that forms when visible light.
Minerals are the building sediment is compressed
blocks of rocks. and cemented. The sediment Viscous Of a thick and syrupy
may consist of eroded rock liquid—viscous liquids flow
Mohs scale A scale used debris or of organic remains, less quickly than runny liquids.
to measure the relative such as the mineral shells
hardness of minerals. of sea organisms. Volcano A vent or fissure
in Earth’s crust through
Ore A rock from which a Silica A hard mineral that is which molten rock and hot
metal is mined. the main component of sand. gases escape. The molten
It occurs naturally as quartz, rock typically piles up
Period A division of and its chemical name is around the vent, forming
geological time during. silicon dioxide. a mountain.
Index
INDEX
The author would like to thank: Lindsay Hebberd 13tc, /Patrik Giardino 13r, 61cra, /Josh Schachter 49br; University
Richard Tayler for minerals and advice; /Sandro Vannini 13bc, /Tom Bean 13bl, of Southampton/Joe Kaplonek
Susan Brown at Rockwatch 47tl, 48–49, /D.W. Peterson 18br, /Bettmann ([email protected]) 37bl;
(www.rockwatch.org.uk) for ideas. 33tr, /James Pomerantz 39tr, /Bob Krist
40bl, /ChromoSohm Inc, Joseph Sohm 55tl, / The publishers would also like to thank the
Model Jack Williams James L. Amos 58–59t, /George H. H. Huey following photographers:
62tr, /Annie Griffiths Belt 69br; Dorling Paul Bricknell, Jane Burton, Centaur Studios,
Index Hilary Bird Kindersley: /courtesy Hunterian Museum Andy Crawford, Mike Dunning, Andreas
(University of Glasgow) 10c, /courtesy Natural Einsiedel, Lynton Gardiner, Steve Gorton,
The publishers would like to thank the History Museum, London 10br, 20bl, 21l, 29br, Frank Greenaway, Graham High, Glenn L.
following for their kind permission to 32b, 34 (bauxite, Illite, Corundum, Magnetite, Huss, Colin Keates, Dinesh Khanna, Dave
reproduce their photographs: Fluorite), 55bl, 57tl, 59bra, 62br, 65bra, cr, King, Harry Taylor, Kim Taylor, Peter Wilson.
a=above; b=below; c=center; l=left; 67br, /courtesy Royal Museum of Scotland
r=right; t=top 56–57c, /courtesy Naturmuseum
Alamy: /Jon Arnold Images/James Senckenburg, Frankfurt 59bc; Moviestore All other images © Dorling Kindersley.
Montgomery: 31br; Ardea: /Bob Gibbons 45 Collection: 67tr; NHPA:/Daniel Heuclin
(sea erosion), /Robyn Stewart 45br, /Francois 44–45b, /James Warwick 45 (wind erosion), For further information see:
Gohier 49crb, /Kenneth W. Fink 52bl; /Otto Pfister 45bra; Science Photo Library: www.dkimages.com
Collections: /Peter Wilson 10bl, /Paul Watts /Dirk Wiersma 4c, 4–5t, /Bill Bachman 9br,
44–45t, /Simon Warner 49tr, /David Bowie /Alan Sirulnikoff 11cr, /Lawrence Lawry
65tr; Corbis: /Brenda Tharp 6bl, /Ron Watts 22br, /Andrew Lambert Photography
6bc, /Don Mason 7b, /Frank Lane Picture 30bc, /Mike Agliolo 37tr, /Francoise Sauze
Agency/Derek Hall 9–10t, /Roger Ressmeyer 41tr. /Bernhard Edmaier 48bl, WG 65tc;
12tr, /Eye Ubiquitous/Bennett Dean 12br, / Still Pictures 17tr, 45tr, 49cra, 50bl,