1

Chapter 6. Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

(1) First law : Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a coil changes an emf is produced in the coil
called induced emf. The induced emf persists only as long as there is change or cutting of flux.
(2) Second law : The induced emf is given by rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit i.e.
d  . For N turns e = − N d  ; Negative sign indicates that induced emf (e) opposes the change of
e =−
dt dt
flux.
(3) Other formulae :  = BA cos ; Hence  will change if either, B, A or  will change
d N ( 2 − 1 ) NA( B2 − B1 ) cos
So e = −N =− =−
dt t t
NBA(cos  2 − cos 1 )
=−
t
Table 1 : Induced i, q and P
Induced current (i) Induced charge (q) Induced power (P)

e N d N e2 N 2  d 
2
i= =− . dq = i dt = −  d P= =  
R R dt R R R  dt 
Induced charge is time It depends on time and resistance
independent.

Lenz's Law
This law gives the direction of induced emf/induced current. According to this law, the direction of
induced emf or current in a circuit is such as to oppose the cause that produces it. This law is based
upon law of conservation of energy.
(1) When N-pole of a bar magnet moves towards the coil, the flux associated with loop increases
and an emf is induced in it. Since the circuit of loop is closed, induced current also flows in it.
(2) Cause of this induced current, is approach of north pole and therefore to oppose the cause, i.e.,
to repel the approaching north pole, the induced current in loop is in such a direction so that the front
face of loop behaves as north pole. Therefore induced current as seen by observer O is in anticlockwise
direction. (figure)
v
S N N

Observer

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Table 2 : The various positions of relative motion between the magnet and the coil

Position of S N G N S G
S N G
N S G
magnet Observer
Observer Observer Observer

Direction Anticlockwise direction Clockwise direction Clockwise direction Anticlockwise

of induced direction
current
Behaviour As a north pole As a south pole As a south pole As a north pole
of face of
the coil
Type of Repulsive force Attractive force Repulsive force Attractive force
magnetic
force
opposed
Magnetic Cross (×), Increases Cross (×), Decreases Dots () Increases Dots () Decreases
field linked
with the
coil and it’s
progress as
viewed
from left

(3) If the loop is free to move the cause of induced emf in the coil can also be
termed as relative motion. Therefore to oppose the cause, the relative motion
between the approaching magnet and the loop should be opposed. For this, the loop
will itself start moving in the direction of motion of the magnet.
(4) It is important to remember that whenever cause of induced emf is relative
motion, the new motion is always in the direction of motion of the cause.
d
From Faraday's second laws e = − ..…(ii)
dt
  d
From (i) and (ii) e =  E in .d l = − This is known as integral form of Faraday’s laws of EMI.
dt

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Dynamic (Motional) EMI Due to Translatory Motion


(1) Consider a conducting rod of length l moving with a uniform velocity v perpendicular to a

uniform magnetic field , directed into the plane of the paper. Let the rod be moving to the right as
B
shown in figure. The conducting electrons also move to the right as they are trapped within the rod.
× × × P × × ×
++
× × × × × → × ×
e
× × × × ×
v × ×

– –
F
× × × × × ×
Q

Conducting electrons experiences a magnetic force Fm = evB . So they move from P to Q within the
rod. The end P of the rod becomes positively charged while end Q becomes negatively charged, hence
an electric field is set up within the rod which opposes the further downward movement of electrons i.e.
an equilibrium is reached and in equilibrium Fe = Fm i.e. eE = evB or E = vB  Induced emf e = El = Bvl
V
[E= ]
l
(2) If rod is moving by making an angle  with the direction of magnetic field or length. Induced emf
e = Bvl sin
   

   
v sin l  v
 l sin
   
v
v cos 
B    

(A) (B)

Motional Emi in Loop by Generated Area

If conducting rod moves on two parallel conducting rails as shown in following figure then
phenomenon of induced emf can also be understand by the concept of generated area (The area swept
of conductor in magnetic field, during it’s motion)
× × ×
P × × × ×

× × × × × ×

R l v v
× × × × × ×

× × × × × × ×
Q vt

As shown in figure in time t distance travelled by conductor = vt

d
Area generated A = lvt. Flux linked with this area  = BA = Blvt. Hence induced emf | e | = = Bvl
dt

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e Bvl
(1) Induced current : i = =
R R
(2) Magnetic force : Conductor PQ experiences a magnetic force in opposite direction of it’s motion
and Fm = Bil = B Bvl  l =
B 2vl 2
 R  R

(3) Power dissipated in moving the conductor : For uniform motion of rod PQ, the rate of doing
mechanical work by external agent or mech. Power delivered by external source is given as
dW B 2 vl 2 B 2v 2 l 2
Pmech = Pext = = Fext . v = v =
dt R R
(4) Electrical power : Also electrical power dissipated in resistance or rate of heat dissipation across
resistance is given as
2
H  Bvl  2 2 2
Pthermal = = i2 R =   .R ; Pthermal = B v l
t  R  R

Special cases Motion of train and aeroplane in earth's magnetic field

(A) (B)
Induced emf across the axle of the wheels of the train and it is across the tips of the wing of the
aeroplane is given by e = Bvlv where l = length of the axle or distance between the tips of the wings of
plane, Bv = vertical component of earth's magnetic field and v = speed of train or plane.
* If an aeroplane is landing down or taking off and its wings are in the east-west direction,
then the potential difference or emf will be induced across the wings. If an aeroplane is
landing down or taking off and its wings are in the north-south direction, then no potential
difference or emf will be induced.
* When a conducting rod moving horizontally on equator of earth no emf induces because
there is no vertical component of earth's magnetic field. But at poles BV is maximum so
maximum flux cutting hence emf induces.
* When a conducting rod falling freely in earth's magnetic field such that it's length lies along
East - West direction then induced emf continuously increases w.r.t. time and induced
current flows from West - East.

Motional EMI Due to Rotational Motion

(1) Conducting rod : A conducting rod of length l whose one end is fixed, is  →
    
rotated about the axis passing through it’s fixed end and perpendicular to it’s B
     
Q P
   l  

PHYSICS NOTES BY DR. ALKA GUPTA     

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length with constant angular velocity . Magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
emf induces across the ends of the rod = ½ Bl2, = 2π = 2π/T
where  = frequency (revolution per sec) and T = Time period.
  
 In motional emf B, v and l are three vectors. If any two vector are parallel – No flux
cutting.
 
     B B

   
v

v
l v
l l
    

    
   
  B || l so e = 0 v || B so e = 0
v || l so e = 0
Periodic EMI -
Suppose a rectangular coil having N turns placed initially in a magnetic  = 2

field such that magnetic field is perpendicular to it’s plane as shown. 

B
 – Angular speed
n̂
 – Frequency of rotation of coil
R – Resistance of coil
For uniform rotational motion with , the flux linked with coil at any
time t R
 = NBA cos  = NBA cos t

 = 0 cos ωt where 0 = NBA = maximum flux

(1) Induced emf in coil : Induced emf also changes in periodic manner that’s why this phenomenon
called periodic EMI
d
e=− = BNA sin  t  e = e 0 sin ωt where e0 = emf amplitude or max. emf = NBA  =  0 
dt
e e
(2) Induced current : At any time t, i = = 0 sin  t = i0 sin  t where i0 = current amplitude or max. current
R R
e0 BNA 0
i0 = = =
R R R

ac Generator/Alternator/Dynamo
An electrical machine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy is known as ac
generator/alternator.
(1) Principle : It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e., when a coil is rotated in
uniform magnetic field, an induced emf is produced in it.
Nd
e=− = NBA sin t = e0 sint where e0 = BNA
dt

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e e0
i= = sin t = i0 sin t R → Resistance of the circuit
R R

(2) Construction : The main components of ac generator are

B C

N A D S
B1
R1

RL Output

R2
B2

(i) Armature : Armature coil (ABCD) consists of large number of turns of insulated copper wire wound
over a soft iron core.
(ii) Strong field magnet : A strong permanent magnet or an electromagnet whose poles (N and S)
are cylindrical in shape in a field magnet. The armature coil rotates between the pole pieces of the field
magnet. The uniform magnetic field provided by the field magnet is perpendicular to the axis of rotation
of the coil.
(iii) Slip rings : The two ends of the armature coil are connected to two brass slip rings R1 and R2.
These rings rotate along with the armature coil.
(iv) Brushes : Two carbon brushes (B1 and B2), are pressed against the slip rings. The brushes are
fixed while slip rings rotate along with the armature. These brushes are connected to the load through
which the output is obtained.
(3) Working : When the armature coil ABCD rotates in the magnetic field provided by the strong
field magnet, it cuts the magnetic lines of force. Thus the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and
hence induced emf is set up in the coil. The direction of the induced emf or the current in the coil is
determined by the Fleming’s right hand rule.
The current flows out through the brush B1 in one direction of half of the revolution and through the
brush B2 in the next half revolution in the reverse direction. This process is repeated. Therefore, emf
produced is of alternating nature.
Nd 
e=− = NBA  sin t = e0 sint where e0 = NBA
dt
e e
i= = 0 sin t = i0 sin t R → Resistance of the circuit
R R

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Self Induction
Whenever the electric current passing through a coil or circuit changes, the magnetic flux linked
with it will also change. As a result of this, in accordance with Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction, an emf is induced in the coil or the circuit which opposes the change that produced it. This
phenomenon is called ‘self induction’ and the emf induced is called back emf, current so produced in the
coil is called induced current.
(1) Coefficient of self-induction : Number of flux linkages with the coil is proportional to the current
N
i. i.e. N  i or N  = Li (N is the number of turns in coil and N – total flux linkage). Hence L = =
i
coefficient of self-induction.
(2) If i = 1amp, N = 1 then, L =  i.e. the coefficient of self induction of a coil is equal to the flux linked
with the coil when the current in it is 1 amp.
d di di
(3) By Faraday’s second law induced emf e = − N . Which gives e = − L ; If = 1 amp / sec then
dt dt dt
|e|= L.
Hence coefficient of self induction is equal to the emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of
current in the coil is unity.
(4) Units and dimensional formula of ‘L’ : It's S.I. unit
weber Tesla  m 2 N m Joule Coulomb  volt
= = 2
= 2
=
Amp Amp Amp Amp Amp 2
volt  sec
= = ohm  sec . But practical unit is henry (H). It’s dimensional formula [L] = [ML2T–2A–2]
amp

(5) Dependence of self inductance (L) : ‘L’ does not depend upon current flowing or change in
current flowing but it depends upon number of turns (N), Area of cross section (A) and permeability of
medium ().
‘L’ does not play any role till there is a constant current flowing in the circuit. ‘L’ comes in to the
picture only when there is a change in current.
(6) Magnetic potential energy of inductor : In building a steady current in the circuit, the source emf
has to do work against of self inductance of coil and whatever energy consumed for this work stored in
magnetic field of coil this energy called as magnetic potential energy (U) of coil
i 1 2 1 Ni
U =  Lidi = Li ; Also U = ( Li )i =
0 2 2 2

Non inductive coils - The effect of self-inductance can be eliminated

as in the coils of a resistance box by doubling back the coil on itself.
Mutual Induction
Whenever the current passing through a coil or circuit changes, the magnetic flux linked with a

neighbouring coil or circuit will also change. Hence an emf will be induced in the neighbouring coil or

circuit. This phenomenon is called ‘mutual induction’.

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i1 i2

Variable

current Load
P S

R
M

(1) Coefficient of mutual induction : Total flux linked with the secondary due to current in the
primary is N22 and N22  i 1  N 2  2 = Mi 1 where N1 - Number of turns in primary; N 2 - Number
of turns in secondary; 2 - Flux linked with each turn of secondary; i 1 - Current flowing through
primary; M-Coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance.
d 2 di
(2) According to Faraday’s second law emf induces in secondary e 2 = − N 2 ; e 2 = −M 1
dt dt
di1 1 Amp
(3) If = then |e2| = M. Hence coefficient of mutual induction is equal to the emf induced in
dt sec
the secondary coil when rate of change of current in primary coil is unity.
(4) Units and dimensional formula of M : Similar to self-inductance (L)
(5) Dependence of mutual inductance
(i) Number of turns (N1, N2) of both coils
(ii) Coefficient of self inductances (L1, L2) of both the coils
(iii) Area of cross-section of coils
(iv) Magnetic permeability of medium between the coils (r) or nature of material on which two coils
are wound
(v) Distance between two coils (As d increases so M decreases)
(vi) Orientation between primary and secondary coil (for 90o orientation no flux relation M = 0)

Condition Figure
i
Two concentric coplaner
circular coils R P
r
 0 N 1 N 2 r 2 S
M =
2R

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Two Solenoids l

i1
Secondary
μ0 N1 N 2 A Primary
M= (N1 turns)
(N2 turns)
l

Two concentric coplaner (1)

square coils i
(2)

0 2 2 N1 N 2l 2
M = l
L
L

Transformer
It is a device which raises or lowers the voltage in ac circuits through mutual induction.
It consists of two coils wound on the same core. The alternating current passing through the
primary creates a continuously changing flux through the core. This changing flux induces an alternating
emf in the secondary. Laminated sheets

Load

Source ~ Input Output

Iron core

(1) Transformer works on ac only and never on dc.

(2) It can increase or decrease either voltage or current but not both simultaneously.
(3) Transformer does not change the frequency of input ac.
(4) There is no electrical connection between the winding but they are linked magnetically.
(5) Effective resistance between primary and secondary winding is infinite.
d S d
(6) The flux per turn of each coil must be same i.e.  S =  P ; − =− P .
dt dt
(7) If NP = number of turns in primary, NS = number of turns in secondary, VP = applied (input)
voltage to primary, VS = Voltage across secondary (load voltage or output), eP = induced emf in primary ; eS
= induced emf in secondary,  = flux linked with primary as well as secondary, iP = current in primary; iS
= current in secondary (or load current)
As in an ideal transformer there is no loss of power i.e. Pout = Pin so VS iS = VP iP and VP  e P , VS  e S .
e S N S VS i P
Hence = = = = k ; k = Transformation ratio (or turn ratio) (8) Efficiency of transformer
e P N P VP i S
() : Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power and input power

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Pout V i
i.e.  % = 100 = S S 100
Pin VP i P
For an ideal transformer Pout = Pin so  = 100 % (But efficiency of practical transformer lies between 70% –
90%)
For practical transformer Pin = Pout + Plosses
Pout Pout ( P − PL )
so  = 100 = 100 = in 100
Pin ( Pout + PL ) Pin
(9) Losses in transformer : In transformers some power is always lost due to, heating effect, flux
leakage eddy currents, hysteresis and humming.
(i) Cu loss (i 2 R) : When current flows through the transformer windings some power is wasted in the
form of heat (H = i 2 Rt ). To minimize this loss windings are made of thick Cu wires (To reduce resistance)
(ii) Eddy current loss : Some electrical power is wasted in the form of heat due to eddy currents,
induced in core, to minimize this loss transformers core are laminated and silicon is added to the core
material as it increases the resistivity. The material of the core is then called silicon-iron (steel).
(iii) Hystersis loss : The alternating current flowing through the coils magnetises and demagnetises
the iron core again and again. Therefore, during each cycle of magnetisation, some energy is lost due to
hysteresis. However, the loss of energy can be minimised by selecting the material of core, which has a
narrow hysterisis loop. Therefore core of transformer is made of soft iron. Now a days it is made of
“Permalloy” (Fe-22%, Ni-78%).
(iv) Magnetic flux leakage : Magnetic flux produced in the primary winding is not completely linked
with secondary because few magnetic lines of force complete their path in air only. To minimize this loss
secondary winding is kept inside the primary winding.
(v) Humming losses : Due to the passage of alternating current, the core of the transformer starts
vibrating and produces humming sound. Thus, some part (may be very small) of the electrical energy is
wasted in the form of humming sounds produced by the vibrating core of the transformer.
(10) Uses of transformer : A transformer is used in almost all ac operations e.g.
(i) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerator, computer, air conditioner etc.
(ii) In the induction furnaces.
(iii) Step down transformer is used for welding purposes.
(iv) In the transmission of ac over long distance.
Transmission lines

Low Low House or

G High V High V V Load factory
V

Power Step up Step down

Station transformer transformer

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(v) Step down and step up transformers are used in electrical power distribution.
(vi) Audio frequency transformers are used in radiography, television, radio, telephone etc.
(vii) Radio frequency transformers are used in radio communication.

Table : Types of transformer

Step up transformer Step down transformer

It increases voltage and It decreases voltage and

decreases current increases current

P S P S

VS > VP VS < VP
NS > NP NS < NP
ES > EP ES < EP
iS < iP iS > iP
RS > RP RS < RP
tS > tP tS > tP
k>1 k<1

LC- Oscillation
When a charged capacitor C having an initial charge q0 is discharged through an inductance L, the
charge and current in the circuit start oscillating simple harmonically. If the resistance of the circuit is
zero, no energy is dissipated as heat. We also assume an idealized situation in which energy is not
radiated away from the circuit. The total energy associated with the circuit is constant.
Frequency of oscillation is given by L
1 rad
 =
LC sec
q0
+ –
1
or  = Hz
2 LC C

Eddy Current - When a changing magnetic flux is applied to a bulk piece of conducting material then
circulating currents called eddy currents are induced in the material. Because the resistance of the bulk
conductor is usually low, eddy currents often have large magnitudes and heat up the conductor.
(1) These are circulating currents like eddies in water.
(2) Experimental concept given by Focault hence also named as “Focault current”.

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(3) The production of eddy currents in a metallic block leads to the loss of electric energy in the form
of heat.
(4) By Lamination, slotting processes the resistance path for circulation of eddy current increases,
resulting in to weakening them and also reducing losses causes by them

Plane metal Slotted metal

plate plate

× ×

× ×
× ×
× × × ×
×
× × × × ×
× ×

(A) Strong eddies produced (B) Feeble eddies

Cause excessive electro Gradual damping

magnetic damping
B Feeble eddy currents

Strong eddy
currents

(C) Solid metallic core (D) Laminated core

Application of eddy currents : Though most of the times eddy currents are undesirable but they find
some useful applications as enumerated below
(i) Dead-beat galvanometer : A dead beat galvanometer means one whose pointer comes to rest in
the final equilibrium position immediately without any oscillation about the equilibrium position when a
current is passed in its coil.
This is achieved by winding the coil on a metallic frame the large eddy currents induced in the frame
provide electromagnetic damping.
(ii) Electric-brakes : When the train is running its wheel is moving in air and when the train is to be
stopped by electric breaks the wheel is made to move in a field created by electromagnet. Eddy currents
induced in the wheels due to the changing flux oppose the cause and stop the train.
(iii) Induction furnace : Joule's heat causes the melting of a metal piece placed in a rapidly changing
magnetic field.
(iv) Speedometer : In the speedometer of an automobile, a magnet is geared to the main shaft of
the vehicle and it rotates according to the speed of the vehicle. The magnet is mounted in an aluminium
cylinder with the help of hair springs. When the magnet rotates, it produces eddy currents in the drum
and drags it through an angle, which indicates the speed of the vehicle on a calibrated scale.
(v) Energy meter : In energy meters, the armature coil carries a metallic aluminium disc which
rotates between the poles of a pair of permanent horse shoe magnets. As the armature rotates, the
current induced in the disc tends to oppose the motion of the armature coil. Due to this braking effect,
deflection is proportional to the energy consumed.

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Q1) (a) State the working of a.c. generator with the help of a labelled
diagram.
(b) The coil of an a.c. generator having N turns, each of area A, is rotated
with a constant angular velocity . Deduce the expression for the
alternating emf generated in the coil.
(c) What is the source of energy generation in this device?
Ans)Principle - Based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction

Construction:

Main parts of an ac generator:

Armature - Rectangular coil ABCD
Filed Magnets - Two pole pieces of a strong electromagnet
Slip Rings - The ends of coil ABCD are connected to two hollow metallic rings R1
and R2.
Brushes - B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods. They are fixed
and are kept in tight contact with R1 and R2 respectively.

Theory and Working - As the armature coil is rotated in the magnetic field, angle
θ, between the field and normal to the coil changes continuously. Therefore,
magnetic flux linked with the coil changes. An emf is induced in the coil. According
to Fleming’s right hand rule, current induced in AB is from A to B and it is from C
to D in CD. In the external circuit, current flows from B2 to B1
Q 2)State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Figure shows a
rectangular conductor PQRS in which the conductor PQ is free to move in a
uniform magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The field
extends from x = 0 to x = b and is zero for x > b. Assume that only the arm
PQ possesses resistance r. When the arm PQ is pulled outward from x = 0

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to x = 2b and is then moved backward to x = 0 with constant speed

v,obtain the expressions for the flux and the induced emf.
Sketch the variations of these quantities with distance 0 ≤ x ≤ 2b.

Ans)

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Q3) Draw a schematic diagram of a step-up transformer. Explain its

working principle. Deduce theexpression for the secondary to primary
voltage in terms of the number of turns in the two coils.In an ideal
transformer, how is this ratio related to the currents in the two coils?
How is the transformer used in large scale transmission and distribution of
electrical energy overlong distances?
Ans.

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Q4) (a)What are the Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction.

(b)Show that Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of conservation of
energy.
(c) Define eddy currents.
Ans) (a) Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction was based on his
experimental observations.According to this law,
Whenever the magnetic flux through a coil or loop of wire is changed,
an emf is induced in the coil or loop. The magnitude of the induced emf
is proportional to the rate of change of flux through the coil.

Mathematically, the induced emf is given by

The negative sign indicates the direction of induced emf ε and hence the
direction of current in a closed loop. It will be explained on the basis of Lenz's
law.
If the loop is replaced by a coil of N turns, then the induced emf is given by

(b) The direction of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a

current which opposes the change (in magnetic flux) that causes the
induction.
Conservation of energy :
The fact that electromagnetic induction in accordance with Lenz's law represents
the conservation of energy can be easily explained. . A repulsive force acts on

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the bar magnet due to the current induced in the coil. We have to do work in
moving the North-pole of the magnet towards the coil. What happens to this
work done by us (or the energy supplied by us)? This energy
is converted into electrical energy and then dissipated as heat in the loop by
Joule heating produced by the induced current
(C)When large pieces of conductors are placed in changing magnetic flux, small
circulating currents are induced in them. These currents are called eddy currents.
Q5)A bar magnet M is dropped so that is falls vertically through the coil C. The graph obtained for
voltage produced across the coil Vs time is shown in diagram

Ans) Theemf is proportional to dφ/dt , and this is proportional to the velocity but
not to the acceleration. Since the velocity increases, the flux increases, causing a a-
symmetrical peak.
When magnet falls through the coil as the rate of change of flux increases the emf
in coil increases.As the magnet come inside coil no flux change takes place across
coil and emf falls to zero.
After magnet comes out of coil the emf developed in the coil is in opposite direction
relative to when it falls inside coil
(c) negative peak is greater than positive peak as rate of flux is more when magnet
comes out of coil as compare to when it fall inside the coil

Q6)(a)The following figure shows a horizontal solenoid connected to a

battery and a switch. A copper ring is placed on a friction less track, the

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axis of the ring being along the axis of the solenoid. What happens to the
ring as switch is closed?

(b) A rectangular loop and a circular loop are moving out of a uniform
magnetic field region to a field free region with a constant velocity. In
which loop do you expect the induced emf to be constant during the
passage out of the field region? The field is the normal to the loops.

(c) What is electrical inertia.

Ans)(a)The ring moves away from the coil, because the current induces in the ring opposes the
growth of current in the solenoid.
(b)In a rectangular loop, the induced emf will be constant. It is because rate of change of the area of
the rectangular loop is uniform, whereas that of a circular circular loop is not constant.
(c) The self inductance of a coil is defined as electrical inertia.

Q 7.What are eddy currents? Write there important applications. Why are eddy current produced in
the cores of transformers and a.c. generators disadvantageous. How can they be minimised?
Ans. Eddy currents or Foucault Currents
When we put a bulk piece of conductor to the changing magnetic field but now the pathway of the
currents is not well defined and the flow pattern resemble the swirling eddies in water. This effect
was discovered by Foucault and hence also called Eddy currents or Foucault currents.
The direction of the eddy currents is given by Lenz’s law.
Eddy currents are used to advantage in certain applications like:-

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 21

i. Magnetic braking in trains:

ii. Electromagnetic damping (Dead beat galvanometers):
iii. Induction furnace:
iv. Electric power meters:
v. Speedometer:

Eddy currents are undesirable since they heat up the core of transformers; electric motors etc as
they dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat.
Eddy currents are minimized by using laminations of metal to make a metal core. The
laminations are separated by an insulating material. The plane of the laminations must be arranged
parallel to the magnetic field so that they cut across the eddy current paths. This arrangement reduces
the strength of the eddy currents. Since the dissipation of electrical energy into heat depends on the
square of the strength of electrical current, heat loss is substantially reduced.

Q 8.Derive expression for the magnetic energy required to build up the current I in a coil of self-
inductance L is given by ½ LI2. Hence derive expression for the magnetic energy density.
Ans. Since, due to self-inductance is a back emf is induced, so work is to be done by the external
agency against the back emf to establish the current in the circuit which is stored in the coil as its
magnetic potential energy.
If ‘I’ is the instantaneous current in the circuit then at any instant ‘t’ then rate of work done will be

ignoring the resistive effects and considering only the inductive effects. Total amount of work done
will be

This is an expression for the energy stored in the inductor.

Magnetic energy density:- Magnetic energy stored per unit volume is called magnetic energy
density.

Q 9. How is the mutual inductance of a pair of coils affected when

(1) Separation between the coils is increased.
(2) The number of turns of each coil is increased.
(3) A thin iron sheet is placed between two coils, other factors remaining the
same. Explain answer in each case.
Ans. (1) When the Separation between the coils is increased, the flux linked with the
secondary coils decreases, hence mutual induction decreases.

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(3) Mutual induction will increase because M αµr (Relative permeability of material)

Q 10. State the underlying principle of transformer. How is the large scale transmission of
electric energy over long distance done with the use of transformers?
Ans. Mutual inductance
At the electric power generation station, a step-up transformer is used to convert the electric power at
low voltage to electric power at very high voltage and again at the power supply places a step-down
transformer is used to convert the electric power at high voltage to electric power at low voltage.
By transmitting at high voltage, the current (I = P/V) in the transmission line reduces thereby
reducing the transmission loss (I2R).

Q 11. How does the self induction of a coil change when?

(1) The number of turns in a coil is decreased
(2) An iron rod is introduced into it. Justify.
Ans

When no. of turns decreases self induction will decrease.

(2) When iron rod is introduced

Self induction will increase

Q 12. (a) When a bar magnet is pushed towards (or away) from the coil connected to a galvanometer, the pointer
in the galvanometer deflects. Identify the phenomenon causing this deflection and write the factors on
which the amount and direction of the deflection depends. State the laws describing this phenomenon.
(b) Sketch the change in flux, emf and force when a conducting rod PQ of resistance R and length l moves
freely to and fro between A and C with speed υ on a rectangular conductor placed in uniform magnetic
field as shown in the figure.

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 23

Ans. (a) When a bar magnet pushed towards or away from coil, magnetic flux passing through coil change with
time and cause induced emf hence induced current according to faraday's law of induction. Induced emf
in the coil is given as

Induced emf and hence current depends on

(i) no. of turns in the coil (ii) motion of magnet
Direction of current depends on the motion of magnet whether moving towards coil or away from the coil.
Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
(i) Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a coil, an emf is induced in the coil. The induced emf is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the coil

(ii) emf induced in the coil opposes the change in flux, i.e.,

where k is a constant of proportionality, Negative sign represents opposition to change in flux.

In SI system φ is in weber, t in second, ε in volt, when k = 1, ε=

If the coil has N-turns, then

(b) Case I When PQ moves forward.

(i) For 0 ≤ x < b
Magnetic field, B exists in the region.
∴ Area of loop PQRS = lx
∴ Magnetic flux linked with loop PQRS,
φ = BA = Blx
φ = Blx …(i) [b > × ≥ 0]
(ii) For, 2b ≥ x ≥ b
B=0
∴ Flux linked with loop PQRS is uniform and given by
φ′ = Blb (x = b)
Forward journey
Thus, for b > x ≥ 0
flux φ = Blx
⇒ φ ∝ x
For 2b ≥ x ≥ b
Flux, φ = Bbl [Constant]
Return journey
For b ≤ × ≤ 2b,
φ = constant = Bbl

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 24

For 0 ≤ × ≤ b,
φ = Blx [Decreasing]
Graphical representation

Case II For b > x ≥ 0

As, φ = Blx

Forward journey
For b > x ≥ 0

e = – vBl
For 2b ≥ x ≥ b
e=0
Backward journey

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For b > x ≥ 0
e = vBl
For 2b ≥ x ≥ b,

e=0
Variation of induced emf.

If a bar magnet moves towards a fixed conducting coil, then due to the flux changes an emf, current
and charge induces in the coil. If speed of magnet increases then induced emf and induced current
increases but induced charge remains same
v1 i1 v2 (> v1) i2

S N S N

Induced parameter : e1, i1, q1 e2 (> e1), i2( > i1), q2 (= q1)

Can ever electric lines of force be closed curve ? Yes, when produced by a changing magnetic field.

No flux cutting No EMI

  
Vector form of motional emf : e = (v  B).l
  
In motional emf B, v and l are three vectors. If any two vector are parallel – No flux cutting.
 
     B B
v
     v
l l v
     l

        
  B || l so e = 0 v || B so e = 0
v || l
so e = 0

A piece of metal and a piece of non-metal are dropped from the same height near the surface of the
earth. The non-metallic piece will reach the ground first because there will be no induced current in it.

If an aeroplane is landing down or taking off and its wings are in the east-west direction, then the
potential difference or emf will be induced across the wings. If an aeroplane is landing down or taking

PHYSICS NOTES BY DR. ALKA GUPTA

 26

off and its wings are in the north-south direction, then no potential difference or emf will be induced.

When a conducting rod moving horizontally on equator of earth no emf induces because there is no
vertical component of earth's magnetic field. But at poles BV is maximum so maximum flux cutting
hence emf induces.

When a conducting rod falling freely in earth's magnetic field such that it's length lies along East - West
direction then induced emf continuously increases w.r.t. time and induced current flows from West -
East.

1 henry = 109 emu of inductance or 109 ab-henry.

 1 
Inductance at the ends of a solenoid is half of it's the inductance at the centre.  Lend = Lcentre  .
 2 

A thin long wire made up of material of high resistivity behaves predominantly as a resistance. But it
has some amount of inductance as well as capacitance in it. It is thus difficult to obtain pure resistor.
Similarly it is difficult to obtain pure capacitor as well as pure inductor.

Due to inherent presence of self inductance in all electrical circuits, a resistive circuit with no capacitive
or inductive element in it, also has some inductance associated with it.

The effect of self-inductance can be eliminated

as in the coils of a resistance box by doubling

back the coil on itself.

It is not possible to have mutual inductance without self inductance but it may or may not be possible
self inductance without mutual inductance.

di
If main current through a coil increases (i) so will be positive (+ve), hence induced emf e will be
dt
negative (i.e. opposite emf)  Enet = E − e

E K E

Circuit is made  e = −L
di
dt
on or i
e
increasing i i

Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of high inductance of circuit a high momentarily
induced emf produced and a sparking occurs at key position. To avoid sparking a capacitor is

PHYSICS NOTES BY DR. ALKA GUPTA

 27

connected across the key.

Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of high inductance of circuit a high momentarily
induced emf produced and a sparking occurs at key position. To avoid sparking a capacitor is
connected across the key.

One can have resistance with or without inductance but one can’t have inductance without having
resistance.

The circuit behaviour of an inductor is quite different from that of a resistor. while a resistor opposes
di
the current i, an inductor opposes the change in the circuit.
dt

i i
a b a b
R L
di
Vab = L
Vab = iR dt

In RL-circuit with dc source the time taken by the current to reach half of the maximum value is called
L
half life time and it is given by T = 0.693 .
R

dc motor is a highly versatile energy conversion device. It can meet the demand of loads requiring high
starting torque, high accelerating and decelerating torque.

When a source of emf is connected across the two ends of the primary winding alone or across the two
ends of secondary winding alone, ohm’s law can be applied. But in the transformer as a whole, ohm’s
law should not be applied because primary winding and secondary winding are not connected
electrically.

Even when secondary circuit of the transformer is open it also draws some current called no load
primary current for supplying no load Cu and iron loses.

Transformer has highest possible efficiency out of all the electrical machines.

PHYSICS NOTES BY DR. ALKA GUPTA