‫پروژه بیابان زدایی در مناطقی از ایران و عراق‬

Global wind patterns

Global wind distribution

Fig. 52 The distribution of high- and low-pressure belts at different latitudes creates wind patterns that are de-
flected by the Coriolis force.

Air masses move from areas of high pressure towards areas of low pressure, and the speed at which the air
moves will be determined by the pressure difference. The circulation of air in the atmosphere is ultimately
driven by temperature differences. The main contrast in temperature is between the Equator, which receives the
most energy from the Sun, and the poles, which receive the least. Heat is transferred between these regions by
air movement. Hot air at the Equator rises, while cold air at the poles sinks, so the overall pattern is for a circu-
lation cell to be set up with the warm air from the Equator travelling at high altitudes towards the poles and a
complementary movement of cold air back to the Equator closer to ground level. This simple pattern is, how-
ever, complicated by two other factors: the circulation pattern breaks up into smaller cells, three in each hemi-
1
sphere. The Coriolis force deflects the pathway of the air mass from simple north–south directions. The result is
the pattern of winds shown in the above figure.

Fig. 53 Arid and hyper-arid regions make up approximately 20% of Earth’s surface and are arranged in two lati-
tudinal zones around 30°N and S of equator, as a result of dry air associated with the descending arm of a
Hadley Cell.

Reference: This chapter is mainly based on Chapter 8 of G. Nichols book: Sedimentology and stratigraphy (2nd
ed.), 2009.
file:///C:/Users/Javad/Documents/Management%20of%20wind%20,%20water%20erosion/Aeolian%20environments
%20%E2%80%94%20EarthSurface%200.0.1%20documentation.html
Aeolian deposits outside deserts

2
Aeolian dust deposits
There are deposits of Quaternary age in eastern Europe, North America and China that are interpreted as accu-
mulations of wind-blown dust. These deposits, known as loess, locally occur in beds several metres thick made
up predominantly of well-sorted silt-sized material, with little clay or sand-sized material present.

3
 Fig. 59 Loess forms as a ‘blanket’ over the existing topography (up to 300 m thick). Loess covers about 5% of the world’s
terrestrial surface, the thickest and most extensive deposits in China, central Asia, central and eastern Europe, Great
Plains of north America and Argentina. The Loess Plateau (China Central and western China) covers around 500,000 km2.
It is composed of a blanket of fine sediment between 100 and 300 m in thickness.
The particle size distribution of loess tends to be bi-modal, or strongly positively skewed (indicating a tail of fine parti-
cles); composed of particles 10-50 μm in size with a primary modal peak between 20-30 μm. The origin of loess is related
to episodes of retreat of ice sheets, as large amounts of loose detritus carried in the ice were released.
Loess origin from periglacial environment

In the cold periglacial environment in front of the receding ice colonisation by plants and stabilisation of the soil
would have been slow, so the glacial debris was exposed on the outwash plains, where wind picked up and
transported the silt-sized dust. This dust was probably transported over large parts of the globe but accumulated
as loess deposits in some places. Similar processes probably occurred during other glacial episodes in Earth his-
tory, but pre-Quaternary loess deposits have not been recognised. The preservation potential of loess is likely to
be quite low because it is soft, loose material that is easily reworked and mixed with other sediment.
Loess origin from volcanism

Volcanism is an important source of dust in the atmosphere. Explosive eruptions can send plumes of volcanic
ash high up into the atmosphere where it is distributed by wind. Coarser ash tends to be deposited close to the
volcano, while the silt-sized ash particles can be transported around the world. Large amounts of atmospheric
dust from eruptions can darken the sky, and it will gradually fall as fine sediment.
Loess origin from fires

A further source of atmospheric dust is from fires that propel soot (fine carbon) up into the air, where it can be
redistributed by the wind. Despite the fine grain size, soot, volcanic and terrigenous dust can all be distin-
guished by geochemical analysis.

Aeolian dust is dispersed worldwide, but most of it ends up in other marine and continental depositional envi-
ronments where it mixes with other sediment and its origin cannot easily be determined. In most places the pro-
portion of aeolian dust is very low compared with other sediment being deposited, but there are some environ-
ments where terrigenous clastic deposition is very low, and the main source of silt and clay can be aeolian dust.
The parts of the deep oceans that are distant from any continental margin receive very little sediment: airborne
dust that settles through the water column can therefore be an important component of deep ocean deposits.

Aeolian sands in other environments

Beach dunes

Sand dunes built up by aeolian action can form adjacent to beaches in any climatic setting. In
the intertidal zone of a foreshore loose sediment is subaerially exposed at low tide, and as it dries out
it is available to be picked up and redeposited by the wind. Beach dune ridges form where the fore-
shore sediments are mainly sandy, exposed at low tide and subject to removal by onshore winds. The
sand then accumulates at the head of the beach, either as a simple narrow ridge or sometimes ex-
tending for hundreds of metres inland.
4
 In humid climates the dunes become colonised by grasses, shrubs and trees that stabilise the sand
and allow the ridges to build up metres to tens of metres thickness.

Periglacial deposits

Glacial outwash areas are places where loose detritus that has been released from melting ice remains exposed
on the surface for long periods of time because plant growth and soil formation is slow in periglacial regions.

Wind blowing over the outwash plain can pick up sand and redeposit it locally, usually against topographic fea-
tures such as the side of a valley. These patches of aeolian sand may therefore occur intercalated with fluvio-
glacial facies, but rarely form large deposits.

So what did you learn?

 Aeolian deposits occur mainly in arid environments where surface water is intermittent and there is little
plant cover. Sands deposited in these desert areas are characteristically both compositionally and mineralog-
ically mature with large-scale cross-bedding formed by the migration of dune bedforms.
 Associated facies in arid regions are mud and evaporites deposited in ephemeral lakes and poorly sorted flu-
vial and alluvial fan deposits. Aeolian deposits are less common outside of desert environments, occurring
as local sandy facies associated with beaches and glaciers, and as dust distributed over large distances into
many different environments, but, apart from Quaternary loess, rarely in significant quantities.

Characteristics of aeolian deposits

 lithologies – sand and silt only
 mineralogy – mainly quartz, with rare examples of carbonate or other grains
 texture – well- to very well-sorted silt to medium sand
 bed geometry – sheets or lenses of sand
 sedimentary structures – large-scale dune crossbedding and parallel stratification in sands
 palaeocurrents – dune orientations reconstructed from cross-bedding indicate wind direction
 facies associations – occur with alluvial fans, ephemeral river and lake facies in deserts, also with beach de-
posits or glacial outwash facies

5
 Wind Erosion - Processes and Control Methods
JUNE 22, 2021
|IN INDUSTRY ARTICLES
|BY TROY ADAMS
What is wind erosion?
Wind erosion is the transportation and deposition of soil by the wind. It is a common, natural (and important) phe-
nomenon occurring mostly in dry, sandy soils or anywhere the soil is loose, dry, and finely granulated.

What are the wind erosion processes?

Wind erosion consists of three distinct processes:
Initiation of the soil particle movement through detachment or deflation which is closely related to soil type and surface
condition. The quantity of soil movement depends on the particle size, the cloudiness of particles, aerodynamic roughness,
and wind velocity itself.
Soil particle transportation through suspension, saltation, and surface creep. Sediment transport occurs when soil parti-
cles are lifted by airflow and moved along at various heights above the surface of the ground, often colliding with other
particles. Depending on the size weight of the soil particles, the energy required to loosen and transport particles varies,
with stronger winds carrying heavier particles.
Deposition of soil particles happens when eventually the wind velocity decreases, and soil particles are deposited. In-field
deposition typically occurs in furrows or vegetated areas. The deposition also occurs along the edge of fields in ditches,
fence rows, vegetation or barriers such as windbreaks.

What are the common wind erosion control methods?

Wind erosion is controlled by reducing the wind erosion forces on erodible soil particles and/or by creating aggre-
gates or soil surfaces more resistant to wind erosion forces. This can be accomplished by reducing field width, main-
taining vegetation cover on the soil surface, utilizing stable soil aggregates, roughing the land surface to reduce wind
velocity and trap drifting soil and levelling the land to reduce erosion rates on slopes and hilltops. Let us unpack
wind erosion control methods whilst giving a list of bullet points of all methods and a detailed explanation of each.
Windbreaks, wind barriers and shelterbelts – contribute to wind erosion control by reducing wind speed on their leeward
side below the threshold required for initiation of soil movement and by decreasing the field length along the erosive wind di-

6
 ection. The effect of any barrier in reducing the rate of soil movement depends on the wind velocity and direction, the
hreshold velocities needed to initiate soil movement, and the barrier shape, width, height and porosity.
Annual and perennial grass barriers – perennial grass barriers have worked well for controlling wind erosion, trapping
snow and reducing evaporation on dryland cropping areas. Annual crops are sometimes interplanted in narrow strips or row
so one crop provides protection to the other crop or unprotected fallow field.
Polymeric emulsions – these are non-vegetative covers mainly but not exclusively used on non-agricultural land where it is
not feasible to obtain cover by growing and managing vegetation. Polymeric emulsions stabilize soil against wind erosion by
orming a (1) surface crust that indispersible in water, durable yet porous enough to allow percolation of water, (2) weak
enough for seedling penetration (3) must be able to maintain their sticky property indefinitely when used as permanent wind
erosion control covers (4) must be easy to apply.
Artificial barriers – only a very limited basis snow fencing, board walls, bamboo and willow fences, earthen banks, hand-in-
serted straw rows and rock walls have been used for wind erosion control. There is usually a very high cost in material and la-
bor to construct these barriers and their use is generally restricted to high-value crops. They can also be used in sand dune ar-
eas to aid the initial stabilization of the area while grass and trees are being established.
Strip cropping – this is dividing a large field into strips that are narrow enough to help control wind erosion. Usually strips
of erosion-resistant crops or standing stubble are alternated with other crops or unprotected fallow fields. Strip cropping re-
duces the downwind avalanching effect of wind erosion and is a very effective erosion control method.
No tillage – no till is a procedure whereby a crop is planted directly into a seedbed that has not been tilled since harvest of the
previous crop. Only the immediate seed zone is disturbed, and no additional tillage occurs. Reducing the number of tillage
operations between harvest and planting of the next crop is an important step toward decreasing soil erosion.
Cover crops – the main objective of cover crop is to produce vegetative protection for the land against wind and water ero-
sion. Cover crops are usually planted when protective residues are inadequate, and winter and spring winds are high. They are
planted between rows to provide protection against high susceptibility to abrasive injury in the seedling stage.
Roughening the land surface – soil surface roughness consists of anchored vegetative material, soil ridges, soil clods, or
combinations of all three. These all help to control wind erosion by lowering the wind velocity near the soil surface and by
sheltering erodible soil fractions.
Emergency tillage – it is a last resort wind erosion control practice than can provide a rough, cloddy surface. This is usually
carried out when vegetative cover is depleted by excessive grazing, drought, improper or excessive tillage or by growing
crops that produce little or no residue. Emergency tillage should be done before blowing starts since soils rapidly become
more erodible under the abrasion of moving particles, thus requiring even more drastic measures to prevent further erosion.
Geosynthetic erosion control products – a geosynthetic provides containment when it encapsulates or surrounds materials
such as sand, rocks, and straw. Examples include natural fiber mulches, geotextile filters, erosion control netting, riprap, ero-
sion control blankets and open weave meshes. These products provide different properties to the soil which include vegeta-
ive density, good moisture absorption, flexibility over differential settlement and good sediment yields.

One is spoilt for choice when it comes to the selection of wind erosion control methods. As depicted by the article
the application of each method now depends on the intended outcomes of the wind erosion control plan which
should also factor in the why and how it should be done. Wind erosion should be prevented because it reduces soil
productivity, increases the generation of dust, clogs streams and drainage channels, buries plants and blocks sun-
light.

Are environmental regulations, health and safety concerns or potential

profit loss a concern right now?
Your feedback is important to us. If you enjoyed reading this Global Road Technology industry update and found it
informative, please let us know by leaving a REVIEW.

REFERENCES
Jarrah, M., Mayel, S., Tatarko, J., Funk, R., Kuka, K. 2020. A review of wind erosion models: Data requirements,
processes, and validity. Catena. 187. 104388.

7
Nordstrom, K.F., and Hotta, S. 2004. Wind erosion from cropland in the USA: a review of problems, solutions and
prospects. Geoderma. 121. 157 – 167.
Sprague, C.J., and Sprague, J.E. 2016. Geosynthetics in erosion and sediment control. Geotextiles – From Design to
Applications. 531 – 562.
Tibke, G. 1988. Basic Principles of Wind Erosion Control. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 22/23. 103 -
122.

8
UNIVERSITY of NEBRASKA–LINCOLN
Institute of Agriculture and Natural ResourcesCROPWATCH

Figure 1. Planting down the old row and leaving the residue attached can help reduce the potential for wind ero-
sion. Residue movers should not be used as they detach residue, allowing it to be moved by wind or water.
Practices to Reduce Wind Erosion
MAY 11, 2018
Paul Jasa - Extension Engineer
Soil erosion by wind becomes a serious problem when natural vegetation is removed or depleted. It can occur
anywhere when vegetation and climatic conditions are conducive. These conditions exist when

 the soil is loose, dry, and finely granulated;

 the soil surface is reasonably smooth and vegetative cover is nonexistent or sparse;
 there are large fields with no obstructions to reduce the force of the wind; and
 the wind is sufficiently strong to initiate soil movement (Beasley, et. al. 1984).

Practices not recommended to abate erosion from wind:

9
Figure 1. Historically, tillage was performed to roughen the soil surface to reduce soil particle detachment by
wind. While effective for a short time, the tillage destroyed aggregate stability, dried the soil, and actually made
the soil more susceptible to wind erosion as the roughened surface broke down.

Figure 2. Vertical tillage implements detach the crop residue, making it susceptible to movement by wind and
water. It’s best to leave residues anchored and attached to reduce erosion and minimize residue movement.

While many people think wind erosion is only a problem in arid regions out west, any time there is dry, bare,
unprotected soil, wind erosion can occur. Tillage, historically used to prepare fields for planting, creates soil
conditions susceptible to wind erosion by breaking down soil aggregation, destroying residue, and drying the
soil. Without moisture to hold the particles together, wind can detach soil particles and transport them across the
fields.

 Large particles move by saltation, rolling along the surface detaching more soil particles.
 Smaller particles move by surface creep, much like a sand dune, but on a much smaller scale.
 The smallest particles move by suspension, meaning they are carried along by the wind, forming dust
clouds in the sky.

Reducing Wind Erosion

10
The best way to reduce wind erosion is to keep the wind off the soil surface by covering the soil surface. Grow-
ing vegetation, either cash crops or cover crops, protects the soil and keeps the winds higher off the surface.
Standing crop residues function the same way. Flattened crop residues are more effective at reducing soil ero-
sion by water by absorbing raindrop impact. The key to reducing erosion is to absorb the energy of the wind or
water before it can detach soil particles. Windbreaks and other barriers are also effective at keeping the wind off
the soil surface and reducing soil particle detachment, but these practices may take land out of crop production.

Once soil particles are detached, their movement needs to be limited by increasing deposition. Any time the
wind (or flowing water) slows down; it loses the ability to carry as much soil. For instance, surface residues
and/or growing vegetation greatly reduce soil movement by saltation or creep by creating barriers to particle
movement. Historically, tillage was used to roughen the soil surface to do the same thing. However, the tillage
treatment was extremely temporary as the wind erosion smoothed out the tilled soil surface. The tillage actually
broke down more soil aggregates and buried more residue, making the soil more susceptible to future erosion
events.

Windbreaks and other barriers are effective at decreasing soil particle transport by causing deposition behind
the barrier. While this is more easily seen in the snowdrifts that form behind a snow fence in winter, the same
thing happens with soil in a wind erosion event. The deposition usually occurs in a distance behind the barrier
roughly equal to twice the barrier height. In addition the barrier reduces the wind velocity beyond it to effec-
tively reduce soil particle detachment for a distance of about five to ten times the barrier height. Thus, wind-
breaks with 50-foot tall trees would “protect” the soil for about 500 feet downwind from them, not very far
across a quarter section of land.

Preventing Erosion
When it comes to wind erosion control, prevention is far more effective than the cure (emergency treatments
once wind erosion is occurring). The soil surface should be kept covered with growing vegetation or standing,
attached residues. While many producers practice no-till in Nebraska, those who run residue movers on their
planters risk wind erosion problems because they detach their residues. Likewise, stalk shredding and vertical
tillage increase the chance of wind erosion problems as these operations also detach crop residues. In areas
where wind erosion occurs regularly, producers should no-till between the rows of standing residue and let the
residue keep the wind off the soil surface. This standing residue will also help keep any surface residue from be-
ing moved by the wind. In areas where raindrop impact and water erosion are more of a concern, producers
should plant down the old row, without residue movers, so that the residue remains attached and protects the
row.

Emergency treatments to reduce wind erosion once it is occurring are fairly limited. Tillage to roughen the soil
surface was historically used but actually added to the problem with future wind events. Roughening the soil
surface with a drill seeding a cover crop may be more effective if the cover crop can become established, as the
canopy of the cover crop will protect the soil as the winds smooth out the roughened surface. This roughening
with a drill while seeding a cover crop could be done on widely spaced passes across the field, perpendicular to
the wind, and repeated in the spaces between the passes during future wind events. This would provide the
roughened soil surface historically created with tillage as well as add vegetation to protect the surface.

If center pivot irrigation is available, producers with active wind erosion should irrigate the dry soil surface to
reduce it from blowing. Wet soil surfaces are less likely to blow because of the moisture and the cohesion be-
tween soil particles. In a similar way, the cohesion between soil particles on a crusted soil surface may reduce
wind erosion problems by holding them together. Producers should not till a soil to eliminate a crust unless the
seedlings are having problems emerging through the crust. Even then, the crust should only be broken up over
11
the row, not in the middles between the rows. Again, if center pivot irrigation is available, it would be more ef-
fective to irrigate to soften the crust to aid seedling emergence.

Take-Home Point
The potential for wind erosion is reduced any time the soil surface is covered. Likewise, the potential is reduced
if the soil surface is kept moist. Crop residue and growing vegetation keep the wind off the soil surface and re-
duce soil moisture evaporation. Tillage destroys soil cover and dries the soil and should be avoided in areas
prone to wind erosion. Standing, attached residue is the most effective practice to reduce wind erosion so plant-
ing equipment should be operated to minimize residue detachment.

Reference
Beasley, R.P., et al., 1984. Erosion and sediment pollution control. Iowa State University Press.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Top 5 Measures for Controlling Wind Erosion

Article shared by :

This article throws light upon the top five measures adopted for controlling wind erosion. The mea-
sures are:- 1. Control on Dry land Cultivated Soils 2. Control on Irrigated Lands 3. Control on Veg-
etable and especially Croplands 4. Control on Grazing Lands 5. Control on Sand Dunes and Other
Problem Areas.

Measure # 1. Control on Dry Land Cultivated Soils:

Practices such as stubble mulching and minimum tillage, herbicides, cover crops, strip cropping, crop
rotation, wind barriers and shelterbelts, mulches, emergency tillage, etc. have been successfully used
to control wind erosion on dry land cultivated soils.

A Brief discussion of each is given below:

a. Stubble Mulching and Minimum Tillage:

Stubble mulching is one of the effective ways to control wind erosion and conserve soil moisture. This
practice is most appropriate with wheat and other small grains, and sorghum. The stubble mulch is
particularly needed on sandy soils where a rough surface cannot be maintained. Tillage practices
which result in a rough cloddy surface, preferably with trash cover or stubble mulch help to check
wind erosion.

Rough tillage traps the saltating particles, decreases wind velocity at the soil surface, prevents soil
particles from breaking up into small particles which will drift, and increases percolation rate and de-
creases runoff.
12
The quantity of crop residue required to control wind erosion can be estimated from the analysis of
the major factors that affect soil blowing. For example, the more susceptible the soil is to movement
by wind, the more residue is required to prevent it from blowing.

Large fields require more residue than narrow fields or fields protected by wind breaks and shelter
belts. Vegetables and other crops that are damaged by abrasion require more residue than do field
crops. Arid areas need more residue than humid areas, the regions of high winds require more cover
than those of low winds.

Table 6.1 shows the amounts of vegetative cover required to hold wind erosion to 12.5 tonnes per ha
on field with different soil textures in an average semi-arid region where the climatic factor C’ is about
100 during the windy season. These amounts also vary with weather conditions throughout the grow-
ing season, disease, insects, etc.

Table 6.2 shows the approximate amounts of vegetative cover required on sandy soils with about 15%
non-erodible fractions ( > 0.84 mm diam) in the more humid areas where the climatic factor C’ is
about 18 during the windy season.

13
When row crops such as corn and sorghum are harvested, either the stubble should be kept about 30
cm high or at-least 2 rows in 20 should be left standing. If these crops are pastured, the stalk should
be removed while there are still enough stalks with leaves attached to furnish protection.

The main purpose of minimum tillage is to grow crops with fewer tillage operations and thus reduce
costs of crop production. Minimum tillage also conserves residue, reduces soil pulverisation and holds
down soil losses by wind. Minimum tillage is often practicable with row crops.

Tillage Equipment:
Tillage machinery and tillage practices can aggravate or alleviate the problem of wind erosion. Ma-
chines that pulverize the soil or cut down vegetative cover, increase the soil blowing. On the other
hand, the destruction of weeds and preparation of seed bed for raising crops, although reduces vege-
tation, yet can create a cloddy and rough surface to prevent blowing.

Farmers should choose implements suited to his own condition, operate them at the minimum speeds
to avoid pulverizing the soil and reducing residue, and limit tillage operations to as few as are consis-
tent with adequate seed bed preparation and weed control.

In general, tillage machines used for stubble mulching and minimum tillage are those that stir and
mix the soil, and those that cut beneath the surface without stirring or turning the tilled layer.

(i) Machines that Stir and Mix the Soil:

The one-way disc is an excellent implement for destroying weeds and often is the only implement that
works in extremely heavy residue. Under average residue and soil conditions, however, it buries too
much residue and if used more than once in a tillage sequence pulverises the soil which blows readily.
Residue burial increases as depth of tillage is increased. For best conservation, the one-way disc
should be operated at a 7.5 to 10 cm depth, about 4.5 km/hr, and at as wide a cutting width consistent
with good weed control.

A tool that chops and bury residue and pulverise and loosen the soil, promotes wind erosion. How-
ever, if in addition to pulverisation and residue burial the machine leaves a rough, undulating surface
of depressions and small rounds of soil, it partially compensates for residue and clod destruction. Disc
harrows should not be used to cultivate bare soils where soil blowing is a hazard.

Field cultivators are reasonably well suited to stubble mulching because they have flexibility of operat-
ing depth, tillage point and spacing between shanks. The tillage points may be narrow sweeps, flat
shovels or double or single-end narrow shovels.

The field cultivator cultivates fallow, prepares the seedbed, and to a limited extent roughens and
brings clods to the surface to stop soil blowing. For deeper tillage than field cultivators chisel ploughs
14
are designed. If residues are not heavy enough to cause clogging, the chisel plough can be an effective
primary stubble mulch tillage machine.

The percentage of residue saved on the surface with the chisel generally decreases with increased
amount of residues; it increases with greater height of stubbles. The percentage saved ranges from 50
to 80%. Close spacing of chisels effectively destroys weeds and produces a rough cloddy surface.

On crop land, where wind erosion is severe, the spring-tooth harrow is somewhat better than the
spike-tooth harrow. The spring took harrow penetrates deeper, brings more clods to the surface,
causes more ridging, and destroys more small weeds than the spike-tooth and spade-tooth harrow.
Mulch treaders are used to distribute and anchor heavy residues and to destroy small weeds just be-
fore drilling.

The residues are punched into the soil and anchored. Rotary tillers, specifically the side-winder
tilther, provide good wind erosion control for row crops such as corn grown on sandy soils. The tilther
leaves the soil and residue between rows undisturbed protecting seedlings from sandblasting. When
the seeding mechanism is attached to the machine, the tillage and planting is done in one operation.

(ii) Machines that Cut below the Surface:

Sub-surface sweeps and blades are the most effective implements available for conserving residues on
the soil surface. The implements consist of one or more rigid blades (v-shaped or straight) mounted
on a heavy tool bar or frame. The frame may be rigid or flexible to better fit the shape of the land.
Blades vary in size from about 75 to 210 cm.

Rod-weeders are often used for weed control and final seed bed preparation after initial operation
with sub-surface sweeps or one-way discs. Rod-weeders also maintain residues on the soil surface.
Their main disadvantages are clogging in heavy residues and a tendency to compact the soil through
repeated operation at the same depth.

The tendency to form a tillage pan can be alleviated by placing narrow duck-foot shovels or chisel
points ahead of the rod to loosen and fracture the soil below the normal tillage depths. All the imple-
ments described above will bury some surface residue depending upon the speed and depth of opera-
tion, angle and concavity of discs and width pitch and angle or sweep blades.

Height and length of stubble, amount of pretillage residue and previous positioning or orientation of
residue also influences the amount of residue buried. Several investigations indicate that the average
amount of residue buried by indicated machines is as given in

These approximate values may also be used to estimate the amount of residue remaining at the end of
a tillage season. Proper planting equipment is most important in controlling wind erosion.
15
Often the most erosive conditions occur after planting and before the crop is large enough to provide
protection. Planting equipment should preserve as much residue as possible, keep the surface rough
and cloddy, and at the same time, place seed in moist, firm soil.

Observations indicate that semi-deep furrow, single-disc drills, and deep furrows drills with shovel
shoe or hoe type openers are most satisfactory for planting small grains in mulch.

Deep furrow drills also provide a roughness in the 5 to 12.5 cm range, which is most effective for wind
erosion control. Row crops have been most successfully planted in mulch with surface planters
equipped with furrow openers, with listers operated at shallow depth, and with till planters.

b. Herbicides:
More residue is conserved for wind erosion control if tillage operations could be avoided. The ultimate
aim in stubble mulch or minimum tillage is no tillage where crops are planted directly into the residue
of the previous crop. As effective chemicals for weed control are developed, no tillage systems are in-
creasingly used.

Herbicides (such as atrazine) are also combined with limited tillage to provide better weed control
and, at the same time, conserve as much residue as possible for effective wind erosion control. The ef-
fectiveness of herbicides and the techniques for applying them vary with climatic and soil conditions.

c. Cover Crops:
A cover crop is any crop planted solely to control erosion. It is usually planted for protection when
regular crops are off the land, but also may be planted in strips or between rows to provide protection
for vegetables or other crops highly susceptible to abrasive injury in the seedling stage. Wheat, rye,
oats, sorghums and peas have been used successfully as cover crops.

Cover crops are more suited to humid areas because in drier areas they compete for moisture. In drier
areas, the cover crops are used only for control on erosion-susceptible knolls, on land without protec-
tive cover, or on cultivated land.

In the first two cases, pasturing should be avoided or extremely limited because the aim is to produce
vegetative cover for the land. In the third case, overgrazing must be avoided to retain enough residue
to protect the land. Planting beans or sorghum in summer can provide a protective cover for the criti-
cal wind period in field where former crops have not left adequate residue and severe soil blowing in
imminent.

d. Strip Cropping:

16
It is generally true that wind with a wide, unbroken sweep carries more drifting material than it does
over narrow strip, and, therefore, its sand-blast action is greater on un-stripped land. This seems to be
at-least one reason why strip-crop farming assists in control in most of the localities.

In clay soils, drifting frequently piles the soil in the stubble at the edges of each strip to as great an ex-
tent as on the edge of a large field. Strip cropping on this type of soil, therefore, has definite limita-
tions.

Strip cropping aids in the control of soil blowing by shortening the distance that loose soil can move.
Strips laid out on contour lines also conserve moisture which in turn helps to prevent blowing. To
control wind erosion, crop strips are run straight and at right angles to the prevailing winds.

To control water erosion, crop strips follow the contour of the land whenever possible. The relative
severity of the two types of erosion determine which way to place the strips. In controlling soil blow-
ing, however, even contour strip cropping is better than planting large areas of a single crop.

Strip cropping does not require any change in cropping practices, and it does not remove any land
from cultivation. The field is simply sub-divided into alternate strips of erosion resistant crops and
erosion susceptible crops or fallow.

Strip cropping also requires adequate quantities of crop residues as an additional protection against
wind erosion. Strips of crops like pulses (urd, moong, lentil, grain etc.) or sorgham or jowar may be al-
ternated with groundnut or ragi.

Erosion-resistant crops include small grains and other crops seeded closely to cover the ground
rapidly. Erosion susceptible crops are tobacco, sugar beets, peas, beans, potatoes, peanuts, asparagus,
etc. Cotton and sorghum are intermediate in resistance to wind erosion.

Strip cropping controls soil blowing by reducing soil avalanching. The rate of soil avalanching varies
directly with the erodibility of the soil and the width of the eroding field. So one factor that determines
the width of the strips is the kind of soil and another the land use.

In the vegetable-growing areas, for example, buffer strips consisting of very narrow strips of rye,
wheat, or grass may be used with wider strips on erosion susceptible land.

A common practice is to make the buffers one-tenth as wide as the erosion susceptible strips. For ex-
ample, buffers would be 2.45 m wide if erosion susceptible strips are 24.5 m wide. In drier areas with
wheat and sorghum, erosion resistant and erosion susceptible strips are generally equal in width.

17
Table 6.4 shows average width of strips on different soil textures based on wind velocity of 64.4 km/
hr at a height of 15.24 m, wind blowing at right angles to the strips and stubble 30.5 cm high upwind
from the erodible strips.

As shown in Table 6.4, width increases as soil texture becomes finer, except for clays subject to granu-
lation. Granular clay aggregates act much as sand particles and, therefore, susceptible to wind ero-
sion. Topographic features, such as irregularity, length, degree and exposure of slope in relation to
prevailing winds, influence the effectiveness of crop strips.

Standard farm machinery does not work efficiently on strips narrower than 15 metres. On field that
requires strips narrower than 15 m, erosion resistant crops should be grown continuously or field
should be under permanent cover.

e. Crop Rotations:
A system of crop rotations is commonly used on dry land subject to soil blowing. In areas, where
moisture is available, legumes and grasses should also be included in the rotations. Crop rotations es-
pecially those that include legumes and grasses often improve soil tilth and productivity, but their ma-
jor function is to provide year round cover that prevent soil blowing.

A good crop rotation that will effectively maintain soil structure and conserve moisture should be fol-
lowed. In general, close growing crops are more effective for erosion control than intertilled crops. In-
tertilled crops such as corn, cotton, and vegetables offer some protection.

The effectiveness of crops, however, is dependent upon stage of growth, density of cover, row direc-
tion, width of rows, kind of crop and climatic conditions.

f. Windbreaks and Shelterbelts:

Windbreaks and shelterbelts are important soil conservation practices improving
the microclimate for production and protection of crop and range-lands against
destructive wind erosion.

A windbreak is a barrier for protection from winds commonly associated with

homestead garden, orchard, etc., while a shelterbelt is usually a longer barrier
than a windbreak consisting of a combination of shrubs and trees intends for pro-
tection of field crops and conservation of soil.

The factors influencing the effectiveness of windbreaks are density, height and
length. The three systems of windbreaks recognized usually are permanent, inter-
mediate and temporary windbreaks.

18
The spacing of windbreaks depends upon the density and angle of windbreaks to
the direction of the hazardous wind. The species suitable for a site much depends
upon the soil type, climate including rainfall, elevation moisture supply, etc.

The selection of species should be so made that the tallest may be in the middle
row and smallest trees or shrubs are planted only in the end rows of the wind-
breaks. A more or less conical cross-section of windbreaks will provide the best
protection from wind effects and also increase the zone of protection.

The tall growing and shrubs like species should, therefore, be intermingled to ob-
tain such a cross section to the windbreak.

Protection of shelterbelts are carried out by effectively fencing the area, filling up
of casualties so that there are no gaps, measures to protect from fire and carrying
out cleanings and thinning of shelterbelts according to the needs of the belts.

Following species are recommended, especially for dry regions of India.

Five Row Belt:

(i) Central Row:
Acacia arabica (babul), Albizzia lebbek (siris), Azadirachta indica (neem), Dal-
bergia sissoo (shisham), Eucalyptus rostrata, Ficus spp., Holop-telea integrifolia,
Kigelia pinnata (sausage tree), Prosopis specigera (khejri), Tamarindus indica
(imli).

(ii) Flank Rows:

Acacia Senegal, Acacia leucophloea, Anacardium occidentale, Casuarina equiseti-
folia, Cassia siamea, Inga dulcis (Madras thorn), Moringa pterygosperma (Sain-
jna), Prosopis juliflora, Tamarix articulata (Farash).

(iii) Outer Rows:

Acacia jacquemontii, Agave spp., Capparis aphylla, Calligonum polygonoides
(phog), Cassia aurticulata, Dodonaea viscosa, Glyricida maculata, parkinsonia ac-
uleata, Prosopis julifora, Saccharum munja (sarkanda), Sav- ladora persica, S.
oleoides, Vitex negundo, Ziziphus spp.

Three Row Belt:

(i) Central Row:
Same species as in the central row and flank row for a 5-row belt.

19
(ii) Outer Rows:
Same species as in the outer rows for a five row belt.

Single Row Belt:

Tamarix articulata, Acacia spp, Albizzia amara, casuarina equisetifolia, Cypres-
ses spp., Inga dulcis, Parkinsonia aculeata (Jerusalem thorn) Prosopis juliflora.
The effectiveness of any barrier would in fact depend on the wind velocity and di-
rection, and the shape, width and porosity of the barrier.

When the wind blows at right angles to the average tree shelterbelts, wind veloc-
ity is reduced 70 to 80% near the belt. Velocity is reduced by 20% at a distance
equal to 20 times the height of the belt. But no reduction in velocity occurs at a
distance equal to 30 to 40 times the belt height.

The higher the average wind velocity, the closer shelterbelts or other barriers
should be spaced to protect the soil from blowing. If the wind velocity is 64.4
km/hr at a 15.25 m height, the following distances may normally be protected
from soil erosion by the barriers indicated.

Other wind erosion control practices, such as stubble mulching, are applied to the
land in combination with the windbreaks. Annual crop and grass barriers are also
generally planted at wider intervals than required for full protection. For exam-
ple, one or two rows of sorghum or grass planted at 18 metre intervals is a com-
mon supplement to other wind erosion control measures.
20
It is generally observed that narrower belts of medium porosity are equally or
more effective and take less land out of production. The ideal is a one row belt.
When trees die in a row in the more arid areas, three rows should be planted to
ensure protection.

g. Mulching:
The maintenance of crop residues on or near the surface reduces evaporation and
constitutes an essential phase of water management in potentially wind- erodible
arable soils, which is the greatest single factor in wind erosion control.

The threshold velocity for movement of un-decomposed crop residues, even if

scattered on the surface of the ground, is higher than most of the erodible soil
particles. If the wind is not too strong, some of its force is absorbed by residue
and soil erosion is considerably reduced.

To be fully effective in reducing wind erosion, part of the mulch material should
be anchored) in soil. The portion of residue protruding above the surface forms
an effective trap for soil particles moving by saltation or surface creep.

The principal use of mulches in dry land farming is to treat highly erosive knolls
and blowouts particularly in sandy soils. Generally, cotton gin trash, straw, ma-
nure and corn cobs are used as mulches.

It has been observed that use of 1 to 2 tonnes straw or hay, 4 to 5 tonnes corn
cobs, 6 to 8 tonnes manure, or about 5 tonnes cotton gin trash per acre effectively
controls erosion on vulnerable spots and prevents their spreading to other parts
of the field.

Materials may be spread by hand or with a manure spreader. They should be an-
chored with a disc packer or ordinary disc operated at a very small angle so that
discs do not burry residue.

h. Emergency tillage:
Once vegetative cover is depleted, it is necessary to do emergency tillage (Fig. 6.3)
for immediate protection. Emergency tillage, however, should be used only after
such methods as stubble mulching, cover crops, strip cropping, crop rotations,
regular tillage, and windbreaks and other barriers have failed.

Emergency tillage creates a rough, cloddy soil surface to resist the force of the
wind. It is only a temporary measure because clods readily disintegrate.
21
Emergency tillage should, therefore, be done before soil blowing starts. Soil
erodes more rapidly under abrasion of moving soil particles and requires more
drastic measures to prevent it from further erosion. If soil blowing has started,
the emergency tillage should be done on windward edge of the field.

Fig. 6.3 Emergency tillage for wind erosion control

Sandy soils are by far the most difficult to hold with emergency tillage Generally,
clods are not obtained, regardless of the depth of tillage At best any emergency
measure in sand will be rather short lived, it is far better to keep such soils per-
manently covered with vegetation. However if tillage is required, it is better to till
the entire area with a lister at sufficient depth to produce a rough surface (Fig
6.4).

22
As far as possible natural vegetation should be encouraged because there is more
danger of erosion from too much tillage of sandy soil than from no tillage. Fine-
and medium-textured soils, however, respond more readily to emergency tillage
than sand. In these soils, chiseling may be done to produce a rough, cloddy sur-
face (Fig. 6.5).

Effective implements for emergency tillage are: listers with 20 or 35 cm bottoms

(Fig. 6.4), narrow and heavy duty chisels (Fig. 6.5), duck foot and wide spade
shovel cultivators, one-way with two or three discs removed at intervals to give
lister effect, the sand fighter, and pitting machines. The choice of implement and
the method used depend on the seriousness of possible erosion, soil texture and
the cropping system.

Emergency tillage must be at right angles to prevailing winds. Tillage must be

done deep enough to bring compact clods, usually 7.5 to 15 cm to the surface. If
serious soil blowing is expected, tillage should be done on larger area with at-
least a 35 cm lister spaced 105 cm or a 20 cm lister spaced 50 to 60 cm.

If moderate soil blowing is expected, individual fields may be tilled with chisels or
cultivators. For most types of chisels, 60 cm spacing gives good protection. Inter-
mediate speeds of cultivation 3.5 to 4.0 m.p.h. provide the most effective sur-
faces.

The crop also indicates the choice of emergency tillage methods. Often a wheat
crop may be too sparse to hold against erosive winds, yet a partial crop may be

23
salvaged. In such cases, the entire field should be tilled with a chisel with the
points spaced 135 cm apart.

i. Deep Ploughing:
Deep ploughing provides wind erosion control on sandy soils if adequate
amounts of clod forming clay sub-soil can be brought to the surface, this is done
with large moldboard or disc ploughs to a depth of about 40 to 120 cm.

Generally, the increased cloddiness and roughness that results from deep plough-
ing of sandy soils is only temporary. Therefore, the practice must be supple-
mented with other wind erosion control measures.

j. Land forming and Benching:

Land modifications for irrigation, water erosion control, and moisture conser-
vation sometimes changes exposed knolls, tops and slopes of hills and field
lengths that affect the rate and amount of erosion of soil by wind.

Research data on the effect of land modification on wind erosion are meager, but
calculations using the wind erosion equation for average climate, soil and residue
conditions indicate that shortening field lengths from 305 to 30.5 m could reduce
potential soil loss by 50%.

Similarly, in a 366 m long and 4% slope land benched with a series of 73 m wide
level benches showed 60% reduction in soil loss by wind erosion. While it seems
unlikely that land will be extensively modified to control wind erosion, all indica-
tions are that it will be increasingly modified for irrigation and to control water
erosion. These same land modifications also may provide substantial wind ero-
sion control.

Measure # 2. Control on Irrigated Lands:

Wind erosion occurs on irrigated land because:
(1) A high percentage of the crops grown are row crops that are harvested and
leave very little or no residue; and

(2) Land leveling and other intensive field preparations for irrigation pulverise
the soil and destroy all vegetation.

Wind erosion control on irrigated land can be attained by applying most of the
control measures practiced on dry-lands. Some special procedures, however, are
used depending on whether the land is a new or an established irrigated field.
24
a. Control on New Fields:
For successful soil conservation, it is necessary to decide the capacity of the man-
agement system to handle the area before clearing the vegetation for cultivation.
The operations such as leveling and ditching should be carried out during the
growing season when wind velocities are usually low and a cover crop can be es-
tablished, if needed.

If wind erosion is a threat, a winter hardy small grain crop having good root sys-
tem should be planted to tie down the soil mass. Crops must be taken regularly in
the following seasons if the soil is not highly susceptible to blowing. If it is highly
susceptible, the field must be kept under cover crop or pasture.

b. Control on Established Fields:

The time between seed bed preparation and planting should be as short as possi-
ble. Tilling of old residues should be delayed and the succeeding crop must be
planted in time. As far as possible, the soil should not be pulverised.

Also all ploughing, ridging, discing or other tillage operations should be done
when the soil is moist enough to produce clods, but not wet enough to cause com-
paction. If soil is so dry that deep tillage does not form clods, post-tilling irriga-
tion should be given.

The ridges need not be destroyed unnecessarily. For pasture crops, residues need
not be ploughed but sub-surface seeps may be used to kill weeds. To ensure mini-
mum soil loss, row crops, such as corn, beans, sugar-beets and soybean, should
be planted on ridges that have rough, cloddy surfaces.

The ridges will control wind erosion, shelter seedlings and provide furrows for ir-
rigation. Conventional planters can be adapted to ridge planting by attaching
shovels in front of planters. Chisels, listers and other implements suggested for
dry land farming may be used to provide rough and cloddy surface. The ridges
should be at right angle to the prevailing winds.

If there is no residue from the previous crop, a cover crop should be planted to
protect the land. Winter wheat, rye and oats provide effective covers in adapted
areas. On large fields, the field length may be reduced by leaving strips of stubble
or cover crop when preparing seedbeds.

25
After the crop produces sufficient growth for protection, the strips can be tilled.
Strips should be about 100 ft apart on soils that blow easily. Mulches such as
straw or hay may be used on small, highly erosive spots.

Row crops should be planted in rows running at right angles to the direction of
the prevailing winds or on the contour. Wheat planted in rows parallel to the di-
rection of the wind causes about 2.5 times more soil loss than when planted in
rows at right angles to it.

Tree windbreaks should be used to protect farmsteads and gardens on irrigated

lands. They are not recommended for irrigated fields because they use water and
take valuable land out of production.

However, annual crops or grass barriers suitable for dry land conditions can be
planted at 18 to 30.5 m intervals. Irrigation is also recommended as a practice in
case where a high value crop could be severely damaged due to wind erosion.

Measure # 3. Control on Vegetable and Specialty Croplands:

Vegetable and other specialty crops are often damaged by moving soil particles,
burial of plants, exposure of roots and by the drying and twisting effects of wind
on the plants. The problem is more severe on mineral soils, but also occurs on or-
ganic mucks. Erosion tolerance for most vegetables is extremely low. Beets, car-
rots, onions, spinach, and squash are damaged by soil movement of 1/10 to 1/2
tonnes/acre.

Potatoes, asparagus, cabbage and eggplant will tolerate up to 1.0 tonne/acre of

soil blowing and sweet corn and peanuts will not suffer severe damage with soil
losses up to 2.0 tonnes/acre.

Damage to sub- crops generally occurs in the springs, most of the wind erosion
control practices used for dry land agriculture also apply to vegetable and spe-
cialty crops. However, the method of use and designing may be slightly different.

a. Buffer Strips and Annual Crop Rows:

Buffer strips have proved effective for wind erosion control of the crops. A sug-
gested width of strip and the buffer crops are given in Table 6.5.

26
Where single row cereal buffers are used to protect carrots, onions or beets, the
best practice is to seed the buffer with the vegetable. After the critical blow season
is past, the buffers may be destroyed by cultivation or by the use of chemicals.

b. Cover Crops:
Planting a cover crop is an effective way to control wind erosion on vegetable
land. Rye, wheat, barley and oats have been found as effective covers for veg-
etable growing areas. Tree shelterbelts can provide long time protection for
cropped fields.

Generally two rows of tall growing, adapted evergreen or deciduous trees, should
be planted around farm boundaries. Kinds of trees for this purpose include pine,
spruce, mulberry and poplar.

Multi-flora rose, Privet and other adapted species of shrub also provide effective
protection for vegetable crops. On most sandy soils, they may be spaced about 91
m. Objections to tree and shrub windbreaks are that they compete with the crop
for water and plant nutrients.

Solid board fences, snow fences, burlap fences, crate walls and earthen banks can
also be used to protect vegetable crops. Fences should be 0.9 to 1.5 m high and
spaced at intervals of about 15 times their height. Earthen banks should be 60 cm
high and spaced at 12 to 15 times their height. However, high cost of earthen
banks limits their use to small fields and high value crops.

c. Adhesives:
Several adhesives of petroleum, chemical and organic origin are available for
temporary wind erosion control of vegetable seedlings on mineral soils. Some of
27
the adhesives are relatively expensive, but a few are economical to use on high
value crops threatened by serious blowing that cannot be controlled by other
methods. A list of materials used to effectively control erosion at reasonable cost
are given in Table 6.6.

When applied as a pre-emergence spray, the adhesives should provide protection

until the crop has established an adequate canopy. A herbicide must be applied
with the stabilizing material because any mechanical stirring of the soil to destroy
weeds would also reduce the effectiveness of the stabilizers.

d. Other Measures:
Irrigation, use of heavy rollers and maintaining high water tables will provide
some protection from soil blowing in areas where these controls can be applied.
Irrigating vegetables to control wind erosion is expensive and often difficult to
justify. However, if a sprinkler system is available, one can irrigate highly erodi-
ble spots in fields to protect tender crops and prevent spread to other parts of the
field.

Compaction with a roller is an effective method of reducing wind erosion of muck

soils. Rollers pack the fluffy light weight soil material together and smooth the
land so that wind forces cannot attack the particles to initiate movement.

The capacity of the roller should be such that it provides from 9.1 to 12.1 kg per
linear centimeter pressure to the soil. Maintaining high water tables is a possibil-
ity in areas that are provided with tile drainage. High water tables are best used
with muck soils. The tile outlets may be blocked to allow the water table rise.

28
Measure # 4. Control on Grazing Lands:
Wind erosion occurs on overgrazed lands and around water sites, saltboxes, lanes
and shaded spots where animal traffic concentrates. The problem is serious in
arid and semi-arid regions.

Erosion control on grazing lands can be attained by adapting the fol-

lowing measures:
(1) Limiting livestock number on any given area.

(2) Providing reserves of harvested forage to feed during drought periods.

(3) Dividing pastures and using rotational grazing.

(4) Supplying several watering and saltbox sites and moving the boxes from time
to time.

(5) Fencing animals away and planting grasses (Fig. 6.7).

(6) Avoiding gates or lanes on erosive sites and moving them if an erosion prob-
lem develops.

(7) Providing wind barriers to protect permanent water sites and lanes.

(8) Applying mulches and brush to blowout spots caused by heavy traffic, utility
poles or gas line installations.

29
The increased vegetation resulting from any crop improvement practice also
helps to control wind erosion. Practices that have proved beneficial are contour
furrowing or staggered trenching to reduce runoff and conserve moisture, inter-
seeding of more productive species of grass, spraying to control weeds and brush,
and applying fertilizers when economically feasible.

Measure # 5. Control on Sand Dunes and Other Problem Areas:

The sand dune problem develops mostly along coastal areas and affects summer
beach cottages, military installations farmsteads and highways in addition to
agricultural lands in the areas of Bikaner. Barmer, Churu, Jaisalmer and Jhun-
jhunu districts of Rajasthan and Mahcndragarh district of Haryana.

The beach cottage, highway and military situations can be treated with costly
quick control measures, but sand drift on agricultural and rangelands must be
treated taking economics into consideration.

The programme of stabilization of drifting sand dunes calls for afforestation of

these areas, moisture conservation and use, selection of suitable crop species and
efficient planting methods. The drifting sands bury adjoining fertile lands, pas-
tures, villages, canals, irrigation channels, wells, threaten the adjoining lawns,
disrupts communication.

a. Stabilization of Sand Dunes:

Stabilization of sand dunes depends on reducing wind velocity at the surface
through windbreaks or establishing a vegetative cover. Most attempts to control
sand dunes have aimed at complete vegetation with trees or grasses. Any plant
which is successful in binding sand must be one that is well anchored, able to
hold sand and catch the windborne load.

It must also withstand abrasion and keep its aerial portion above the accumulat-
ing sand. Such plants usually have either deeply buried rhizomes or prostrate
growth with stem anchored by abundant adventitious, fibrous roots for rehabili-
tation of sand dunes.

There are 3 distinct processes in the stabilization of sand dunes:

(i) Protection against biotic influences;

(ii) Treatment of the shifting sands and dunes by fixing barriers from the crest
down to the heel of the dune; and

30
(iii) Re-vegetating by afforestation and establishment of grasses.

(i) Protection of Sand Dune:

Protection of sand dune the area to be afforested for fixation of sand should be
taken up one year in advance; and fenced, preferably with five strands of barbed
wire fixed on angle iron posts spaced 6 m apart.

Brush wood (Thorn) fencing can also be done by Zizyphus or Prosopis cineria as
they are cheaper. Amongst the various types of fences, angle iron post and barbed
wire fencing have proved to be the most efficacious and economical.

(ii) Creation of Barriers:

Stabilization of dunes is based on the principle of reducing the wind velocity at
the dune surface by providing planned obstruction as suggested by Central Arid
Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur. The first step in dune fixation operation con-
sists of placing closely spaced vertical brush wood barriers starting from the crest
to the heel on the windward side of the dune.

These barriers may either be erected in 5 m parallel strips or in 5 m2 chess board

pattern depending upon the wind velocity and wind direction. The planting could
be still closer in more wind prone areas.
Species such as Crotalaria burhia (senia); Leptadenia pyrotechnica (khimp);
Ziziphus num- mularia (bordi); Aerva tomentosa (buida); Calligonum poly-
gonoides (phog); Lasiurus hirsutus (sewan); and Panicum turgidum (munt) have
been found economical for creating such barriers. The fixing of brush wood
should be completed before monsoon.

(iii) Establishment of Vegetation:

Vegetation resists wind velocity and reduces scouring of soil surface against the
wind. In many coastal areas, the sand washed ashore by wave action is blown in-
land which on drying gets deposited in dunes of various types. The only perma-
nent solution to this type of problem is the establishment of vegetal cover over
the entire surface of the dune.

The windward side being the active part of the dune, should be stabilized first. Af-
ter that, the rest of the dune can be brought under control. Three principal steps
are usually required to establish a permanent vegetal cover on coastal dunes. The
initial step consists of planting beach grass and dune grasses to arrest sand move-
ment.
31
Then intermediate seeding or plantings of leguminous species are necessary as
soon as the beach grass has stilled the moving sand. This step may be combined
with the seeding or planting of permanent grasses and legumes or shrubs and
trees, if the initial sand stilling plantings are sufficiently vigorous to have com-
pletely stilled the sand and eliminated the possibility of movement.

The most successful method of plantation is ‘planting bricks’ developed at CAZRI,

Jodhpur. These bricks are prepared with the help of a wooden or steel mould (30
cm high, and 10 cm2 and 15 cm2 at the top and bottom, respectively).
Planting bricks are made out of a mixture of equal proportion of clay, sand and
manures in the molds and sun dried with a cavity of 2.5 cm diam and 15 cm deep
from the top to place the seed or stump.

During planting season, these bricks along with seedlings in them are taken out
of the nursery beds and planted about 60 cm below the dune surface with the
bricks intact. The planting is carried out at a spacing of 5 x 5 m. Species which are
found successful by this method are Acacia senegal, Acacia tortilis, Dalbergia
sissoo, Parkinsonia aculeata, Prosopis juliflora, cineraria and Ziziphus jujuba.

In general, the following types of vegetation can be established in low

rainfall areas:
Trees and Shrubs:
For successful planting in sand dunes, well developed, about 1.0 m long,
seedlings should be planted about 60 cm deep and keeping 40 cm above the
ground.

Direct planting with branch cutting of Tamarix articulata (Pharash) and Cal-
ligonum polygonoides (Phog) is successful provided it is done with the onset of
rains or soon after good showers. Pre-sprouted stumps of Prosopis juliflora (Vi-
layati babul); Albizzia lebbek (sires) and Dalbergia sissoo (shisham) have also
done well.
The success of sand dune afforestation depends on choosing right species.

The following tree and shrubs are recommended for afforestation on

sand dunes in different rainfall areas:
(a) In areas receiving more than 40 cm rainfall, the trees species like Prosopis
cineraria, P. juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Ziziphus jujuba, Acacia Senegal,
Tacomella undulata, Parkinsonia aculeata and Acacia tortilis are suitable. The

32
suitable shrubs for such rainfall areas are: Calligonum polygonoides, Cassia
auriculata, Ziziphus rotundifolia and Ricinus communis.

(b) Areas receiving annual precipitation between 30-40 cm should be planted

with tree species like Acacia Senegal, Prosopis cineraria, P. Juliflora, Tacomella
undulata, Ziziphus jujuba, Parkinsonia aculeata and Acacia tortilis. The suitable
shrubs are Ricinus communis and Calligonum polygonoides.

(c) Prosopis juliflora, Parkinsonia aculeata and Acacia tortilis species of trees
are suitable for areas receiving less than 30 cm annual rainfall. Calligonum poly-
gonoides and Ricinus communis are the suitable shrubs for such areas.

b. Establishment of Grass Cover:

Grasses grow more quickly than shrubs and trees and bind the drifting sands, uti-
lizing soil moisture from upper strata. Saccharum munja is deep rooted and
quite efficient in binding loose sand. Hardy grasses like Panicum turgidum and
Panicum antidotale may be sown with the onset of monsoon.
To improve forage quality legumes like Atylosia scarabaeoides, Rhynchosia min-
ima, Clitoria ternatea, and Crotalaria burhia should also be sown before the on-
set of rains for further self-seeding. Mechanical structures that stop sand move-
ment only temporarily are costly and, if not properly placed, may cause turbu-
lence that makes dune difficult to stabilize.

Stabilization of sand dunes affecting military bases, and highways

may be accomplished by one or a combination of the following meth-
ods:
(1) Sand dune crests should be levelled to reduce areas exposed to maximum
winds and the sides falling prevailing winds should be stabilized.

(2) Sand fences may be used to trap and hold moving material. Fences should be
installed perpendicular to prevailing winds. Severe cases may require paddocks,
sometimes as small as 7.6 x 7.6 m. Sand dikes should be 45 cm high and spaced
not more than 30.5 m apart.

(3) Crushed rock, stones, gravel or shale blankets may also be used. To provide
adequate protection about 20 tonnes/acre of fine gravel, 50 tonnes of medium
gravel or crushed stone or 100 tonnes of coarse crushed rock or sale would be re-
quired.

33
(4) Straw mulches at the rate of 2 to 3 tonnes per acre, anchored with disc har-
row, disc packers or asphalt adhesives, may be used. Blower type mulch spreader
or beater type manure spreader may be used to apply mulches on large scale.

(5) Brush, chicken wire or snow fence may be used flat to the surface on highly
erosive spots. Wire should be anchored with stakes.

(6) Petroleum and chemical spray on adhesives may be used. Resin-in- water
emulsions (coherex), asphalt emulsions, cutback asphalt, and oil latex emulsions
(Unisol) are highly effective.

(7) Sand should be tested for nutrient requirements. Application of up to 560

kg/ha of 16-20-0 fertiliser (N-P-K mixture) have been required on some dune
sands to establish vegetation.

(8) Seeds of culms of adapted grasses should be planted with mulch, adhesive, or
other protection. Effective grasses where they will grow include American and
European beach, bamboo, pampas, maram, and perennial rye. When planting
beach grasses, about 3 to 5 culms per hill, spaced 45 cm apart should be placed.

(9) Adapted trees and shrubs should be planted on some dune areas. For exam-
ple, pine trees and strawberry could be planted successfully.

A low cost method of stabilizing dunes on low value, sandy range

lands include:
(i) Excluding livestock completely, and

(ii) Stimulating growth of existing vegetation by applying fertiliser after testing

the sand for nutrient requirements. If fertilization alone is not sufficient to stimu-
late native vegetation, sand binding grasses should be planted and mulches and
fertilizers should be applied.

The stabilized sand dunes should be managed carefully. The trials and roads
leading through loose sand should be covered with non-erodible material such as
gravel or concrete. Grasslands, woodlands, or scrublands should be protected
from fire, overgrazing, or excessive tree cutting. Stabilized dunes should be used
for recreational purposes and for limited pasture or woodland.

Central Soil Conservation Board at Research Station, Jodhpur has recommended

the following flora for reclamation of sand dunes.
34
 Releted Articles:
 Wind Erosion: Factors, Types and Control
 Soil Formation: How is Soil Formed [with Factors and Processes for Class 7, 8 ,9, 10]
 Exam Questions with Answers on Soil Mechanics [Geotechnical Engineering]
 List of Objective Questions on Soil and Water Engineering (With Answers)
 85 + MCQs on Soil Science (with Answers)
 Soil Compaction: Meaning, Compaction, Methods and Effect | Soil Engineering

35
 Lesson: 15 Wind Erosion Control Measures
Wind erosion is the process of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles
by the action of wind. It occurs in all parts of the world and is a cause of serious soil deteriora-
tion. In India, Rajasthan has severe wind erosion problem. A large part of area the state is af-
fected by sand dune formation. Some parts of coastal areas also have such problems. It most
commonly occurs in the regions where soil is loose, finely divided and dry, soil surface is
smooth and bare, and where wind is strong to detach the soil particles from the surface.
15.1 Wind Erosion Control
A suitable surface soil texture is the best key to wind erosion protection. Properly managed crop
residues, carefully timed soil tillage, and accurately placed crop strips and crop barriers can all
effectively reduce wind erosion. Proper land use and adaptation of adequate moisture conserva-
tion practices are the main tools which help in wind erosion control. In arid and semiarid re-
gions where serious problem of wind erosion is common, several cultural methods can help to
reduce the wind erosion. In the absence of crop residue, soil roughness or soil moisture can re-
duce the wind erosion effectively.

Three basic methods can be used to control wind erosion:

 Maintain Vegetative Cover (Vegetative Measures)

 Roughen the Soil Surface by Tillage Practices (Tillage Practices or may be called
Tillage Measures)

 Mechanical or Structural Measures (Mechanical Measures)

There is no single recipe for erosion control as many factors affect the outcome. However, with
an understanding of how soil is eroded, strategies can be devised to minimize erosion.

15.2 Vegetative Measures

Vegetative measures can be used to roughen the whole surface and prevent any soil movement.
The aim is to keep the soil rough and ridged to either prevent any movement initially or to
quickly trap bouncing soil particles in the depressions of the rough surface. A cover crop with
sufficient growth will provide soil erosion protection during the cropping season. It is one of the
most effective and economical means to reduce the effect of wind on the soil. It not only retards
the velocity near the ground surface but also holds the soil against tractive force of wind thereby
helping in reduction of soil erosion.

From the basic concept, the velocity of wind decreases near the ground surface because of the
resistance offered by the vegetation. The variation in wind velocity with respect to height above
the land surface increases exponentially (chapter 14).

Vegetative measures can be of two types:

36
1. Temporary Measures

2. Permanent Measures

The use of these measures depends upon the severity of erosion.

15.3 Tillage Practices

The tillage practices, such as ploughing are importantly adopted for controlling wind erosion.
These practices should be carried out before the start of wind erosion. Ploughing before the
rainfall helps in moisture conservation. Ploughing, especially with a disc plough is also helpful
in development of rough soil surface which in turn reduces the impact of erosive wind velocity.
Both the above effects are helpful in controlling the wind erosion.

Surface roughening should only be considered when there is insufficient (less than 50%) vege-
tation cover to protect the soil surface or when the soil type will produce sufficient clods to pro-
tect the surface. Roughening can be used in both crop and pasture areas. Surface roughening
alone is inadequate for sandy soils because they produce few clods. Tillage ridges, about 100
mm high, should be used to cover the entire area prone to erosion. Ridges that are lower than
100 mm get quickly filled with sand, whilst the crest of the ridge that is higher than 100 mm
tends to erode very quickly.

The common tillage practices used for wind erosion control are as under:

 Primary and Secondary Tillage

 Use of Crop Residues

 Strip Cropping
15.4 Mechanical Measures

This method consists of some mechanical obstacles, constructed across the prevailing wind, to
reduce the impact of blowing wind on the soil surface. These obstacles may be fences, walls,
stone packing etc., either in the nature of semi-permeable or permeable barriers. The semi-per-
meable barriers are most effective, because they create diffusion and eddying effects on their
downstream face. Terraces and bunds also obstruct the wind velocity and control the wind ero-
sion to some extent. Generally, in practice two types of mechanical measures are adopted to
control the wind erosion; i) wind breaks and ii) shelter belts.

15.4.1 Wind Breaks

- What Does A Windbreak do?

A windbreak slows the wind in one place by deflecting it to another. The best windbreaks pro-
duce a zone behind the windbreak which will have wind of about a quarter of the speed. For a
37
50ft high windbreak this zone will extend about 250ft downwind. From 250ft to 500ft the wind
speed will increase up to about half that of the incoming wind. Beyond that wind speeds in -
crease quickly

This is a permanent vegetative measure which helps in the reduction of wind erosion. It is most
effective vegetative measure used for controlling severe wind erosion. The term wind break is
defined as any type of barrier either mechanical or vegetative used for protecting the areas like
building apartments, orchards or farmsteads etc. from blowing winds. The wind break acts as
fencing wall around the affected areas, normally constructed by one row or maximum up to two
rows across the prevailing wind direction.

A further use for "windbreaks" or "wind fences" is for reducing wind speeds over erodible areas
such as open fields, industrial stockpiles, and dusty industrial operations. As erosion is propor-
tional to the cube of wind speed, a reduction in wind speed by 1/2 (for example) will reduce
erosion by over 80%. The largest one of these windbreaks is located in Oman (28 m high by 3.5
km long) and was created by Mike Robinson from Weather Solve Structures.

15.4.2 Shelter Belts

A shelterbelt is a longer barrier than the wind break, is installed by using more than two rows,
usually at right angle to the direction of prevailing winds. The rows of belt can be developed by
using shrubs and trees. It is mainly used for the conservation of soil moisture and for the protec-
tion of field crops, against severe wind erosion.

Shelterbelt is more effective for reducing the impact of wind movement than the wind break.
Apart from controlling wind erosion, it provides fuel, reduces evaporation and protects the or-
chard from hot and cold winds.

Woodruff and Zingg (1952) developed the following relationship between the distance of full
protection (d) and the height (h) of wind break or shelter belt.

38
Where, d is the distance of full protection (m), h is the height of the wind barrier (wind break or
shelter belt) (m), vm is the minimum wind velocity at 15 m height required to move the most
erodible soil fraction (m/s), v is the actual velocity at 15 m height , and θ is the angle of devia-
tion of prevailing wind direction from the perpendicular to the wind barrier.

This relationship (equation) is valid only for wind velocities below 18 m/s # 65km/h. This equa-
tion may also be adapted for estimating the width of strips by using the crop height in the ad-
joining strip in the equation. The value of vm for a bare smooth surface after erosion has been
initiated and before wetting by rainfall and subsequent surface crusting is about 9.6 m/s.

15.5 Sand Dunes Stabilization

A ‘Dune’ is derived from English word ‘Dun’ means hilly topographical feature. Therefore a
sand dune is a mount, hill or ridge of sand that lies behind the part of the beach affected by
tides. They are formed over many years when windblown sand is trapped by beach grass or
other stationary objects. Dune grasses anchor the dunes with their roots, holding them temporar-
ily in place, while their leaves trap sand promoting dune expansion. Without vegetation, wind
and waves regularly change the form and location of dunes. Dunes are not permanent structures.

Sand dunes provide sand storage and supply for adjacent beaches. They also protect inland ar-
eas from storm surges, hurricanes, flood-water, and wind and wave action that can damage
property. Sand dunes support an array of organisms by providing nesting habitat for coastal bird
species including migratory birds. Sand dunes are also habitat for coastal plants. For example:
‘The Seabrook dunes’ are home to 141 species of plants, including nine rare, threatened and en-
dangered species.

There are three essential prerequisites for sand dune formation:

(1) An abundant supply of loose sand in a region generally devoid of vegetation (such as an an-
cient lake bed or river delta);

(2) A wind energy source sufficient to move the sand grains.

(3) A topography whereby the sand particles lose their momentum and settle down.

The best method by which the sand dunes can be stabilized is to reduce the erosive velocity.
Therefore, various methods which are employed for sand dune stabilization are based on the
principle to dissipate the erosive power of wind, so that the detachment and transportation of
soil particles cannot take place. Some methods employed for sand dune stabilization are:

 Vegetation/Vegetative Measures

 Mechanical Measures

 Straw (Checkerboard and Bales)/Mats and Netting

39
  Chemical Spray
15.5.1 Vegetative Measures

This method is most common and preferred worldwide for sand dune stabilization. It is a most
effective, least expensive, aesthetically pleasing method which mimics a natural system with
self‐repairing provision. However, it has some disadvantages as the plant establishment phase is
critical, it needs irrigation and maintenance until self-sustaining system is developed. Most
common practices adopted under this are:

15.5.1.1 Raising of Micro Wind Breaks

It is preferred in those areas where wind velocity is intensive and rainfall is less than 300 mm
per year. The raising of wind break should be completed before the onset of monsoon. Twigs or
brush woods are inserted into the soil parallel to one another at about 5 m spacing. The spacing
depends on the intensity of erosive wind velocity, if the velocity is more spacing is less and vice
versa. The fencing of dunes using brush woods reduces evaporation loss and also enriches the
humus content in the soil.

15.5.1.2 Retreating the Dunes

In this, the micro wind breaks are treated again by planting tree saplings and grasses in the
space left. The grasses grown in the intersection of plants of wind break reduce the soil loss
from the dune surface significantly.

15.5.2 Mechanical Measures

Wind breaks, shelterbelts, stone pitching, fences etc., either manmade or natural barriers are
helpful to reduce the wind velocity thereby favoring the stabilization of sand dunes.

15.5.3 Straw Checker Boards

This technique of sand dunes stabilization is extensively used in China since 1950’s. Wheat or
rice straw or reeds (50 – 60 cm in length) are placed vertically to form the sides of the checker-
board, which are typically 10 to 20 cm high. Optimum grid size of checker ranges from 1 x 1 m
to 2 x 2 m, depending on local wind and sand transport conditions. Smaller grids are used in ar-
eas where winds are stronger.

15.5.4 Chemical Spray

Sometimes crude oils are used for the successful stabilization of sand dune. The oil is heated to
50°C and sprayed on the dune at the rate of 4 m3/ha. It is a temporary measure, lasting only for
3-4 years and during those years, it is expected that the vegetation growth will take place in that
area. This method is costly and suitable only for small areas.

40
Solved Problems:
1. Determine the spacing between windbreaks that are 15 m high. Five year return period wind
velocity at 15 m height is 15.6 m/s and the wind direction deviates 10° from the perpendicular
to the field strip. Assume a smooth, bare soil surface and a fully protected field.

Solution:

Given: h = 15 m

V = 15.6 m/s

θ = 10°

Vm = 9.6 m/s (for smooth, bare soil surface)

Spacing = distance of full protection by a windbreak,

Therefore,

Thus, the spacing between windbreaks = 154.54 m.

2. Determine the full protection strip width for field strip cropping if the crop in the adjacent
strip is wheat, 0.9 m tall, and the wind velocity at 15 m height is 8.9 m/sec at 90° with the field
strip.

Solution:

Given: h = 0.9 m

41
 v = 8.9 m/s

θ = 0°

Assuming vm = 8.9 m/sec (Because theoretical vm = 9.6 m/sec which is greater than the prevail-
ing wind velocity). Since the field conditions are not specified taking vm = v.

Full protection width-

Thus, strip width = 15.30 m.

Keywords: Vegetative Measures, Tillage measures, Mechanical Measures, Sand Dune Stabi-
lization

References:
Woodruff, N.P. and A.W. Zingg. Wind-tunnel studies of fundamental problems related to wind-
breaks. USDA, SCS-TP-112; August 1952.

Suggested Readings
Schwab et.al, 1981. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Third Edition. Repulic of Singa-
pore: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Subramanya, K., 2008. Engineering Hydrology, Third Edition(pg.374-381). New Delhi: Tata
McGraw-Hill.
Mal, B. C. 1994. Introduction to Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana.
Murty, V.V.N., Jha, M.K., 2009. Land and Water Management Engineering, Fifth
Edition(pg.556-563). NOIDA: Kalyani Publishers.
Last modified: Saturday, 21 December 2013, 4:45 AM

42
Aeolian (Dunes) Landforms

43
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Monitoring Aeolian Features and Processes

Nicholas Lancaster
Division of Earth and Ecosystem Sciences, Desert Research Institute, Reno,
Nevada, 89512, USA

Lancaster, N., 2009, Aeolian features and processes, in Young, R., and Norby, L., Geological Monitoring: Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America, p. 1-25, doi: 10.1130/2009.monitoring(01). For per-
mission to copy, contact [email protected]. ©2009 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

Introduction
Aeolian processes, involving erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediment
by the wind, occur in a variety of environments, including the coastal zone, cold
and hot deserts, and agricultural fields. Common features of these environments
are a sparse or nonexistent vegetation cover, a supply of fine sediment (clay, silt,
and sand), and strong winds. Aeolian processes are responsible for the emission
and/or mobilization of dust and the formation of areas of sand dunes. They largely
depend on other geologic agents, such as rivers and waves, to supply sediment
for transport. Areas of sand dunes occur in inland and coastal settings, where
they often provide a distinctive environment that provides habitats for endemic
and rare or threatened species. In both coastal and inland settings, dune migra-
tion and sand encroachment may impact neighboring ecosystems and resources,
as well as infrastructure.
Transport of fine sediment by wind may cause dust storms, events in which visi-
44
bility is reduced to less than 1 km by blowing dust. Dust storms impact air quality
in their immediate vicinity as well as in areas downwind. Deposition of dust may
have a significant effect on the composition and nature of soils in arid regions
and beyond. Far-traveled dust from distant sources may have a significant effect
on soil chemistry and nutrient status (e.g., Farmer, 1993).

Aeolian Processes, Landforms, and Deposits

This section provides a brief introduction to aeolian processes and landforms and
their deposits. For more detailed information and an in-depth discussion of the
topic, see Lancaster (1995) for desert dunes, and Nordstrom et al. (1990) for
coastal dunes. Goudie and Middleton (2006) provide an excellent review of desert
dust processes, while Goudie et al. (1999) provide a good short overview of aeo-
lian processes in general.

Figure 1. Modes of
sediment transport by the wind (after Pyle, 1987).

Transport of Particles by Wind

Movement of particles by the wind takes place by a combination of direct wind

shear stress and atmospheric turbulence. There are three modes of sediment
transport by wind: creep or reptation; saltation, and suspension (Fig. 1). The mode
of transport depends primarily on the ratio between particle settling velocity, and
hence particle size, and wind shear stress and turbulence intensity. Very small
particles (<20 microns) are transported in suspension (tens of km or greater) and
are kept aloft by turbulent eddies in the wind. True suspension occurs when the
particle settling velocity is very small compared to the turbulence intensity of the
wind. Larger particles (20–70 microns) undergo short-term suspension for dis-
tances of tens to hundreds of meters; material of sand size (70–1000 microns) is
transported mainly in a series of short hops (saltation), in which the vertical com-

45
ponent of wind velocity (turbulence) has a minimal effect on particle trajectories.
Material coarser than 500 microns in diameter (coarse sand) is transported on
surface by reptation and creep. The modes of transport are interdependent:
saltating sand particles eject silt- and clay-sized particles into the wind and im-
pact coarse grains that are rolled along the bed.

Figure 2. Transport of sediment by the wind: (A) Relation between threshold wind
shear velocity and particle size (from Bagnold, 1941). (B) Mass flux of sand as a

46
function of wind shear velocity (from Lancaster, 1995). Data from laboratory wind
tunnel experiments. (C) Relations between horizontal flux of sand-sized particles
and vertical flux of dust (from Nickling et al., 1999). Data from field experiments.
Figure from Lancaster (2005).
Grains begin to move and sediment is entrained by the wind when fluid forces
(lift, drag, moment) exceed the effects of the weight of the particle, and any co-
hesion between adjacent particles as a result of moisture, salts, or soil crusts.
The threshold wind speed at which grains begin to move is strongly dependent on
particle size (Fig. 2A). For quartz sand, the minimum threshold velocity is associ-
ated with fine sand (~100 microns diameter). The mass flux or transport rate of
sand has been determined by numerous laboratory wind tunnel and field studies
to be proportional to the cube of wind shear velocity above a threshold value (Fig.
2B). For any wind shear velocity, there is a potential rate of sand transport or
transport capacity, which is only reached when the availability of sediment is un-
restricted (e.g., most loose sand surfaces). In these conditions, the wind is satu-
rated with respect to transport capacity. Very fine grains (silt and clay size) are
inherently resistant to entrainment, yet are readily transported by the wind. Re-
cent studies have shown the critical role of impacting sand grains in the mobiliza-
tion of silt- and clay-size particles and demonstrated the close relations between
the horizontal flux of sand-size particles and the vertical flux of fine particles. In
these situations, the horizontal mass transport rate is directly related to shear ve-
locity (Fig. 2B), so dust emissions scale to the fourth power of wind shear velocity
(Fig. 2C). Where there is a limited supply of particles able to abrade soil clods or
playa crusts, dust emissions are limited by the supply of particles rather than the
wind shear velocity, and the vertical flux of dust is almost independent of wind
shear velocity.

Wind Erosion
Erosion by wind involves two linked processes: abrasion (mechanical wearing of
coherent materials, including playa crusts and clods created by tillage) and defla-
tion (removal of loose material). Considerable attention has been devoted to the
processes and rates of wind erosion because of their impact on agriculture, espe-
cially in semi-arid regions, and the implications of dust emissions for air quality.
Wind erosion abrades crops, removes organic matter, nutrients and fertilizer, and
changes soil texture. The products of wind erosion (especially dust particles) im-
pact air quality, atmospheric radiative properties, and human health, causing res-
piratory illnesses. Rates of wind erosion vary widely and for a given wind shear
velocity are dependent on soil or sediment texture and the degree of crusting and
cohesion. The highest emission rates for fine-grained sediment are associated
with soils of loamy texture, especially those that have been disturbed by vehicu-
lar traffic and/or animals.

Aeolian Deposits
47
Aeolian deposits include sand seas and dune fields, deposits of silt (loess), and
fine-grained material that forms a significant component of desert margin and
other soils.

Aeolian deposits—silt and clay size. Deposits of wind-transported, silt-sized

quartz particles, termed loess, cover as much as 10% of Earth’s land surface.
Loess deposits are widespread in areas of northern China, southern central Asia,
central Europe, Argentina, Alaska, and the central United States. Much of the ma-
terial was thought to be derived from silt particles produced by glacial grinding
and supplied to aeolian processes by glacial outwash (“glacial loess”), but other
processes, including frost shattering, salt weathering, reduction in size during
transport by rivers, and aeolian abrasion are important, especially in the forma-
tion of “desert loess.” Silt- and clay-sized material of aeolian origin is also an im-
portant component of many desert margin soils. Deposition of silt plays a role in
the formation of many stone pavement surfaces in desert regions (desert pave-
ment). These surfaces are characterized by a surface layer of gravel or larger
clasts (particles) that overlie fine-grained materials. Detailed studies of these sur-
faces show that the surface layer of gravel rests on a layer of soil-modified dust
that may be a meter or more thick and mantles bedrock or materials deposited by
other processes (e.g., alluvial sediments). The dust is trapped by the clasts and
deposited between them. The fine material is incorporated into the mantle by the
shrinking and swelling of clay minerals so that the clasts remain at the surface as
they inflate over periods of thousands of years.

Aeolian deposits—sand dunes. Aeolian dunes form part of a hierarchical system

of self-organizing bedforms which comprises: (1) wind ripples (spacing 0.1–1 m);
(2) individual simple dunes or superimposed dunes on compound and complex
dunes (spacing 50–500 m); and (3) compound and complex (mega-) dunes or draa
(spacing more than 500 m). Dunes occur wherever there is a sufficient supply of
sand-sized sediment, winds to transport that sediment, and conditions that pro-
mote deposition of the transported sediment. These requirements are satisfied in
two main environments: (1) coastal areas with sandy beaches and onshore winds;
and (2) desert areas. Most dunes occur in contiguous areas of aeolian deposits
called sand seas (>100 km2) or dune fields.

48
Figure 3. Wind ripples, Gran Desierto, Mexico. Wind direction from left to right.
Wind ripples (Fig. 3) typically have a wavelength of 0.05– 0.2 m and an amplitude
of 0.005–0.010 m. They are ubiquitous on sand surfaces, except those undergoing
very rapid erosion or deposition, and form because a flat sand surface over which
sand transport by saltation and reptation occurs is dynamically unstable.

Figure 4. Major dune types (after McKee, 1979b).Aeolian dunes occur in a self-or-
ganized pattern that depends on the wind regime (especially its directional vari-
ability) and the supply of sand. Sand dunes occur in four main morphologic types
(Fig. 4): Crescentic (transverse), linear, star, and parabolic. The simplest dunes
form in areas characterized by a narrow range of wind directions. In the absence
of vegetation, crescentic dunes will be the dominant form. Isolated crescentic
dunes or barchans occur in areas of limited sand supply, and coalesce laterally to
form crescentic or barchanoid ridges as sand supply increases (Figs. 5A and 5B).
Linear dunes are characterized by their length (often more than 20 km) sinuous
crestline, parallelism, and regular spacing (Figs. 5C and 5D). They form in areas of
bimodal or wide unimodal wind regimes. Star dunes have a pyramidal shape, with
three or four sinuous sharp-crested arms radiating from a central peak and multi-
ple avalanche faces (Fig. 5E). Star dunes occur in multidirectional or complex
wind regimes and are the largest dunes in many sand seas, reaching heights of
more than 300 m. Parabolic dunes (Fig. 5F) are characterized by a U or V shape
with a “nose” of active sand and two partly vegetated arms that trail upwind.
They are common in many coastal dune fields and semi-arid inland areas, and
they often develop from localized blowouts in vegetated sand surfaces. Other im-
49
portant dune types include nebkhas, or hummock dunes, anchored by vegetation
(common in many coastal dune fields); lunettes (often composed of sand-sized
clay pellets) that form downwind of small playas; and a variety of topographically
controlled dunes (climbing and falling dunes, echo dunes). Relations between
dune types and wind regimes indicate that the main control of dune type is the di-
rection of the wind (Fig. 6). Grain size, vegetation cover, and sediment supply
play subordinate roles in desert areas. In semi-arid and coastal areas, vegetation
cover plays a major role in aeolian dynamics.

Figure 5. Satellite images and aerial photographs of major dune types: (A)
barchans and crescentic dunes, Namib Sand Sea; (B) compound crescentic dunes
(Liwa, United Arab Emirates); (C) parabolic dunes, Casper, Wyoming; (D) simple
linear dunes (Kalahari Desert); (E) complex linear dunes (Namib Sand Sea); (F)
star dunes (Gran Desierto, Mexico). Figure from Lancaster (2005).

50
Figure 6. Relations between dune types and wind regimes. Figure from Lancaster
(2005).

STRESSORS AND POSSIBLE CHANGES

The state of an aeolian geomorphic system is controlled by the supply of sedi-
ment of a size suitable for transport by the wind; the mobility of the supplied sedi-
ment, which is controlled by wind conditions; and the availability of sediment for
transport, determined by vegetation cover and soil moisture (Kocurek and Lan-
caster, 1999). Changes in these external drivers can be the result of climate or
human impacts. Climate change and variability affects the mobility of sediment
through variations in wind strength; vegetation cover and soil moisture are di-
rectly influenced by the amount of precipitation; the supply of sediment may be
affected by changes in wave energy, beach sediment budgets, or river discharge.
Changes to aeolian systems that can be attributed to the effects of climate vari-
ability on annual to decadal time scales include changes in the magnitude and
frequency of dust storms (Middleton, 1989), sand transport rates (Lancaster and
Helm, 2000), and activation or stabilization of areas of sand dunes (Wolfe, 1997).
Such changes are a good indication of the response of a landscape to drought pe-
riods. In addition, human impacts may affect vegetation cover by grazing pres-
sure or trampling by animals or people, and increase sediment availability of soils
due to disturbance by animals or off-road vehicles. Humans can also directly or
indirectly affect sediment supply from rivers or the coastal zone.

VITAL SIGNS
Three main groups of vital signs for aeolian features and processes have been
identified. First, rates of sediment movement by the wind give an indication of the
magnitude and frequency of aeolian transport events in an area, as well as
changes in time and space in response to stressors. Measurements or estimates

51
of rates of sediment transport (sand and/or dust) by the wind provide information
on the quantity of sediment transported in this manner and therefore

52
the likely contribution of wind action to erosion and deposition. Second, dune field dynamics pro-
vide information on how areas of dunes are responding to external and internal stressors, includ-
ing disturbance, changes in sediment supply, and climate change and variability. Lastly, dune dy-
namics provide information on how individual dunes or groups of dunes are responding to stres-
sors. The level of effort and cost for each monitoring method are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Vital signs: Aeolian processes and features

53
VITAL SIGN 1: FREQUENCY AND MAGNITUDE OF DUST STORMS

The magnitude and frequency of dust storms is an index of rates of wind

erosion in the immediate vicinity of a defined location. Reduction of visibil-
ity by blowing dust may also indicate an influx of dust from neighboring up-
wind sources. In addition to the methods described below, some information
may also be obtained from the visibility monitoring programs maintained by
the Air Resources Division of the National Park Service and its cooperators,
available at http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/monitoring/.

Monitoring Methods

Level 1: Visual Observation of Dust Storms

Dust storms (Fig. 7) are defined as severe weather conditions in which visi-
bility is reduced to 1 km or less by blowing dust. The frequency of dust
storms is measured by the number of such events in a given time period.
The magnitude of dust storms can be assessed by the duration of such con-
ditions. Dust events (also known as dust haze) are conditions when visibility
is reduced to 11.3 km or less by dust suspended in the air. Blowing dust is a
situation where dust is raised to a height of 2 m or more by strong winds,
but does not reduce visibility to less than 1 km. Figure 8 provides an exam-
ple of visibility reduction as a result of a dust storm. First order meteorologi-
cal stations may record these conditions as part of their normal schedule of
hourly observations. Such data have been used to assess the frequency of
dust storms in relation to climatic parameters, such as annual and seasonal
precipitation (e.g., Bach et al., 1996; Brazel, 1989; Goudie, 1983; Goudie and
Middleton, 1992; MacKinnon et al., 1990; Middleton, 1989). In many areas,
dust storm frequency increases in the period following years of lower than
average rainfall, although direct correlation between drought conditions and
dust storm frequency is not always evident. Equipment required. No equip-
ment is required. Complexity. The complexity of this method is very low; it
can be conducted by a single observer Cost. The cost is very low. No instru-
mentation is required, except for wind speed measurements. Methodology.
Monitoring of dust storms can be undertaken at selected locations where
dust storms are known to occur and suitable landmarks exist for visibility
determinations. Landmarks at 1 km and 11.3 km distance from the observa-
tion point should be identified, and the time and date of dust conditions
should be recorded, as well as any relevant meteorological conditions (such
as wind speed) and site conditions (such as vegetation cover). The number

54
of dust events and their duration should be recorded on a monthly and an-
nual basis and compared to rainfall and antecedent vegetation conditions.
Timing.
Timing is event driven. Remotely activated camera stations can be used to
image the time, location, and characteristics of dust plumes. Equipment re-
quired. A camera station is required. Cost. The cost is moderate—around
$3,000 to $4,000 per station. (All amounts listed herein are U.S. dollars.)
Complexity. Stations are moderately complex to set up and maintain. Tech-
nical assistance is required for set up. Methodology. Video cameras can be
used as they are at Owens Lake, California, by the Great Basin Unified Air
Pollution Control District, but their resolution and data capacity are limited.
For real-time images see http://www.gbuapcd.org/ dustcam.htm. Digital still
camera stations have been used to monitor dust storms in the Mojave Na-
tional Preserve since 2000 (Tigges et al., 2001). The stations automatically
acquire digital

Figure 7. Dust Storm, Iraq.Level 2: Camera Stations (Still and Video)

color images of dust storms, with the cameras triggered by wind speeds
above a predetermined threshold. The images are used to identify the loca-
tions from which dust particles become airborne, the direction and intensity
of the dust event, and the meteorological conditions at the time, in conjunc-
tion with Climate Impact Meteorological (CLIM-MET) sites
(http://climchange.cr.usgs. gov/info/sw/clim-met/) in the area. The system is
placed on top of a mountain to provide views to sites of dust emission at

55
distances of 9–20 km. This system is made up of several off-the-shelf com-
ponents, and several components that were designed and built in-house. To-
gether they perform the task of automatically recording digital images from
an unmanned remote location, with recording triggered by wind speed sen-
sors, controlled by a data logger. Images are recorded on a compact flash
card with date and time information, for subsequent correlation of images
and meteorological data. The number of dust events and their duration
should be recorded on a monthly and annual basis and compared to rainfall
and antecedent vegetation conditions. Timing. Timing is event driven.

Figure 8. Reduced visibility from major dust storm in West Texas, 15 De-
cember 2003. Compare with

a normal clear day (inset). Photographs by Jeff Lee, Texas Tech University.
Level 3: Visibility Sensors Automated sensors can be used to estimate the
reduction in visibility due to blowing dust, and therefore provide information
on the timing, magnitude, and frequency of dust events. Equipment required.
A visibility sensor and a data logger are needed. The instrument should be
co-located with other meteorological instruments, including anemometers,
to establish the conditions for dust generation and transport. Complexity.
This method requires technical assistance to set up; it is simple to maintain
thereafter. Cost. This method is expensive. Sensors cost $10,000 (Vaisala),
plus $2,000 to $3,000 for setting up the station.

56
Methodology. A variety of visibility sensing devices measure visibility auto-
matically using the forward scattering of infrared light in air over a range of
10–50,000 m. Normally used at airports and other locations at which visibil-
ity measurements are made for safety monitoring, such instruments are
commercially available, automated, and self-contained. Applications spe-
cific to dust monitoring are rare, but a visibility sensor has been deployed in
association with a U.S. Geological Survey/Desert Research Institute Desert
Winds site at Jornada Experimental Range, New Mexico, for several years,
and has routinely collected information on visibility reduction resulting from
increased dust content in the air. Timing. The number of dust events and
their duration should be recorded on a monthly and annual basis and com-
pared to rainfall and antecedent vegetation conditions.

VITAL SIGN 2: RATE OF DUST DEPOSITION

The rate of dust deposition can indicate the rate of wind erosion in areas
that are upwind of a specific site. Wind-blown dust may be derived from lo-
cal sources, such as play as (dry or ephemerally flooded lake beds), and/or
more distant sources, like far-traveled dust from the Sahara and Asia. The
rate of dust deposition is measured as mass/area/time. Wind-blown dust is
an important long-term contributor of fine material and ions to soils in arid
regions and adjacent areas, where it also affects water quality and human
health. Deposition of dust may have a significant effect on the composition
and nature of soils in arid regions and beyond. Far traveled dust may have a
significant effect on soil chemistry and nutrient status (Farmer, 1993). Rates
of dust deposition can be measured using a variety of active and passive
samplers (Goossens and Offer, 2000).

Monitoring Methods

Level 1: Dust Traps

A convenient and practical method of passive sampling of atmospheric dust
deposition has been developed by Marith Reheis of the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey (USGS) (Reheis, 1997, 2003; Reheis and Kihl, 1995) and utilized in exten-
sive networks for sampling dust input to soils in the southwestern United
States. Similar techniques have been used to monitor dust deposition rates
in the Dry Valleys of Antarctica (Lancaster, 2002). Equipment required. A
dust trap and field and laboratory supplies for cleaning the dust trap and
collecting samples are needed. Complexity. The complexity is low. Cost.
The cost is low. Each trap costs less than $50 to set up. Methodology. The
method consists of installing a simple, robust passive dust trap, which is
57
cleaned and emptied periodically. The trap is a coated angel-food cake pan
painted black on the outside and mounted on a post ~2 m above the ground
(Fig. 9). Glass marbles rest on a circular piece of metal mesh that is fitted
into the pan 3–4 cm below the rim. The 2-m height eliminates most saltating
sand-sized particles. The marbles simulate the effect of a gravelly surface
and prevent dust that has filtered or washed into the bottom of the pan from
being blown away. The dust traps are fitted with two metal straps looped in
an inverted basket shape, and the top surfaces of the straps are coated
with a sticky material to discourage birds from roosting. At the chosen mon-
itoring interval, the deposited particles are removed by rinsing the pan, the
screen, and the marbles in de-ionized water into a 1 L plastic bottle (see Re-
heis [2003] for full details of trap construction and field procedures). In the
laboratory, the sample is slowly dried at ~35 °C in large evaporating dishes
or beakers; coarse organic material is also removed during this process.
The mineral matter remaining can then be weighed. Subsequent physical
and chemical analyses on dust samples include: (1) moisture content, (2) or-
ganic matter, (3) soluble salts, (4) total carbonate (calcite plus dolomite),
and (5) grain size. Other chemical analyses such as phosphorus fractions,
strontium and other isotopes, elemental and mineralogical composition, and
magnetic properties can be performed on selected samples, depending on
sample size and monitoring or research needs.

58
Figure 9. US Geological Survey Reheis Dust Trap. Photo by Marith Reheis,
USGS.

Following the definitions of Reheis and Kihl (1995), total aeolian flux is de-
fined as the rate of deposition of material in grams per square meter per
year (g m–2yr–1). This can be divided into two components: “dust” flux,
which comprises material <50 μm in diameter (silt and clay size), and
“sand,” which is material >50 μm in diameter. The rate of aeolian deposition
is calculated as follows: aeolian deposition rate (g m–2yr–1) = mass of dust
retained on filter (g) * 1/area of dust pan (m2) * time exposed (yr). Timing.
Measurement frequency should be annual or semiannual (to distinguish sea-
sonal changes in dust flux).

VITAL SIGN 3: RATE OF SAND TRANSPORT

The rate of sand transport on sandy surfaces is an indicator of the activity
of aeolian processes in an area. Rates of sand transport in relation to wind
speed have been determined empirically in wind tunnel studies (Lancaster,
1995). Measurements of sand transport rates in natural settings are much
less common (except perhaps in coastal areas), and long-term monitoring
studies of sand transport rates are rare.

Monitoring Methods

Level 1: Estimate Sand Transport from Available Climatological Data

Providing that quality wind data are available, sand transport rates may be
estimated from wind speed data measured at meteorological stations using
one of a number of empirical and theoretical equations (see reviews in Pye
and Tsoar, 1990; Sarre, 1987). These rates are, however, potential rates, be-
cause actual sand transport rates may be reduced by the availability of suit-
able sediment for transport, presence of vegetation or other elements, sur-
face moisture, crusting, and cohesion of the surface. Equipment required.
This method requires access to preexisting wind records.

Complexity. The complexity is low.

Cost. The cost is low.
Methodology. One of the most widely used equations for estimating poten-
tial sand transport from wind data is the one developed by the USGS (Fry-
berger, 1979), with modifications and cautions discussed by Bullard (1997).
The “Fryberger method” also provides classification schemes for character-
izing the energy and directional variability of wind regimes. The method has
been widely used to characterize aeolian sand transporting conditions (e.g.,

59
Sweet et al., 1988). The Fryberger method only considers winds above a
threshold velocity for sand movement and weights these winds in recogni-
tion of the fact that stronger winds are proportionately more effective in
transporting sand than weaker winds. Thus:

q∝V 2
(V −Vt)/100

where q is the rate of sand transport, V is the wind velocity at 10 m height

and Vt is the impact threshold for transport measured at 10 m. This weight-
ing equation is then calculated for all wind speed categories above the
threshold and applied to the percentage frequency of these wind speed cat-
egories so that:

Q∝V 2(V −Vt )t

where Q is the rate of sand drift (expressed in vector units), and t is the per-
centage frequency of winds in that wind speed category. The total Q for
each wind direction and the total for a station are obtained by summation to
give the sand “drift potential,” or DP; and the vector sum or resultant sand
drift (RDP) magnitude and direction are obtained by vectoral summation.
The DP is a measure of the total wind energy of a location, whereas the ra-
tio between RDP and DP is a measure of the directional variability of the
wind regime, which has been widely noted as a major control of the type of
sand dune in an area (Fig. 6). Full details of the methods are contained in
Fryberger (1979). The original method was based on the use of wind speeds
recorded in knots. Bullard (1997) cautions the user and provides information
on the use of the weighting factors for winds recorded in other units. Saqqa
and Saqqa (2007) provide a simple computer program for estimating sand
transport potential. Figure 10 shows an example of a “sand rose” calculated
using the Fryberger method, as well as an example of monthly changes in
drift potential. Timing. This method should be performed annually or
monthly.

60
 Figure 10. (A) Example of a "sand rose" developed using the Fryberger
(1979) method. (B) Monthly variations in drift potential, Palm Springs, Cali-
fornia.Level 1:
Abrasion Stakes
An estimate of the rate of wind transport of sand from different directions
can be derived from observations of the removal of layers of paint from
wooden or aluminum stakes, as used in Pangnirtung National Park, Baffi n
Island, Canada (McKenna Neuman and Gilbert, 1986). Equipment required.
1–2-m-high aluminum or wooden poles are needed.
Complexity. The complexity of this method is low.
Cost. The cost of this method is low.

Methodology. The poles should be set up in areas known to experience sand

transport. Each pole is painted with eight layers of exterior enamel paint of
different colors. Exposure of paint of different colors at different heights and
orientation on the stake gives a relative estimate of the intensity of sand
transport by different wind directions. This method will work best when
sand transport is at a high intensity and thus able to scour paint off the
poles.
Timing. Timing should be annual or seasonal.

Level 2: Sand Traps

A wide variety of sand traps have been developed to measure rates of sand

61
transport in laboratory and field settings. See Goossens et al. (2000) and
Nickling and McKenna Neuman (1997) for a review of different trap designs.
Equipment required. Sand traps, a balance for weighing sand, and collection
bags are needed. Complexity. The complexity is low to moderate. Cost. The
cost is low. Each Fryrear trap costs approximately $80 (see below).

Methodology. Long-term monitoring of sand transport rates using traps re-

quires that the traps be robust and self-orienting into winds from different
directions. Although many different types of traps have been developed, few
can withstand long-term exposure and maintain collection efficiency. An ef-
ficient and robust passive sand trap was designed by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (Fryrear, 1986) (Fig. 11). (See http://www.fryreardustsamplers.
com/BSNE.html.) This type of trap has been used extensively for time-inte-
grated measurements of sand-size particles moving in saltation in harsh en-
vironments (Gillette et al., 1997b; Gillette, 1999; Gillette and Chen, 2001)
and for long-term monitoring (Lancaster and Helm, 2000; Tigges et al.,
1999). These passive collectors maintain a collection efficiency of ~90% for
a wide range of wind speeds (Shao et al., 1993).

Figure 11. The Big Spring Number Eight sand trap (from
http://www.fryreardustsamples .com /bsne.html).

The traps can be exposed at a single height (typically 10 cm) or at multiple

heights (spaced logarithmically, as in Fig. 11). They may be emptied of sand
at any desired interval, taking care that the trap is not filled completely, and
the contents weighed. The total horizontal flux of sand can be calculated

62
using the approach of Gillette and Chen (2001). The sand traps should be co-
located with wind speed and direction sensors. Timing. Timing should be
weekly or monthly, depending on the rates of sand transport to be expected.

Level 3: Electronic Sand Transport Sensors

Electronic sand transport sensors have been developed to allow remote
monitoring of sand transport rates in conjunction with measurements of
wind speed and other parameters. The devices operate on a piezo-electric
principle, in which sand grains impact a protected crystal, which sends a
signal recording the number and kinetic energy of grain impacts (Gillette
and Stockton, 1986). One device is the Sensit™ (http://www.sensit.com/). In
practice, the kinetic energy signal from this device has been difficult to in-
terpret. The particle count signal is calibrated by the manufacturer or in a
wind tunnel with a known mass flux of sand.
Equipment required. A sand transport sensor, data logger, anemometer, and
wind vane are needed.
Complexity. The complexity is moderate to high. Technical knowledge is
needed to install and maintain devices and interpret data. Cost. The cost is
moderate to high; Sensits are about $2,000 each, Safires about $700 each. A
data logger and associated instrumentation (e.g., anemometer and wind
vane) are required, adding a further $2,000–$3,000 to the cost.

63
Figure 12. Sensit sand transport sensor at Owens Lake, California.

Sensor is mounted so that height of crystal above surface can be adjusted if

surface changes.
Methodology. The Sensit device has been widely used for sand transport
monitoring (Fig. 12). Examples include the USGS Desert Winds (Tigges et al.,
1999) and CLIMET programs (http://climchange.cr.usgs.gov/info/sw/clim-
met/) and the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District at Owens
Lake, California. Sensits should be co-located with anemometers and wind
vanes to ensure sand transport is monitored in conjunction with relevant
wind data. A newly developed alternative to the Sensit are the Saltation
Flux Impact Responders (Safires). Baas (2004) evaluated the performance of
these piezoelectric crystal type instruments. He found that the Safire
presents a minimal obstruction to the wind flow and provides high-frequency
omnidirectional measurements at a relatively low cost compared with other
piezoelectric type sensors. Although Safires have been used in coastal dune
settings in the Netherlands (Arens, 1997), they have not been used for long-
term monitoring. Timing. Data should be downloaded monthly.

64
VITAL SIGN 4: WIND EROSION RATE
The action of wind on exposed sediments and friable rock formations
causes erosion (abrasion) and entrainment of sediment and soil particles.
Wind erosion physically removes the lighter, less dense soil constituents
such as organic matter, clays, and silts. Thus it removes the most fertile
part of the soil and lowers soil productivity (Leys, 1999). The rate of wind
erosion of a given area is a direct measure of the loss of the surface soil and
its contained nutrients, seeds, and soil materials. In addition to lowering of
the surface, some authors have noted changes in soil texture as a result of
wind erosion. Although these mainly apply to agricultural fields, some coars-
ening of natural surfaces may occur as a result of wind erosion.

Monitoring Methods
Level 1: Lowering of Affected Surfaces
Equipment required. Erosion pins (e.g., rebar) and a measuring tape are
needed. Cost. The cost is low. Complexity. The complexity level is low.

Methodology. The rate of lowering of affected surfaces, such as sand

sheets, playa surfaces, and alluvial flats may be monitored using erosion
pins at strategically located sites. Monitoring of erosion using erosion pins
can be as simple as using lengths of rebar hammered into the ground and
measuring the exposure of the pin relative to the ground surface at regular
intervals. Such methods have been used to monitor wind erosion rates at
Jornada Experimental Range and Owens Lake (Fig. 13). When placing the
pins, care should be taken to choose a representative sample of the area.
Multiple pins per site are useful to estimate local variability in rates. The
resolution of this method is relatively low; it is difficult to measure surface
changes of less than 10 mm. In addition, qualitative estimates of wind ero-
sion can be made via the degree of exposure of roots and creation of resid-
ual pedestals of soil by wind erosion. Timing. Timing should be monthly or
annually.

65
Figure 13. Erosion pins for monitoring dune dynamics, Namib Desert.Level 2
and 3: Measurements of Dust Concentration Downwind of Affected Area

Measurements of dust concentration in the air downwind of an eroding area

can provide information on the mass of fine material eroded from that area.
Equipment required. Dust concentration measuring devices (e.g., DustTrak)
are needed. Cost. Costs are very high. MiniVol is $3,500; DustTrak is $3,000
to $4,000; TEOM is $25,000 or more. Complexity. The complexity level is
high to very high. Skilled technical support is required to install and main-
tain TEOM instruments. DustTrak can be operated with minimal training.
Methodology. The vertical profile of dust concentration above the surface is
a measure of the amount of fine particulate matter being emitted from a sur-
face (the vertical flux of dust). Typically, dust concentration shows an expo-
nential decrease in height above the emitting surface, due to dispersion of
the dust by atmospheric turbulence. The gradient (slope) of the profile is
proportional to the rate of emission. Measurements of concentration profiles
require sophisticated instrumentation and are a research, rather than a
monitoring, technique. They apply only to the conditions being studied
(Gillette et al., 1997a; Gillette et al., 1997b; Nickling et al., 1999). An esti-
mate of dust emission rates can be obtained via measurements of particle
concentrations downwind of the eroding area. Such measurements are
made using one of a wide variety of devices used to measure ambient air
quality and are usually targeted toward a specific particle size (e.g., PM10,
or 10 μm). Such devices employ a pump, which draws air at a precisely cali -
brated rate through a filter, on which the dust collects for subsequent
weighing and analysis. Typical examples of these devices are the HiVoL and

66
MiniVol samplers used to collect dust to ensure compliance with federal
(Environmental Protection Agency) and state air quality standards (Chow,
1995). Newer devices include the DustTrak (Fig. 14), which employs a laser
beam to measure dust concentrations in a chamber within the instrument
(http:// www.tsi.com/Product.aspx?Pid=11). The TEOM, Tapered Element Os-
cillating Microbalance, (http://www.rpco.com/products/ ambprod/amb1400/in-
dex.htm) is another, more costly device, and it is the only real-time particu-
late monitor that directly and continuously measures the mass of particu-
lates collected on a filter and provides continuous particulate concentration
data. Such devices can be installed in critical areas (such as Owens Lake,
California). They also provide information on the magnitude and frequency
of dust storms via changes in dust concentration over time. Timing. Timing
should be event based, or data can be downloaded weekly.

Figure 14. DustTrak monitoring device deployed at Jornada Experimental

Range, NM. (Photograph by W.G. Nickling.)

VITAL SIGN 5: CHANGES IN TOTAL AREA OCCUPIED BY SAND DUNES

The total area occupied by sand dunes is an indication of the long-term sup-
ply of sediment to an area. Changes in the total area and location covered
by dunes will, over time, reflect the long term sediment budget of an area,
as well as the degree to which the dune field as a whole is migrating. De-
creases in the area covered by dunes as well as the size of dunes (see be-
low) reflect a negative sediment budget in which sediment is being lost from
the dune field faster than it is supplied. Conversely, an increase in dune size

67
or area of dunes may indicate a positive sediment budget in which the sup-
ply of sediment exceeds losses.

Monitoring Methods
Level 1: Delineation on a Map of Area Occupied by Dunes Measurements or
estimates of the area occupied by dunes are necessary steps to establish-
ing a baseline for monitoring changes in dune fields. Equipment required.
Maps and/or orthophotograph quads and a planimeter are needed. Cost. The
cost is low. Complexity. The complexity level is low.
Methodology. The most straightforward method of assessing changes in
dune area is to delineate the area(s) covered by dunes on published topo-
graphic maps or similar products. The total area(s) covered by dunes can be
estimated using a planimeter or by measuring dune field width and length. If
maps compiled at different dates are available, then comparisons of dune
field area and position can be made. In many cases, however, the area(s) of
dunes depicted on USGS 7.5′ quad (1:24,000 scale) topographic maps is very
generalized. A more accurate estimate of dune field area can be obtained
from the digital orthophoto quarter-quadrangles (DOQQ), which are compiled
directly from aerial photographs. It should be noted that this method can
only provide information on dune field area for the dates when the maps
were compiled, which may be irregular or infrequent. If a more frequent as-
sessment of dune field area is required, then Level 2 or Level 3 methods
should be used.
Timing. Intervals should be determined by available maps and frequency of
revision.

Level 2: Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey

In recent years, low-cost, handheld GPS units have provided a simple, rapid,
and accurate way to document geographical areas. Field traverses of the
margins of dune fields can provide an accurate outline of the area. Equip-
ment required. A handheld GPS unit and maps and/or orthophotograph quads
are needed. Cost. The cost of this method is low. Complexity. The complex-
ity level is low to moderate.
Methodology. Field traverse of the perimeter of the area of dunes are con-
ducted. Coordinates of key points are determined by GPS. The coordinates
of these points can then be transferred to a topographic map base or geo-
graphic information system (GIS). This method may be time-consuming for
larger dune fields and is best suited to small areas of dunes where an accu-
rate mapping of the area of dunes is required at a frequency greater than
that of map revisions or new aerial photograph or satellite coverage. Timing.

68
This method can be performed at annual or longer intervals.

Levels 2 and 3: Comparison of Areas of Dunes on Aerial Photographs and/or

Satellite Images
In many areas, a long history (as much as 70 years) of dune field dynamics
can be compiled by comparing the area and position of dune field margins
on vertical aerial photographs or satellite images taken at different times.
Equipment required. Aerial photographs, a scanner, access to a GIS applica-
tion are needed. Cost. The cost is moderate to high, depending on the cost
of aerial photograph coverages. Complexity. The complexity level is high;
this method requires knowledge of GIS applications.
Methodology. At the simplest level, transparency sheets (made of mylar, for
example) are laid over the photographs. The area can be delineated on the
transparency, and the information transferred to a topographic map using
visual comparison to features common to both. More accurate and more
valuable information can be gained by scanning the images, correcting their
geometry in a GIS and compiling coverages of dune field area at different
times. Geometric corrections are necessary to co-register the images in a
common geographic reference frame. The GIS can then be used to generate
dune areas and to estimate changes in area and/or position over time (Lan-
caster, 1997; Lancaster et al., 2001). Satellite image data (e.g., Landsat)
can also be used to generate data on dune field dynamics. Because their
spatial resolution is in tens of meters, they are best used for larger dune ar-
eas.

Aeolian features and processes 15

High-resolution satellite image data are available, but these data are expen-
sive and have a limited temporal and spatial availability. Landsat satellite
data are also only available back to 1973, so information from this source is
only relevant to the past 30 years or so. Despite these limitations, satellite
data have been used to provide a long-term view of the dynamics of some
dune fields, such as Great Sand Dunes (Janke, 2002; Marîn et al., 2005).
Timing. Intervals should be determined by dates of aerial photograph cover-
ages.

VITAL SIGN 6: AREA OF STABILIZED AND ACTIVE DUNES

The active area of dunes, bare sand surfaces or migrating (mobile) dunes,
compared to the inactive area (stabilized by vegetation) is a valuable indica-
tor of the response of both inland and coastal dunes to changes in sediment
supply and mobility. In coastal dune areas, the primary control of dune ac-

69
tivity is the supply of sediment, because many coastal dunes are located in
areas where the climate permits growth of vegetation. Thus, many coastal
dunes are very active close to the supply of sediment at the coast and be-
come progressively less active inland as sediment supply decreases. In in-
land dune areas, the primary control of dune activity is climatic. Dune mobil-
ity can be characterized by the ratio between wind energy (W) and the effec-
tive precipitation (P/PE) (Lancaster and Helm, 2000). Thus, dunes can be ac-
tive in areas that are characterized by windy conditions, although precipita-
tion can be quite high. The relations between wind energy and effective pre-
cipitation for dune areas in the western United States are shown in Figure
15.

Monitoring Methods
Level 1: Delineation of Area Occupied by Active and Inactive Dunes on Topo-
graphic Maps Equipment required. Aerial photographs and topographic maps
are needed. Cost. Costs are low to moderate, depending on the cost of
aerial photograph coverages. Complexity. The complexity level is moderate.
Methodology. The areas covered by active and vegetation stabilized dunes
can be interpreted from aerial photographs or field survey and transferred to
a topographic map base. On most aerial photographs, bright tones indicate
bare (active) sand, whereas progressively darker tones indicate vegetation-
stabilized dunes and sand surfaces. Field checking is desirable to develop
accurate classification of areas. These methods have been used to map ar-
eas of active and inactive dunes in many areas (Forman et al., 2006; Lancas-
ter, 1997; Paisley et al., 1991). In some cases, historical records of dune
conditions developed by land surveys and explorations can be a valuable
source of information on very long-term trends (Muhs and Holliday, 1995).
Timing. Timing should be determined by the dates of aerial photograph cov-
erages.

70
Figure 15. Dune mobility index values for locations in the western United
States compiled from data provided by author and D. Muhs (US Geological
Survey).

Level 2: GPS Survey

Equipment required. A handheld GPS unit is required. Cost. The cost of this
method is low. Complexity. The complexity level is low to moderate (assum-
ing that a GPS unit is available). Methodology. Field traverses of the margins
of active and inactive dune areas can provide an accurate outline of the
area of dunes in different states, once the coordinates of key points are de-
termined by GPS survey transferred to a topographic map base. This method
may be time-consuming for larger dune fields and is best suited to small ar-
eas of dunes where an accurate mapping of the area of dunes is required at
a frequency greater than that of map revisions or new aerial photograph
coverage. Timing. Intervals should be annual or decadal.
Levels 2 and 3: Comparison of Aerial Photographs and/or Satellite Images
Equipment required. Aerial photographs or satellite images and access to
GIS application are needed. Cost. The cost of this method is moderate, de-
pending on the cost of aerial photograph coverages and satellite images.
Complexity. This method is highly complex; it requires knowledge of GIS ap-
plications and image analysis.

71
Methodology. In many areas, a long history (as much as 60 years) of dune
field dynamics can be compiled by comparing the area and position of areas
of active and inactive dunes on vertical aerial photographs. At the simplest
level, transparency sheets (made of mylar, for example) are laid over the
photographs. The area can be delineated on the transparency, and the infor-
mation transferred to a topographic map using visual comparison to fea-
tures common to both. More accurate and more valuable information can be
gained by scanning the images, correcting their geometry in a GIS and com-
piling coverages of dune field area at different times. Geometric corrections
are necessary to co-register the images in a common geographic reference
frame. The GIS can then be used to generate dune areas and to estimate
changes in area and/or position over time. Satellite image data can also be
classified to develop information on vegetation and land cover characteris-
tics and to determine changes in the area of active and inactive dunes. For
example, Janke (2002) was able to show that dune grasses were being re-
placed by semi-desert scrub on the west side of Great Sand Dunes, thereby
reducing sand mobility. Timing. Intervals are determined by dates of aerial
photograph and/or satellite image coverages.

VITAL SIGN 7: DUNE MORPHOLOGY AND MORPHOMETRY

Dunes occur in a variety of morphological types in self-organized patterns
as a response to the wind regime (especially its directional variability) and
the supply of sand. Parabolic dunes and nebkhas are controlled by the pres-
ence of vegetation. Sand dunes occur in four main morphologic types (Figs.
5 and 6; Table 2): Crescentic (transverse), linear, star, and parabolic. The
type of dune is therefore an indicator of the characteristics of the wind
regime and the amount of sand available for dune construction. Changes in
dune morphology over time can provide valuable information about the long-
term response of the dune field to climate and sediment supply. For exam-
ple, a change from parabolic to crescentic dunes could indicate a reduction
in vegetation cover, whereas development of parabolic dunes from crescen-
tic types is indicative of increased vegetation cover, as in coastal areas of
Israel (Tsoar and Blumberg, 2002). Changes in dune size are a clear indica-
tion of increases or decreases in sediment supply and changes in sediment
budgets.

Monitoring Methods
Level 1: Describe Major Dune Types and Their Characteristics
Equipment needed. Maps, aerial photographs, and satellite images of the
dune area are needed, as well as access to any previously published work.

72
Cost. The cost of this method is low. Complexity. The level of complexity is
low.
Methodology. Identification and description of the major dune types occur-
ring in a dune field is a necessary first step to understanding the dynamics
of a dune system. The different dune types present should be identified us-
ing well-accepted lassification schemes (e.g., McKee, 1979a) (Fig. 5, Table
2), and described in terms of their height, width, and spacing. There are nu-
merous studies of dune morphology done in this way (see Lancaster, 1995,
for examples), but many dune fields in the United States have not been sys-
tematically described. Timing. This method should be used as needed. Most
dune types do not change significantly over time periods of years to
decades, and many have remained similar for thousands of years.

Table 2. Morphological Classification of Dunes

Level 2: Map Dune Types and Their Distribution using Aerial Photographs or
Satellite Images
Equipment required. Maps, aerial photographs, and satellite images of the
dune area are needed. Cost. Costs are moderate to high, depending on the
cost of aerial photograph coverages or satellite images. Complexity. The

73
complexity level is moderate to high; this method requires knowledge of GIS
applications.
Methodology. The goal at this level is to accurately map the different dune
types using aerial photographs or satellite images, using a classification
scheme as above. In this way, the area occupied by different dune types can
be estimated, and changes in dune distribution and/or morphology can be
assessed using sequential aerial photograph series. There are numerous ex-
amples of the application of these techniques (Andrews, 1981; Lancaster,
1990, 1993; McKee and Moiola, 1975; Sweet et al., 1988). Timing. Intervals
are determined by dates of aerial photograph
coverages.

Level 3: Use Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) to Estimate Dune Size and Sed-
iment Volumes
Equipment required. Computing resources and GIS applications are needed.
Cost. Costs are low to moderate, depending on the cost of image data. Com-
plexity. This method is highly complex; it requires knowledge of GIS applica-
tions and data processing.
Methodology. DEMs can be used to estimate dune size, spacing, and sedi-
ment volume using GIS software. With these data, it is possible to accu-
rately monitor changes in sand volume that may be occurring as a result of
changes in sediment supply. Data may include online digital data (e.g.,
http://seamless.usgs. gov/) or high-resolution LIDAR (light detection and
ranging) data, which may be available from state or local governments, or
specifi cally commissioned. Timing. Intervals are determined by the dates of
DEM or LIDAR coverages.

VITAL SIGN 8: DUNE FIELD SEDIMENT STATE

Dune fields form part of the well-defined regional- and local scale sediment
transport systems in which sand is moved by wind from source areas (e.g.,
distal fluvial deposits, sandy beaches) via transport pathways to deposi-
tional sinks. Dune fields accumulate downwind of source zones at points
where wind speed and directional variability change, so that the influx of
sand exceeds outflux, resulting in deposition and growth of a dune field.
Over long periods of time (decades to centuries and longer) the dynamics of
the system are determined by changes in the supply of sediment of a size
suitable for transport by the wind; the availability of this sediment for trans-
port, determined by vegetation cover and soil moisture; and the mobility of
this sediment, controlled by wind strength. The interactions between these
variables can be evaluated in terms of the state of the aeolian system and

74
the limiting factors identified (Kocurek and Lancaster, 1999). Monitoring of
the current and past sediment state of a dune field is an aid to understand-
ing how it is responding to stressors.

Monitoring Methods
Level 1 and 2: Identify and Describe the Sources, Transport Pathways, and
Depositional Sinks of the System Equipment required. Maps, aerial photo-
graphs, and published reports are needed. Cost. The cost is moderate to
low, depending on the cost of image data. Google Earth is also a good
source of data. Complexity. The complexity level is moderate to high. Some
expert knowledge may be required for interpretation of data.
Methodology. Monitoring of basic parameters and how they change over
time is essential to assessing the state of any system. A regional survey of
the primary and secondary sources of sediment, the transport pathways,
and the sinks for sediment (depositional areas) is also valuable for address-
ing impacts on the system. For example, knowledge of these parameters in
the Coachella Valley, California, was a necessary prerequisite for develop-
ing a habitat conservation plan for the Coachella fringetoed lizard (Griffiths
et al., 2002). The sources of sediment, transport pathways and sediment
sinks can be identified from published literature and maps, field survey, and
aerial photographs, supplemented by mineralogical analyses of sand. Good
examples of this approach are Griffiths et al. (2002) and Sharp, (1966). Tim-
ing. This method should be used at decadal intervals.

Level 3: Use Remote Sensing Data to Identify and Track Sand Sources,
Transport Pathways and Sinks
Especially in large, complex dune fields, it may be difficult to assess sand
sources, transport pathways, and sinks using published studies and limited
field surveys. Recent advances in both remote sensing technologies and
methods of analysis allow the identification and monitoring of aeolian sys-
tems remotely, thus saving many months of field research. These ap-
proaches were pioneered in the Gran Desierto of Mexico (Blount and Lan-
caster, 1990; Blount et al., 1990), and have been followed by more detailed
studies of sand sources for Kelso dunes, California (Ramsey et al., 1999)
and the Coachella Valley, California (Katra et al., 2009). Equipment required.
Satellite image data, computing resources, and image analysis software are
needed. Cost. Costs are moderate, assuming image data are available. Com-
plexity. This method is highly complex; expert knowledge is required for im-
age analysis and interpretation.
Methodology. Primary minerals have distinctive characteristics that can be

75
identified in multispectral image data (such as Landsat). This approach uses
spectral information on the sub-pixel scale to identify mineral composition
and the relative abundance of different primary minerals. Formerly, this was
a research technique, but some available image analysis software applica-
tions (such as ENVI) include these techniques as part of their suite of image
analysis routines. Care should be taken with interpretation of results. Tim-
ing. This method should be performed at decadal intervals.

VITAL SIGN 9: RATES OF DUNE MIGRATION

The rate of dune migration is inversely proportional to dune height and di-
rectly proportional to wind speed and sand transport rates. Monitoring rates
of dune migration provides valuable and easily understood information on
the dynamics of the aeolian system. If the potential exists for dunes to
move into areas of concern (by crossing roads or migrating into critical habi-
tats, for example), then monitoring of migration rates can provide valuable
information for resource management. There is a long history of studies of
dune migration rates and several well-established methodologies, as dis-
cussed below.

Monitoring Methods
Level 1: Field Survey of Dune Position Over Time
Equipment required. Marker stakes and a tape measure are needed. Cost.
The cost is very low. Complexity. The complexity level is low.
Methodology. Where dunes are well defined, rates of migration may be moni-
tored by comparing their position relative to fixed markers, such as stakes
driven into the ground. These markers may be placed around the perimeter
of isolated dunes or adjacent to the lee face of transverse or parabolic
dunes. The position of the dune can be compared to the original stake posi-
tions and rates of change determined on a seasonal or annual basis. Such
methods have been used at White Sands, New Mexico (McKee and Dou-
glass, 1971), and in Namibia (Bristow and Lancaster, 2004), and elsewhere.
The disadvantage of field surveys is the need to continually revisit the moni-
tored dune over the years, and the probability that monitoring stakes may
be buried or left behind as the dune advances. Timing. This should be done
annually.

Level 2: GPS Survey of Dune Positions

Equipment required. A differential GPS unit is needed. Cost. Costs are low,
providing that a GPS unit is available. Complexity. This method is moder-
ately complex; training in use of GPS units is required.

76
Methodology. Dune migration rates can be determined and monitored very
easily with high-precision GPS surveys using a differential GPS unit. Using
this methodology, the coordinates (latitude and longitude or UTM coordi-
nates) of the leading edge of a dune (usually the base of a slip face) can be
determined with a precision of less than 1 m, which is more than sufficient
for annual surveys of dune migration rates. The coordinates for the position
of the dune in successive years can then be compared to determine any ad-
vance. This methodology has been used to determine dune migration rates
in Egypt (Stokes et al., 1999). The outline of the dune can be also surveyed
using this method, providing a record of changes in dune morphology over
time. Timing. This should be done annually.

Level 3: Comparison of Dunes on Aerial Photographs or Satellite Images of

Different Dates
Equipment required. Aerial photographs and topographic maps are needed.
Cost. Costs are low to moderate, except for computing resources. Complex-
ity. This method is highly complex; it requires specialist knowledge of GIS
and data processing.
Methodology. In this method, the position of dunes at different times is com-
pared using aerial photographs taken at selected intervals. At the simplest
level, transparency sheets (made of mylar, for example) are laid over the
photographs. The area can be delineated on the transparency, and the infor-
mation transferred to a topographic map using visual comparison to fea-
tures common to both. The change in position of the dunes can then be
measured on the map and divided by the number of years between the aerial
photograph coverages to provide an estimate of dune migration rates. This
method has been used extensively in southern California (Haff and Presti,
1995; Long and Sharp, 1964; Sweet et al., 1988) and elsewhere (Finkel,
1959; Hastenrath, 1967; and Slattery, 1990). It works best when the dunes
are well-defined and moving fairly rapidly. In general, dune migration rates
vary inversely with dune size. More precise and more valuable information
can be gained by scanning the images, correcting their geometry in a GIS
and compiling coverages of the position of the dunes at different times. The
GIS can then be used to generate maps of dunes at different times and to
estimate migration rates. This methodology was used to examine dune and
dune field migration rates in the Christmas Valley, Oregon, in support of
management of this area by the Bureau of Land Management (Lancaster et
al., 2001), and at Great Sand Dunes, where changes in dune migration rates
were compared to climate data (Marîn et al., 2005). Timing. Intervals are de-
termined by the dates of the aerial photographs.

77
VITAL SIGN 10: EROSION AND DEPOSITION PATTERNS ON DUNES
The pattern of erosion and deposition on dunes provides a record of the re-
sponse of the dune to airflow patterns and vegetation. Valuable information
on the dynamics of the dunes and their response to changes in climate and
vegetation can be generated in this way.

Monitoring Methods
Level 1: Repeat Photography Many changes in the topography and morphol-
ogy of dunes are complex, and require careful, quantitative topographic sur-
vey. A qualitative monitoring of seasonal, annual, or multi-annual changes in
dunes can be achieved using repeat photography from fixed camera stations
(Livingstone, 1987). Equipment required. A digital camera and a GPS unit
are needed. Cost. The cost of this method is low. Complexity. The complex-
ity level is low.
Methodology. Critical areas of dunes, such as advancing dune fronts, are
identified, and a camera station with an unobstructed view is established.
The camera station is permanently marked and its GPS location recorded.
Clear information is needed on the date and time of the photographs, the
camera system and focal length of lens used. Photographs or panoramas are
repeated on a regular basis. Timing. This method should be repeated annu-
ally.

Level 2: Erosion Pins

Transect lines or grids of erosion pins can be set up across dunes to mea-
sure erosion and deposition patterns at certain points on the dunes (Fig. 13).
These patterns can then be compared to winds and, if relevant, vegetation
cover. This method has been used to monitor changes on a dune in Namibia
for over 20 years (Livingstone, 1989, 1993, 2003). Other examples include
studies of coastal dune systems (e.g., Arens et al., 2004; Gares, 1990; Gares
and Nordstrom, 1995; Jungerius and Verheggen, 1981). Equipment required.
Erosion pins (or stakes) and tape measure(s) are needed. Cost. The cost is
low (after initial set up). Complexity. The complexity level is low to moder-
ate.
Methodology. Grids or transects of erosion pins are set up across the dune
using pins at intervals of 5 or 10 m (or at critical points, such as the base of
the slip face). If possible, positions of pins should be surveyed. Measure-
ments from tip of pin to surface should be recorded, as well as the height
(exposure) of pin. Changes in the exposure of the erosion pins (less expo-
sure = deposition; increased exposure = erosion) provide a record of dune

78
dynamics. Timing. This method can be used weekly, monthly, or annually.
Shorter intervals provide more precise information and are easier to relate
to winds and vegetation conditions.

Level 3: Topographic Survey

Detailed topographic surveys, with a contour interval of 1 m or less can pro-
vide very useful data for monitoring dune changes and dune dynamics.
These techniques have been used to assess dune changes in several stud-
ies, in Oman (Warren, 1988), Namibia (Livingstone, 2003; Ward and von
Brunn, 1985); and in coastal blowout dunes in the Netherlands (Arens, 1997;
Arens et al., 2004). Equipment required. Survey instruments (total station) or
a differential GPS unit are needed. Cost. The cost is moderate, assuming
that equipment can be borrowed or rented. Complexity. The level of com-
plexity is moderate to high. Training in surveying is required; analysis of re-
sults requires a GIS expert.
Methodology. This type of survey can be carried out using a total station,
which downloads coordinates to a computer for subsequent plotting in a
contouring and mapping program such as Surfer. If a differential GPS unit is
available, then similar, but slightly less precise, data can be generated from
a detailed GPS topographic survey. Either type of survey can generate data
for a digital elevation model, or DEM. Changes can be assessed quantita-
tively by comparing digital elevation models for different time periods, gen-
erating information on areas where changes have occurred and on the vol-
umes and rates of erosion and deposition in these areas. Timing. This data
can be generated at seasonal to annual intervals.

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MONITORING OF VITAL SIGNS

This section provides a statement of the most effective methods for moni-
toring of the vital signs identified for aeolian processes and landforms.

Vital Sign 1: Frequency and Magnitude of Dust Storms

Providing that personnel are available to record visibility reduction caused
by blowing dust, visual observation and recording is the preferred and most
cost effective method for monitoring of dust events. In cases where the site
is remote, then automated camera systems are the preferred methodology.

Vital Sign 2: Rate of Dust Deposition

The USGS dust trap method is reliable and simple, and provides a valuable
record of dust deposition over periods of years to decades.

79
Vital Sign 3: Rate of Sand Transport
Estimation of potential sand transport rates from wind data is a necessary
first step for monitoring of sand transport rates. This also provides data that
can be compared with other areas. Long-term field monitoring of transport
rates using the Big Spring Number Eight (BSNE) trap provides a valuable
record, if the site(s) are carefully chosen.

Vital Sign 4: Wind Erosion Rate

Use of erosion pins and other topographic data can provide a good docu-
mentation of wind erosion rates for specific areas.

Vital Sign 5: Changes in Total Area Occupied by Sand Dunes

Although more complex and expensive, a GIS approach is far superior to
other methods for estimation of dune field changes, providing quantitative
data that can be used in conjunction with climate records to understand
long-term aeolian dynamics.

Vital Sign 6: Area of Stabilized and Active Dunes

Mapping of active and stabilized dunes using satellite image data is an ex-
cellent method. When used in combination with a GIS, this approach is far
superior to other methods for estimation of dune field changes, providing
quantitative data that can be used in conjunction with climate records to
understand long-term aeolian dynamics.

Vital Sign 7: Dune Morphology and Morphometry

Use of aerial photographs and/or satellite images is the preferred method for
describing dune morphology and documenting any changes that may occur.
Although more complex and expensive, a GIS approach is far superior to
other methods, providing quantitative data to understand long-term aeolian
dynamics.

Vital Sign 8: Dune Field Sediment State

Valuable data on sediment state can be obtained using a descriptive ap-
proach, with limited analyses of samples for bulk mineralogy.

Vital Sign 9: Rates of Dune Migration

Rates of dune migration are best determined using repeated GPS surveys, or
if a long-term historical record is needed, by comparison of dune positions
on aerial photographs or satellite images. In either case, a GIS approach for
data recording and synthesis is desirable.

80
Vital Sign 10: Erosion and Deposition Patterns on Dunes
Repeat photography and simple field surveys can provide valuable informa-
tion and are simple to set up and repeat.

STUDY DESIGN
General Principles
Any study design should consider the goals of the monitoring, and therefore
what process or landform will be studied, why it should be monitored, and
for how long. Short-term observations of change are useful, but long-term
monitoring is very valuable, though it involves a long-term commitment of
resources. The personnel and other resources available will largely deter-
mine the methods employed. In general, simple methods regularly applied
will yield good results. As far as possible, monitoring programs should strive
for quantitative and reproducible results. All data gathered should be as-
sessed critically after two or three measurement intervals to determine: (1)
whether changes can be detected; and (2) whether the data can be ex-
plained and understood using knowledge of the process or landform being
monitored. Adjustments to the monitoring program then can be made as
needed, but radical changes should be avoided. It is always useful to have
an outside “expert” to act as a consultant.

An Example Program to Monitor Movement of Small- to Moderate-Size Inland

Dunes
Monitoring of the rates of movement of inland dunes can provide a sensitive
overall assessment of the activity of an aeolian sand system and its re-
sponse to natural and anthropogenic stressors. An ideal program will com-
bine both short-term (months to years) and long-term (years to decades)
monitoring of dune migration rates. Migration rates should be compared to
climatic data on all time scales.

Major Project Milestones

1. Determine resources available for monitoring and select appropriate
methods to be used. As discussed above, the best techniques for short-term
monitoring are field survey using fixed markers or a differential GPS survey;
for long-term measurements, use aerial photographs or satellite images
taken on different dates. 2. Ensure that relevant hourly wind speed and di-
rection data are available for the monitoring site. Upgrade existing weather
stations or install new equipment for the monitoring program. 3. For short-
term measurements: select dunes to be monitored. Dunes should be se-

81
lected to be representative of the size and morphological type found in the
study area. If dune types vary significantly, then choose measurement sites
for each type. Ensure that monitoring sites are easy to access and not likely
to be disturbed by animals or people. Set up fixed points and benchmarks.
Allocate resources for monthly or seasonal measurements. 4. For long-term
monitoring: Acquire baseline image data and incorporate into a GIS system.
5. For short-term monitoring: make monthly or seasonal measurements and
enter these data into a database. Produce graphics showing changes over
time. 6. For long-term monitoring: compare dunes on images acquired annu-
ally. Produce maps of changes from year to year. 7. After one year, assess
short-term monitoring data (if data are collected monthly). Compare rates of
movement to wind and other climate data. Determine trends. Are there sea-
sonal differences in migration rates? Do these relate to variations in wind
speed and/or direction over the year? Determine optimal timing of measure-
ments and adjust program accordingly. It may be that dune movement is
slow enough that annual or seasonal measurements are sufficient. Report
results to scientific and management communities. Provide public outreach.
8. After 5 years, assess long-term monitoring data on migration rates by
comparing image data from different years. Determine trends, if any. Are
there inter-annual differences in migration rates? Do these relate to varia-
tions in wind speed and/or direction, or to changes in precipitation (and
therefore vegetation cover)? Report results to scientific and management
communities.

CASE STUDIES
There are relatively few long-term monitoring studies of aeolian processes
and landforms, in part because of the remote nature of many desert regions,
and in part because of the perception that geomorphic change is slow in
deserts. Good examples include the USGS Desert Winds project (now in part
administered by the Desert Research Institute), the USGS dust trap–monitor-
ing study in the southwestern United States, and a decades-long monitoring
of cross-sectional and morphologic change on a Namibian linear dune. Com-
mon to the latter two projects is a relatively simple and robust methodology.
This simplicity ensures that ongoing costs of monitoring are low, using a
clearly targeted process or landform and a dedicated principal investigator,
who has maintained the monitoring network over many years. Many of the
problems encountered by the Desert Winds project stem from the overabun-
dance of data collected and the lack of a clearly defined purpose for the
monitoring.

82
Long-Term Monitoring of Sand Transport and Climatic Parameters: The
Desert Winds Project
The Desert Winds Project was set up by the USGS in the early 1970s and
was designed to permit remote monitoring of aeolian processes (McCauley
et al., 1984). Goals of the monitoring network were: (1) to provide a long-
term database for understanding the range of environmental conditions that
can be expected to occur normally in arid and semiarid areas of the desert
southwest; (2) to acquire baseline data to assess changes in the desert
such as changes in vegetation, migration of sand, and increased dust
storms that may occur due to climate change in desert regions; and (3) to
acquire data for field-checking remotely sensed image data of various sur-
faces, so that regional models can be developed for monitoring land surface
changes over time. Each station was equipped with anemometers at three
heights (1.2, 2.7, and 6.1 m), a wind vane at 6.1 m, temperature and humidity
sensors at 1.2 and 6.1 m, and a tipping bucket rain gauge. Transport of sedi-
ment by wind is monitored by BSNE sand traps (Fryrear, 1986) mounted at
0.05 or 0.15 m, 0.50 m, and 1.0 m, together with a Sensit piezo-electric sand
transport sensor at 0.05 or 0.15 m above the surface. Full details of the in-
strumentation and operation of the stations are given in Tigges et al. (1999).
With the exception of the BSNE traps, all sensors are scanned at one-sec-
ond intervals with 6-minute averages of the anemometer, wind vane, and
Sensit readings, together with 12-minute average temperature, as well as
hourly humidity, and precipitation. Data were uploaded via the GOES satel-
lite each hour until the mid 1990s, when the original equipment was re-
placed by data loggers, which are downloaded on a monthly basis. Cur-
rently, only two of the original stations are operating: Gold Spring, Arizona,
and Jornada, New Mexico. In addition to the meteorological data, there is
repeat photography for the sites at a series of marked camera stations,
which provides an indication of changes in vegetation cover over time.
Some preliminary results of the project are discussed in Breed and Reheis
(1999), but most of the data have never been analyzed in a systematic fash-
ion. An example of the application of this unique monitoring network to un-
derstanding variability of sand transport rates in relation to climatic param-
eters is documented in (Lancaster and Helm, 2000). The data on long-term
variations in sand transport rates provide a record of the response of sand
transport rates to external stressors, including drought periods and changes
in the composition of vegetation communities over a period of two decades
at Gold Spring and Jornada (Fig. 16). The Gold Spring data show the effects
of heavy rainfall on vegetation cover and sand transport rates in the period
1992– 1993 and subsequent droughts, while the Jornada data show an order

83
of magnitude increase in sand flux since the mid 1990s, likely as a result of
the change from a grassland to a mesquite-dominated landscape.

Figure 16. Changes in sand flux over time at Gold Spring and Jornada Desert
Wind sites. Sand flux measured using Big Spring Number Eight traps.

Figure 17. Changes in dust flux in the Mojave and Great Basin deserts (after
Reheis, 2006).
(A) Dust flux and precipitation at northern sites. (B) Dust flux and precipita-
tion at southern sites.

84
Dust Deposition in the Southwestern United States
This is a good example of a monitoring project that provides quantitative in-
formation on an important geologic process, as well as data that lead to a
greater understanding of how the process responds to stressors. The
project is ongoing and is designed to monitor dust deposition rates in areas
of the Great Basin and Mojave deserts of the southwestern United States.
Goals of the project are to determine the rate and composition of dust in-
puts to soils, and to relate dust accumulation to climatic patterns, espe-
cially the amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall, as it affects different
dust source areas, including playas and alluvial areas. Results of the project
are summarized in Reheis, (1997, 2003, 2006) and Reheis and Kihl (1995).
The methodology used is briefly described above under Vital Sign 2, and dis-
cussed in detail in Reheis (1999, 2003). Thirty-five dust trap sites in the
eastern Mojave Desert and southern Great Basin have been monitored since
1984. Rates of deposition of silt and clay, clay, carbonate, and soluble salts
have been determined on an annual or two-year basis, and compared to data
on annual and seasonal precipitation at nearby weather stations (Fig. 17).
Additional data on the chemical and mineral composition of the deposited
dust were also generated. The data show that generation and accumulation
of dust is affected by the amount and seasonal distribution of rainfall. How-
ever, different source types (alluvium, dry playas, and wet playas) respond
in different ways. A major factor in determining dust generation is the condi-
tion of surface sediments, especially their moisture content. For example,
the flux of silt and clay and soluble salt increased following the El Niño
events of 1987–1988 and 1997–1998 at sites close to playas with a shallow
depth to groundwater. In this case, evaporative concentration of salts dis-
rupted surface crusts and increased the susceptibility of surface sediment
to wind erosion. The silt and clay flux increased during drought periods at
sites downwind of alluvial sources and playas with deeper groundwater.
This was the result of reduced vegetation cover on alluvial sediments, and
local runoff events that delivered fresh sediment to playa margins and the
distal portions of alluvial fans (Reheis, 2003, 2006). Reheis (2006) also noted
geographical differences in the response of dust sources to precipitation
variability, with a greater range of dust fluxes noted in southern (mostly Mo-
jave Desert) sites.

85
Figure 18. Changes in linear dune morphology (simplified from Livingstone,
2003).

Topographic Change on a Namibian Linear Dune

Most long-term studies of desert dunes have concentrated on monitoring
rates of movement of small crescentic or barchan dunes via comparison of
the position of dunes on aerial photographs taken at different time intervals.
Studies of the dynamics of individual dunes are relatively rare. This project
has monitored surface topographic change on a large linear dune in the cen-
tral Namib Desert since 1980. Erosion pins were set up in 1980 and moni-
tored weekly for the first four years (Livingstone, 1989). Subsequently, the
dune was resurveyed in 1993, providing information on dune change over a
decade (Livingstone, 1993), and again in 2001 (Livingstone, 2003). Methods
used varied over the period of monitoring, from direct measurement of ero-
sion pins in the intensive phase to use of a total station in 2001. Some of the
erosion pins placed in 1980 survived to provide fixed points for subsequent
surveys. Results of the intensive monitoring showed that the crest region of
the dunes is the most active. The crestlines migrate over a lateral distance
of as much as 14 m over a 12-month period, but with little net change over
periods of years due to changes in seasonal wind directions. On the dune
studied by Livingstone, the crest area changed from a relatively high single
crest in the 1980s to a slightly lower double crest form in the 1990s, and
then back to single crest form by 2001, regaining much of its original height
(Fig. 18). The lower, or plinth, areas of the dune showed little change over
the period of study. Livingstone (2003) attributed the changes in dune crest
characteristics to changes in the relative magnitude and frequency of
strong easterly winter winds, which increased in the late 1980s. The studies
also suggested that these large dunes are not migrating because no lateral

86
movement was detected. More recent studies show, however, that the rate
of lateral migration of these dunes over periods of hundreds to thousands of
years is only 0.13 m/year (Bristow et al., 2007), so the net migration over the
period studied by Livingstone would have been ~0.25 m, and therefore diffi-
cult to detect.

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 ‫پروژه بیابان زدایی در مناطقی از ایران و عراق‬
- Generally two rows of tall growing, adapted evergreen or deciduous trees, should be planted
around farm boundaries. Kinds of trees for this purpose include pine, spruce, mulberry and pop-
lar.

- Multi-flora rose, Privet and other adapted species of shrub also provide effective protection for
vegetable crops.
- Solid board fences, snow fences, burlap fences, crate walls and earthen banks can also be used
to protect vegetable crops. Fences should be 0.9 to 1.5 m high and spaced at intervals of about
15 times their height.

- Erosion control on grazing lands can be attained by adapting

the following measures:
(1) Limiting livestock number on any given area.
(2) Providing reserves of harvested forage to feed during drought periods.
(3) Dividing pastures and using rotational grazing.

97
(4) Supplying several watering and saltbox sites and moving the boxes from time to time.
(5) Fencing animals away and planting grasses (Fig. 6.7).
(6) Avoiding gates or lanes on erosive sites and moving them if an erosion problem devel-
ops.
(7) Providing wind barriers to protect permanent water sites and lanes.
(8) Applying mulches and brush to blowout spots caused by heavy traffic, utility poles or
gas line installations.
- Practices that have proved beneficial are contour furrowing or staggered trenching to re-
duce runoff and conserve moisture, inter-seeding of more productive species of grass,
spraying to control weeds and brush, and applying fertilizers when economically feasible.

There are three distinct processes in the stabilization of sand dunes:

(i) Protection against biotic influences;
(ii) Treatment of the shifting sands and dunes by fixing barriers from the crest down to the
heel of the dune; and
(iii) Re-vegetating by afforestation and establishment of grasses.
(i) Protection of Sand Dune:

- Protection of sand dune the area to be afforested for fixation of sand should be taken up
one year in advance; and fenced, preferably with five strands of barbed wire fixed on angle
iron posts spaced 6 m apart.
- Brush wood (Thorn) fencing can also be done by Zizyphus mauritiana or Prosopis
cineraria as they are cheaper. Amongst the various types of fences, angle iron post and
barbed wire fencing have proved to be the most efficacious and economical.

(ii) Creation of Barriers:

The first step in dune fixation operation consists of placing closely spaced vertical brush
wood barriers starting from the crest to the heel on the windward side of the dune. These
barriers may either be erected in 5 m parallel strips or in 5 m2 chess board pattern depend-
ing upon the wind velocity and wind direction.

98
 brush wood barriers

Species such as Crotalaria burhia (senia); Leptadenia pyrotechnica (khimp); Ziziphus

num- mularia (bordi); Aerva tomentosa (buida); Calli-gonum polygonoides (phog); Lasi-
urus hirsutus (sewan); and Panicum tur-gidum (munt) have been found economical for
creating such barriers. The fixing of brush wood should be completed before start of strong
windy season.

(iii) Establishment of Vegetation:

The windward side being the active part of the dune, should be stabilized first. After that,
the rest of the dune can be brought under control. The initial step consists of planting beach
grass and dune grasses to arrest sand movement. Then intermediate seeding or plantings of
leguminous species are necessary as soon as the beach grass has stilled the moving sand.

The most successful method of plantation is ‘planting bricks’ developed at CAZRI, Jodhpur
with the help of a wooden or steel mold (30 cm high, and 10 cm2 and 15 cm2 at the top and
bottom, respectively). Planting bricks are made out of a mixture of equal proportion of clay,
sand and manures in the molds and sun dried with a cavity of 2.5 cm diameter and 15 cm
deep from the top to place the seed or stump.
During planting season, these bricks along with seedlings in them are taken out of the nurs-
ery beds and planted about 60 cm below the dune surface with the bricks intact. The plant-
ing is carried out at a spacing of 5 x 5 m. Species which are found successful by this method
are Acacia senegal, Acacia tortilis, Dalbergia sissoo, Parkinsonia aculeata, Prosopis
juliflora, cineraria and Ziziphus jujuba.
In general, the following types of vegetation can be established in
low rainfall areas:
Trees and Shrubs:
For successful planting in sand dunes, well developed, about 1.0 m long, seedlings should be
planted about 60 cm deep and keeping 40 cm above the ground.

Direct planting with branch cutting of Tamarix articulata (Pharash) and Calligonum poly-
gonoides (Phog) is successful provided it is done with the onset of rains or soon after good
showers. Pre-sprouted stumps of Prosopis juliflora (Vilayati babul); Albizzia lebbek (sires) and
Dalbergia sissoo (shisham) have also done well.
The success of sand dune afforestation depends on choosing right species.

The following tree and shrubs are recommended for afforesta-

tion on sand dunes in different rainfall areas:
(a) In areas receiving more than 40 cm rainfall, the trees species like Prosopis cineraria, P.
juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Ziziphus jujuba, Acacia Senegal, Tacomella undulata, Parkinsonia

99
aculeata and Acacia tortilis are suitable. The suitable shrubs for such rainfall areas are: Cal-
ligonum polygonoides, Cassia auriculata, Ziziphus rotundifolia and Ricinus communis.

(b) Areas receiving annual precipitation between 30-40 cm should be planted with tree species
like Acacia Senegal, Prosopis cineraria, P. Juliflora, Tacomella undulata, Ziziphus jujuba,
Parkinsonia aculeata and Acacia tortilis. The suitable shrubs are Ricinus communis and Cal-
ligonum polygonoides.

(c) Prosopis juliflora, Parkinsonia aculeata and Acacia tortilis species of trees are suitable for
areas receiving less than 30 cm annual rainfall. Calligonum polygonoides and Ricinus commu-
nis are the suitable shrubs for such areas.

b. Establishment of Grass Cover:

Grasses grow more quickly than shrubs and trees and bind the drifting sands, utilizing soil
moisture from upper strata. Saccharum munja is deep rooted and quite efficient in binding
loose sand. Hardy grasses like Panicum turgidum and Panicum antidotale may be sown with
the onset of monsoon.
To improve forage quality legumes like Atylosia scarabaeoides, Rhynchosia minima, Clitoria
ternatea, and Crotalaria burhia should also be sown before the onset of rains for further self-
seeding. Mechanical structures that stop sand movement only temporarily are costly and, if not
properly placed, may cause turbulence that makes dune difficult to stabilize.

Stabilization of sand dunes affecting military bases, and high-

ways may be accomplished by one or a combination of the follow-
ing methods:
(1) Sand dune crests should be levelled to reduce areas exposed to maximum winds and the
sides falling prevailing winds should be stabilized.

(2) Sand fences may be used to trap and hold moving material. Fences should be installed per-
pendicular to prevailing winds. Severe cases may require paddocks, sometimes as small as 7.6 x
7.6 m. Sand dikes should be 45 cm high and spaced not more than 30.5 m apart.

(3) Crushed rock, stones, gravel or shale blankets may also be used. To provide adequate pro-
tection about 20 tonnes/acre of fine gravel, 50 tonnes of medium gravel or crushed stone or
100 tonnes of coarse crushed rock or sale would be required.

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(4) Straw mulches at the rate of 2 to 3 tonnes per acre, anchored with disc harrow, disc packers
or asphalt adhesives, may be used. Blower type mulch spreader or beater type manure spreader
may be used to apply mulches on large scale.

(5) Brush, chicken wire or snow fence may be used flat to the surface on highly erosive spots.
Wire should be anchored with stakes.

(6) Petroleum and chemical spray on adhesives may be used. Resin-in- water emulsions (co-
herex), asphalt emulsions, cutback asphalt, and oil latex emulsions (Unisol) are highly effec-
tive.

(7) Sand should be tested for nutrient requirements. Application of up to 560 kg/ha of 16-20-0
fertiliser (N-P-K mixture) have been required on some dune sands to establish vegetation.
(8) Seeds of culms of adapted grasses should be planted with mulch, adhesive, or other protec-
tion. Effective grasses where they will grow include American and European beach, bamboo,
pampas, maram, and perennial rye. When planting beach grasses, about 3 to 5 culms per hill,
spaced 45 cm apart should be placed.

(9) Adapted trees and shrubs should be planted on some dune areas. For example, pine trees
and strawberry could be planted successfully.

A low cost method of stabilizing dunes on low value, sandy range

lands include:
(i) Excluding livestock completely, and

(ii) Stimulating growth of existing vegetation by applying fertilizer after testing the sand for nu-
trient requirements. If fertilization alone is not sufficient to stimulate native vegetation, sand
binding grasses should be planted and mulches and fertilizers should be applied.
The stabilized sand dunes should be managed carefully. The trials and roads leading through
loose sand should be covered with non-erodible material such as gravel or concrete. Grass-
lands, woodlands, or scrublands should be protected from fire, overgrazing, or excessive tree
cutting. Stabilized dunes should be used for recreational purposes and for limited pasture or
woodland.
Central Soil Conservation Board at Research Station, Jodhpur has recommended the following
flora for reclamation of sand dunes.

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Raising of Micro Wind Breaks
It is preferred in those areas where wind velocity is intensive and rainfall is less than 300
mm per year. The raising of wind break should be completed before the onset of mon-
soon. Twigs or brush woods are inserted into the soil parallel to one another at about 5 m
spacing. The spacing depends on the intensity of erosive wind velocity, if the velocity is
more spacing is less and vice versa. The fencing of dunes using brush woods reduces
evaporation loss and also enriches the humus content in the soil.

Retreating the Dunes

In this, the micro wind breaks are treated again by planting tree saplings and grasses in
the space left. The grasses grown in the intersection of plants of wind break reduce the
soil loss from the dune surface significantly.

Mechanical Measures
Wind breaks, shelterbelts, stone pitching, fences etc., either manmade or natural barriers
are helpful to reduce the wind velocity thereby favoring the stabilization of sand dunes.

Straw Checker-Boards
This technique of sand dunes stabilization is extensively used in China since 1950’s.
Wheat or rice straw or reeds ( 50–60 cm in length) are placed vertically to form the sides
of the checkerboard, which are typically 10 to 20 cm high. Optimum grid size of checker
ranges from 1 x 1 m to 2 x 2 m , depending on local wind and sand transport conditions.
Smaller grids are used in areas where winds are stronger.

102
Chemical Spray
Sometimes crude oils are used for the successful stabilization of sand dune. The oil is
heated to 50°C and sprayed on the dune at the rate of 4 m3/ha. It is a temporary measure,
lasting only for 3-4 years and during those years, it is expected that the vegetation growth
will take place in that area. This method is costly and suitable only for small areas.
Aridity Index = ((Daily Potential Evapotranspiration-Actual
Evapotranspiration)/Daily Potential Evapotranspiration)*100
AI = ((PET-Eact)/PET)*100
This formula uses 3 Variables
Aridity Index = Aridity Index is a numerical indicator of the degree of dryness of
the climate at a given location.
Daily Potential Evapotranspiration = (Measured in Cubic Meter per Second) -
Daily Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) is calculated from climate parameter

103
 data that is extracted from Global Data Assimilation System (GDAS) analysis
fields.
Actual Evapotranspiration (Measured in Cubic Meter per Second) = Actual Evap-
otranspiration is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a surface due
to the processes of evaporation and transpiration.
-----------+++++++++++++++++__________________________________

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 / ► Lesson: 15 Wind Erosion Control Measures

Lesson: 15 Wind Erosion Control Measures

Wind erosion is the process of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles
by the action of wind. It occurs in all parts of the world and is a cause of serious soil dete-
rioration. In India, Rajasthan has severe wind erosion problem. A large part of area the
state is affected by sand dune formation. Some parts of coastal areas also have such prob-
lems. It most commonly occurs in the regions where soil is loose, finely divided and dry,
soil surface is smooth and bare, and where wind is strong to detach the soil particles from
the surface.

15.1 Wind Erosion Control

A suitable surface soil texture is the best key to wind erosion protection. Properly man-
aged crop residues, carefully timed soil tillage, and accurately placed crop strips and crop
barriers can all effectively reduce wind erosion. Proper land use and adaptation of ade-
quate moisture conservation practices are the main tools which help in wind erosion con-
trol. In arid and semiarid regions where serious problem of wind erosion is common, sev-

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eral cultural methods can help to reduce the wind erosion. In the absence of crop residue,
soil roughness or soil moisture can reduce the wind erosion effectively.

Three basic methods can be used to control wind erosion:

 Maintain Vegetative Cover (Vegetative Measures)

 Roughen the Soil Surface by Tillage Practices (Tillage Practices or may be called
Tillage Measures)
 Mechanical or Structural Measures (Mechanical Measures)

There is no single recipe for erosion control as many factors affect the outcome. How-
ever, with an understanding of how soil is eroded, strategies can be devised to minimize
erosion.

15.2 Vegetative Measures

Vegetative measures can be used to roughen the whole surface and prevent any soil
movement. The aim is to keep the soil rough and ridged to either prevent any movement
initially or to quickly trap bouncing soil particles in the depressions of the rough surface.
A cover crop with sufficient growth will provide soil erosion protection during the crop-
ping season. It is one of the most effective and economical means to reduce the effect of
wind on the soil. It not only retards the velocity near the ground surface but also holds the
soil against tractive force of wind thereby helping in reduction of soil erosion.

From the basic concept, the velocity of wind decreases near the ground surface because
of the resistance offered by the vegetation. The variation in wind velocity with respect to
height above the land surface increases exponentially (chapter 14).

Vegetative measures can be of two types:

1. Temporary Measures

2. Permanent Measures

The use of these measures depends upon the severity of erosion.

15.3 Tillage Practices

The tillage practices, such as ploughing are importantly adopted for controlling wind ero-
sion. These practices should be carried out before the start of wind erosion. Ploughing be-
fore the rainfall helps in moisture conservation. Ploughing, especially with a disc plough

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is also helpful in development of rough soil surface which in turn reduces the impact of
erosive wind velocity. Both the above effects are helpful in controlling the wind erosion.

Surface roughening should only be considered when there is insufficient (less than 50%)
vegetation cover to protect the soil surface or when the soil type will produce sufficient
clods to protect the surface. Roughening can be used in both crop and pasture areas. Sur-
face roughening alone is inadequate for sandy soils because they produce few clods.
Tillage ridges, about 100 mm high, should be used to cover the entire area prone to ero-
sion. Ridges that are lower than 100 mm get quickly filled with sand, whilst the crest of
the ridge that is higher than 100 mm tends to erode very quickly.

The common tillage practices used for wind erosion control are as under:

 Primary and Secondary Tillage

 Use of Crop Residues
 Strip Cropping

15.4 Mechanical Measures

This method consists of some mechanical obstacles, constructed across the prevailing
wind, to reduce the impact of blowing wind on the soil surface. These obstacles may be
fences, walls, stone packing etc., either in the nature of semi-permeable or permeable bar-
riers. The semi-permeable barriers are most effective, because they create diffusion and
eddying effects on their downstream face. Terraces and bunds also obstruct the wind ve-
locity and control the wind erosion to some extent. Generally, in practice two types of
mechanical measures are adopted to control the wind erosion; i) wind breaks and ii) shel-
ter belts.

15.4.1 Wind Breaks

This is a permanent vegetative measure which helps in the reduction of wind erosion. It is
most effective vegetative measure used for controlling severe wind erosion. The term
wind break is defined as any type of barrier either mechanical or vegetative used for pro-
tecting the areas like building apartments, orchards or farmsteads etc. from blowing
winds. The wind break acts as fencing wall around the affected areas, normally con-
structed by one row or maximum up to two rows across the prevailing wind direction.

A further use for "windbreaks" or "wind fences" is for reducing wind speeds over erodi-
ble areas such as open fields, industrial stockpiles, and dusty industrial operations. As
erosion is proportional to the cube of wind speed, a reduction in wind speed by 1/2 (for
example) will reduce erosion by over 80%. The largest one of these windbreaks is located

106
in Oman (28 m high by 3.5 km long) and was created by Mike Robinson from Weather
Solve Structures.

15.4.2 Shelter Belts

A shelterbelt is a longer barrier than the wind break, is installed by using more than two
rows, usually at right angle to the direction of prevailing winds. The rows of belt can be
developed by using shrubs and trees. It is mainly used for the conservation of soil mois-
ture and for the protection of field crops, against severe wind erosion.

Shelterbelt is more effective for reducing the impact of wind movement than the wind
break. Apart from controlling wind erosion, it provides fuel, reduces evaporation and pro-
tects the orchard from hot and cold winds.

Woodruff and Zingg (1952) developed the following relationship between the distance of
full protection (d) and the height (h) of wind break or shelter belt.

Where, d is the distance of full protection (m), h is the height of the wind barrier (wind
break or shelter belt) (m), vm is the minimum wind velocity at 15 m height required to
move the most erodible soil fraction (m/s), v is the actual velocity at 15 m height, and θ is
the angle of deviation of prevailing wind direction from the perpendicular to the wind
barrier.

This relationship (equation) is valid only for wind velocities below 18 m/s. This equation
may also be adapted for estimating the width of strips by using the crop height in the ad -
joining strip in the equation. The value of vm for a bare smooth surface after erosion has
been initiated and before wetting by rainfall and subsequent surface crusting is about 9.6
m/s.

15.5 Sand Dunes Stabilization

A ‘Dune’ is derived from English word ‘Dun’ means hilly topographical feature. There-
fore a sand dune is a mount, hill or ridge of sand that lies behind the part of the beach af -
fected by tides. They are formed over many years when windblown sand is trapped by
beach grass or other stationary objects. Dune grasses anchor the dunes with their roots,
holding them temporarily in place, while their leaves trap sand promoting dune expan-

107
sion. Without vegetation, wind and waves regularly change the form and location of
dunes. Dunes are not permanent structures.

Sand dunes provide sand storage and supply for adjacent beaches. They also protect in-
land areas from storm surges, hurricanes, flood-water, and wind and wave action that can
damage property. Sand dunes support an array of organisms by providing nesting habitat
for coastal bird species including migratory birds. Sand dunes are also habitat for coastal
plants. For example: ‘The Seabrook dunes’ are home to 141 species of plants, including
nine rare, threatened and endangered species.

There are three essential prerequisites for sand dune formation:

(1) An abundant supply of loose sand in a region generally devoid of vegetation (such as
an ancient lake bed or river delta);

(2) A wind energy source sufficient to move the sand grains.

(3) A topography whereby the sand particles lose their momentum and settle down.

The best method by which the sand dunes can be stabilized is to reduce the erosive veloc-
ity. Therefore, various methods which are employed for sand dune stabilization are based
on the principle to dissipate the erosive power of wind, so that the detachment and trans-
portation of soil particles cannot take place. Some methods employed for sand dune stabi-
lization are:

 Vegetation/Vegetative Measures
 Mechanical Measures
 Straw (Checkerboard and Bales)/Mats and Netting
 Chemical Spray

15.5.1 Vegetative Measures

This method is most common and preferred worldwide for sand dune stabilization. It is a
most effective, least expensive, aesthetically pleasing method which mimics a natural
system with self‐repairing provision. However, it has some disadvantages as the plant es -
tablishment phase is critical, it needs irrigation and maintenance until self-sustaining sys-
tem is developed. Most common practices adopted under this are:

15.5.1.1 Raising of Micro Wind Breaks

108
It is preferred in those areas where wind velocity is intensive and rainfall is less than 300
mm per year. The raising of wind break should be completed before the onset of mon-
soon. Twigs or brush woods are inserted into the soil parallel to one another at about 5 m
spacing. The spacing depends on the intensity of erosive wind velocity, if the velocity is
more spacing is less and vice versa. The fencing of dunes using brush woods reduces
evaporation loss and also enriches the humus content in the soil.

15.5.1.2 Retreating the Dunes

In this, the micro wind breaks are treated again by planting tree saplings and grasses in
the space left. The grasses grown in the intersection of plants of wind break reduce the
soil loss from the dune surface significantly.

15.5.2 Mechanical Measures

Wind breaks, shelterbelts, stone pitching, fences etc., either manmade or natural barriers
are helpful to reduce the wind velocity thereby favoring the stabilization of sand dunes.

15.5.3 Straw Checker Boards

This technique of sand dunes stabilization is extensively used in China since 1950’s.
Wheat or rice straw or reeds (50 – 60 cm in length) are placed vertically to form the sides
of the checkerboard, which are typically 10 to 20 cm high. Optimum grid size of checker
ranges from 1 x 1 m to 2 x 2 m, depending on local wind and sand transport conditions.
Smaller grids are used in areas where winds are stronger.

15.5.4 Chemical Spray

Sometimes crude oils are used for the successful stabilization of sand dune. The oil is
heated to 50 °C and sprayed on the dune at the rate of 4 m 3/ha. It is a temporary measure,
lasting only for 3-4 years and during those years, it is expected that the vegetation growth
will take place in that area. This method is costly and suitable only for small areas.

Solved Problems:
1. Determine the spacing between windbreaks that are 15 m high. 5 year return period
wind velocity at 15 m height is 15.6 m/s and the wind direction deviates 10° from the
perpendicular to the field strip. Assume a smooth, bare soil surface and a fully protected
field.

Solution:

109
Given: h = 15 m
V = 15.6 m/s
θ = 10°
Vm = 9.6 m/s (for smooth, bare soil surface)
Spacing = distance of full protection by a windbreak,
Therefore,

Thus, the spacing between windbreaks = 154.54 m.

2. Determine the full protection strip width for field strip cropping if the crop in the adja-
cent strip is wheat, 0.9 m tall, and the wind velocity at 15 m height is 8.9 m/sec at 90°
with the field strip.

Solution:

Given: h = 0.9 m
v = 8.9 m/s
θ = 0°

Assuming vm = 8.9 m/sec (Because theoretical vm = 9.6 m/sec which is greater than the
prevailing wind velocity). Since the field conditions are not specified taking vm = v.

Full protection width-

Thus, strip width = 15.30 m.

Keywords: Vegetative Measures, Tillage measures, Mechanical Measures, Sand Dune

Stabilization

References:

110
Woodruff, N.P. and A.W. Zingg. Wind-tunnel studies of fundamental problems related to
windbreaks. USDA, SCS-TP-112; August 1952.

Suggested Readings

Schwab et.al, 1981. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Third Edition. Repulic of
Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Subramanya, K., 2008. Engineering Hydrology, Third Edition(pg.374-381). New Delhi:

Tata McGraw-Hill.

Mal, B. C. 1994. Introduction to Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Kalyani Pub-
lishers, Ludhiana.

Murty, V.V.N., Jha, M.K., 2009. Land and Water Management Engineering, Fifth Edi-
tion(pg.556-563). NOIDA: Kalyani Publishers.

Last modified: Saturday, 21 December 2013, 4:45 AM

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