ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 7: Muscular System control, while smooth and cardiac muscles contract
spontaneously or through involuntary signals.
7.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR
SYSTEM 3. EXTENSIBILITY: Muscles can stretch beyond
their usual length and still contract. For example,
Movement in the body arises through cilia, gravity, you can stretch to reach something while
or muscle contractions, with muscles being the main maintaining the ability to retrieve it.
source.
4. ELASTICITY: Muscles can bounce back to their
There are three muscle types: original length after being stretched.
1. Skeletal
2. Cardiac
3. Smooth 7.3 SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY

Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

Key functions of the muscular system include
1. Body movement Skeletal muscle makes up about 40% of body
2. Posture maintenance weight, attached to skeleton or skin, showing
3. Respiration striations under a microscope. Individual muscles
4. Heat production like biceps are complete organs with muscle, nerve,
5. Communication connective, and adipose tissues. Discussion begins
6. Organ/vessel constriction at organ level, ends at cellular level (muscle fibers).
7. Cardiac contraction for blood circulation. Connective Tissue Coverings

Skeletal muscles have three connective tissue

layers:
 EPIMYSIUM - surrounds entire muscle
 PERIMYSIUM - divides into fascicles with
blood vessels and nerves
 ENDOMYSIUM - separates individual muscle
fibers.
These layers merge into tendons connecting muscle
to bone.

Connective Tissue Coverings

 Skeletal muscle fibers are large cells with many
nuclei, ranging from 1mm to 30cm in length.
 Muscle size varies, with striated appearance
from light and dark bands.
 Muscle growth is due to larger fibers, not more
fibers.
 Exercise-induced muscle enlargement comes
from larger fibers, not increased numbers.
7.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
Histology of Muscle Fibers
TISSUE
Understanding muscle contraction involves muscle
Muscle tissue is specialized with four key traits:
fiber structure: electrical and mechanical
1. CONTRACTILITY: Muscles can forcefully components. Muscle fiber parts categorized by their
shorten (contract), causing movement in structures roles in contraction.
they're attached to. Skeletal muscles move bones,
smooth muscles affect organ pressure, and cardiac
muscles impact heart pressure. Muscles also
passively lengthen due to opposing forces like
gravity or fluid pressure.
2. EXCITABILITY: Muscles can respond to stimuli.
Skeletal muscles contract via conscious nerve
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Structure of a Muscle

(a) Skeletal muscle components organization:

Epimysium surrounds whole muscle, perimysium
encloses fascicles, endomysium covers individual
fibers. Muscle fibers contain myofibrils made of
myofilaments. (b) Muscle fiber enlargement with
myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum with terminal
cisternae and T-tubules forming triads.

Skeletal Muscle Fiber

a. Electron micrograph of skeletal muscle showing
multiple sarcomeres in a muscle fiber.
b. Diagram of adjacent sarcomeres, composed of
actin and myosin myofilaments. Z disks anchor
actin, M line holds myosin.
c. Actin myofilaments: actin (purple spheres),
tropomyosin (blue strands), troponin (red
spheres).
d. Myosin myofilaments made of golf-club-shaped
myosin molecules with heads in opposite
directions.

Electrical Component Structures Sarcomeres

Excitability is vital in skeletal muscle  Sarcomeres are the smallest contractile units in
Components for electrical signal response: muscles, formed by joining myofibrils.
 They have Z disks that anchor actin
1. Sarcolemma – muscle fiber membrane. myofilaments, giving the striated appearance.
2. Transverse tubules (T tubules) – extensions  Each sarcomere has I bands (lighter) containing
of sarcolemma. actin, and A bands (darker) containing
3. Sarcoplasmic reticulum – Ca²⁺ store, overlapping actin and myosin myofilaments,
releasing it for contraction. Triad formed by with an H zone in the middle of A band
T tubules and terminal cisternae. containing only myosin.
Mitochondria and glycogen in sarcoplasm.  The M line holds myosin in place.
 Myofibrils align to create the striated pattern.
Mechanical Component Structures
Muscle's contractility is due to two main structures
Actin and Myosin Myofilament Structure
in muscle fibers:
Actin Myofilaments
1. Myofibrils are bundles of protein in muscle
fibers, extending lengthwise. Actin myofilaments are made of three proteins:
2. Myofilaments consist of actin (thin) and
1. Actin
myosin (thick), forming sarcomeres, the
2. Tropomyosin
units of muscle contraction. Sarcomeres'
3. Troponin
myofilaments cause muscle shortening.
Actin has attachment sites for myosin during
contraction.
 TROPOMYOSIN covers actin's attachment
sites in relaxed muscle.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 TROPONIN has subunits: anchors to actin,
prevents tropomyosin block, binds Ca²⁺.
Troponin and tropomyosin control muscle
contraction timing.
Myosin Myofilaments
 Myosin myofilaments are made of elongated
myosin molecules resembling golf clubs.
 Each myosin molecule has a rod portion and
two heads.
 The heads:
1. bind to actin for muscle contraction
2. are hinged for bending during contraction,
3. break down ATP, releasing energy. Energy Sliding Filament Model
bends the hinge during contraction.
 Skeletal muscle cells' main function: Generate
Neuromuscular Junction Structure force through contraction.
 Neuromuscular Junction Structure:  Myofilaments in sarcomere's parallel
o Muscle fiber contacts motor neuron axon arrangement interact for contraction.
branch from brain/spinal cord.  Contraction explained by sliding filament
o Motor neurons trigger muscle fiber action model.
potentials for contraction.  During contraction, actin and myosin
o Contact point = neuromuscular junction or myofilaments slide past each other, shortening
synapse. sarcomere.
o Junction consists of:  Myofilaments retain length from resting state.
1. Axon terminals: Enlarged motor neuron  Sarcomere and myofibril shortening causes
axon endings. muscle fiber, fascicle, and muscle shortening.
2. Muscle fiber sarcolemma: Innervated  Muscle contraction countered by external
muscle fiber area forces, like gravity or opposing muscles.
o Axon terminal = presynaptic terminal.  Muscles lengthen during relaxation due to
o Space between terminal and fiber = external forces.
synaptic cleft.  Understanding muscle contraction involves
o Muscle cell membrane at junction = motor considering electrical properties of muscle
end-plate or postsynaptic membrane. fibers.
o Presynaptic terminal contains:
 Mitochondria.
 Synaptic vesicles: Hold 7.3 SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER
neurotransmitter acetylcholine PHYSIOLOGY
(ACh). Excitability of Muscle Fibers
 Neurotransmitter:
o Enables neuron-target communication.  Muscle fibers have two key components:
o Released from presynaptic membrane, 1. electrical
2. mechanical.
diffuses across synaptic cleft.
o Affects muscle fiber activity by  Muscle fibers are electrically excitable.
stimulating/inhibiting action potentials.  Electrical properties of skeletal muscle fibers
o Acts on ligand-gated ion channels: described here.
 Specialized membrane proteins.  Action potentials from brain/spinal cord trigger
 Open/close due to specific molecules muscle fiber contraction.
(neurotransmitters)  Electrically excitable cells exhibit polarization:
 Ligands bind to channels. o inside negatively charged vs. outside.
o Opened channels allow ion movement  Resting membrane potential: Voltage difference
across cell membrane. across unstimulated cell membrane
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
potassium ions in and sodium ions out. This
pump uses energy to maintain this setup.
In simple terms, the resting membrane potential is
like a charged balance that makes cells ready to
respond to signals. It's caused by the difference in
ion concentrations and how they move, helped by a
special pump that keeps the balance.

Action Potentials
When a cell gets a signal, it can have something like
an "electric flip." This is called an "action
potential." Imagine a battery turning upside down
for a moment.
1. Starting State: Normally, the inside of the cell
has a different charge than the outside. Think of
it like a battery that's not being used. Special
doors that allow sodium (Na+) and potassium
Ion Channels (K+) ions in and out are closed.
2. Getting Charged: When the cell gets a signal,
 To understand skeletal muscle fiber electrical the doors for sodium open. Positive sodium ions
properties, review membrane permeability and rush inside, making the cell more positive inside
transport proteins' role. than outside. This is called "depolarization." If
 Cell membrane's hydrophobic interior impedes this charge becomes strong enough, it triggers
ion movement. an action potential.
 Skeletal muscle cell electrical properties rely on 3. Flipping Back: To go back to the normal state,
ion movement. the doors for potassium open, and the positive
 Ions cross cell membrane via ion channels. potassium ions go out. This makes the inside
 Two major ion channel types: leak and gated. negative again. This is "repolarization."
 Leak channels allow slow ion leak based on 4. Resetting: The action potential doesn't last long,
concentration gradient. only a tiny moment. After it's done, the cell goes
 Gated channels vital in stimulated cells. back to its usual state, like a battery that's right
 Gated channels presence influences ion side up again. A special pump helps put things
movement during cell excitation. back in place.
In simple terms, an action potential is like a quick
electrical switch that happens when a cell gets a
The Resting Membrane signal. It starts with positive ions rushing in and
Electrically excitable cells, like neurons and muscle ends with them rushing out, making everything go
fibers, have an electrical difference across their back to normal.
outer walls. This difference is called the "resting
membrane potential," which is like a ready-to-go
state. Three things create this potential:
1. Different Ions Inside and Outside: There are
more positively charged potassium ions (K+)
inside the cell and more positively charged
sodium ions (Na+) outside. There are also
negatively charged molecules stuck inside.
2. Ion Movement: Potassium ions have an easier
time moving out of the cell than sodium ions
have getting in. This makes the inside of the cell
more negative compared to the outside.
3. Sodium-Potassium Pump: A special pump
works to keep this difference by moving
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The Function of the Neuromuscular Junction

Muscle Contraction Process:
The neuromuscular junction is where a motor
neuron connects with a muscle fiber, allowing 1. Action potential travels along motor neuron.
muscle contraction. 2. Ca2+channels in neuron open due to action
potential.
1. When the neuron's action potential reaches 3. Ca2+ influx triggers acetylcholine release.
its end, calcium ions enter, causing vesicles 4. Acetylcholine opens Na+,channels in
to release acetylcholine. sarcolemma.
2. Acetylcholine crosses the gap and binds to 5. Action potential travels through sarcolemma.
the muscle fiber, opening sodium channels. 6. Action potential moves through T tubules.
3. Sodium enters, causing depolarization and 7. T tubules activate Ca2+ channels in
muscle action potential. sarcoplasmic reticulum.
4. Acetylcholine unbinds, sodium channels 8. Ca2+released from sarcoplasmic reticulum into
close, and acetylcholinesterase breaks down sarcoplasm.
acetylcholine. 9. Ca2+binds to troponin on actin myofilaments.
5. Choline is reabsorbed, combines with acetic 10. Binding shifts tropomyosin, exposing actin
acid to make more acetylcholine. binding sites.
6. This recycling conserves energy and 11. Myosin heads bind to actin, forming cross-
maintains muscle responsiveness. bridges.
In simple terms, the neuromuscular junction works 12. ATP breaks into ADP and P, releasing energy for
like a messenger sending notes to a light switch. myosin movement.
The notes make the switch let in positive stuff, 13. Myosin heads bend, sliding actin over myosin
which makes the muscle light up. Then the (contraction).
messenger cleans up the notes and gets ready to 14. Cycle continues as long as Ca2+ is present.
send more.

Cross-Bridge Movement
1. Myosin head stores energy from previous ATP
breakdown.
2. Ca2+ causes myosin heads to bind to actin.
3. Myosin heads move (power stroke), pulling
actin.
4. ATP binding detaches myosin from actin.
5. Myosin breaks ATP into ADP and P, staying
ready.
6. Myosin heads return to "high-energy" position
(recovery stroke).
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
7. Myosin binds farther down actin, shortening
sarcomere.
7.5 WHOLE SKELETAL MUSCLE
PHYSIOLOGY
The Muscle Twitch
 The muscle twitch is a muscle fiber's response
to a single motor neuron action potential.
 It has three phases:
1. Lag
2. Contraction
3. Relaxation
 While typically observed in lab settings, it
represents a complete cycle of muscle
activation.
Phases of Muscle Twitch
A twitch has three phases
1. lag phase, starting from stimulus application
to motor neuron until contraction initiation,
involving action potential travel and Ca2+
release;
2. contraction phase, beginning with Ca2+-
induced cross-bridge formation; and
3. relaxation phase, lasting longer due to slow
Muscle Relaxation Ca2+ return to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Muscle relaxation occurs when acetylcholine Types of Muscle Contractions
release stops at the neuromuscular junction. This
halts action potentials, preventing Ca2+ release There are two main types
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca2+ is pumped 1. isometric contractions, where muscle tension
back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, decreasing its increases but length remains unchanged
concentration in the sarcoplasm. This causes Ca2+ (e.g., holding a heavy object); and
to dissociate from troponin and tropomyosin, 2. isotonic contractions, causing muscle
blocking actin attachment sites. Without cross- shortening, increasing tension (e.g., lifting
bridges, the muscle relaxes. Muscle relaxation an object). Isotonic contractions can change
requires ATP: with varying force requirements.
1. The sodium-potassium pump transports Muscle contraction strength changes due to
Na+ out and K+ into the muscle fiber to
maintain membrane potential. 1. summation, the force in an individual
2. ATP detaches myosin heads for the muscle fiber, and
recovery stroke. 2. recruitment, the force in the entire muscle
3. ATP transports Ca2+ into the based on the number of contracting fibers.
sarcoplasmic reticulum. Muscle Increasing overall force in a muscle relies on
relaxation is slower due to slower Ca2+ the total number of active muscle fibers.
return, taking at least twice as long as Remember, a twitch can refer to the contraction
contraction. of a single muscle fiber, a motor unit, or the
whole muscle. Understanding motor units is
crucial before exploring individual fiber
responses.

Motor units
- Motor units composed of motor neurons and
innervated muscle fibers, cause muscle
contractions. Motor units vary in size and
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
sensitivity, enabling precise or powerful Types of Isotonic and Isometric Contractions
movements. Small motor units are precise
 Concentric Contractions: Muscle tension
(e.g., eye muscles), while large units are for
overcomes resistance, muscle shortens.
powerful contractions (e.g., thigh muscles).
- Used in movements like lifting a
backpack.
 Eccentric Contractions: Muscle tension
Force of Contraction in Individual Muscle Fibers
maintained, resistance causes muscle to
 Muscle contractions can vary in strength, from lengthen.
weak to strong, based on the response to stimuli. - Seen in controlled weight lowering.
Muscles can lift heavy weights because - Can lead to muscle injury during
individual muscle fibers generate different repetitive eccentric exercise.
amounts of force. This force depends on cross-
bridges formed within the fiber. More cross- 7.6 MUSCLE FIBER TYPES
bridges mean stronger contractions, similar to  Two main types of skeletal muscle fibers:
multiple people lifting together. Frequency of - slow-twitch
stimulation increases cross-bridge formation. At - fast-twitch.
low frequencies, muscle twitches are all-or-
 Skeletal muscles vary in function due to
none, but with higher frequencies, twitches
differing muscle fiber composition.
merge into wave summation, incomplete
 Muscle fibers contain distinct forms of
tetanus, and complete tetanus due to longer
myosin.
mechanical versus electrical events. This leads
 Slow-twitch myosin: contracts slowly,
to sustained contractions without relaxation
fatigue-resistant.
between twitches.
 Fast-twitch myosin: contracts quickly,
fatigues rapidly.
 Proportion of fiber types varies within
muscles.

When the frequency of signals to muscles goes up from 1 to 4, relaxation

between signals decreases. At frequency 1, muscles twitch and relax fully. At
frequencies 2-3, relaxation decreases, causing incomplete tetanus. At
frequency 4, there's no relaxation, causing complete tetanus.

Contractions in Whole Muscles Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers

Muscle Tone:  Type I muscle fibers contract slowly, resist
Constant tension in muscles over time. fatigue.
 Have better blood supply, more mitochondria.
 Keeps back, lower limbs straight, head  Break down ATP slowly, myosin heads have
upright, abdomen flat. slow ATP enzyme.
 Depends on a small percentage of motor  Produce ATP using O2, called oxidative fibers.
units contracting out of phase.  Contain myoglobin for O2 storage during
 Nerve impulse frequency causes incomplete activity.
tetanus, maintaining tension.
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Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers o Anaerobic ATP production during intense
short-term exercise.
 Type II muscle fibers contract quickly, fatigue
o Aerobic ATP production during most
faster.
exercise and normal conditions.
 Myosin heads have fast ATP enzyme for rapid
 Pathways operate at different timeframes:
cross-bridges.
1. Immediate upon contraction
 Fewer mitochondria, less myoglobin, more
2. Short-term contraction
glycogen.
3. Prolonged contraction over hours.
 ATP produced quickly without O2.
 Type IIa use ATP with and without O2, IIb use
ATP without O2.
Adenylate Kinase and Creatine Kinase
Distribution of Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Adenylate Kinase and Creatine Kinase in Muscle
Muscle Fibers Fibers:
 Animal muscles: fast-twitch are pale, slow-
 Enzymes for quick ATP production.
twitch are dark.
 Add 15 seconds of contraction beyond initial 5–
 Human muscles have both fiber types, ratio
6 seconds from stored ATP.
varies.
 Adenylate kinase transfers phosphate from one
 Training enlarges and enhances both fiber types.
ADP to another, forming ATP and AMP.
 Intense exercise: weight lifting grows fast-
 Creatine kinase transfers phosphate from
twitch, vascularity.
creatine phosphate to ADP to create ATP.
 Exercise with O2: slow-twitch grows, endurance
improves.
ATP Production in Skeletal Muscle:
 Adenylate kinase converts ADP to ATP (few
Exercise Effects
seconds).
 Muscle hypertrophy (increase in size and  Creatine kinase uses creatine phosphate for
strength) with exercise. ATP (5-6 seconds).
 Muscle atrophy (decrease) with lack of use.  Anaerobic respiration for intense exercise
 Muscle fiber number remains relatively (additional 40 seconds).
constant.  Aerobic respiration for prolonged exercise
 Nuclei added through satellite cells in response (hours).
to exercise.
 Improved endurance due to better metabolism,
Anaerobic Respiration:
circulation, capillaries, respiration, heart
capacity.  No O2 required.
 Glucose breakdown produces ATP and
lactate
 Provides ATP for 30–40 seconds.
 Begins with glycolysis, forming pyruvate
7.7 ENERGY SOURCES FOR MUSCLE
and then lactate.
CONTRACTION
 Skeletal muscle fibers use three main ATP-
dependent proteins: myosin head, Na+/K+ Aerobic Respiration:
pump, and Ca2+ pump.
 Requires O2.
 Muscle contraction and relaxation need ATP.
 Glucose breakdown produces ATP, CO2,
 Muscle fibers store limited ATP for about 5-6
and H2O.
seconds of contraction.
 Supplies 95% of ATP for a cell.
 Four processes for ATP production in muscle
fibers:  More efficient than anaerobic respiration.
o Adenylate kinase converts 2 ADP to 1  Up to 36 ATP from one glucose molecule.
ATP and 1 AMP.  Occurs in mitochondria.
o Creatine kinase transfers phosphate from
creatine phosphate to ADP, forming ATP.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ATP Production as Exercise Progresses  Psychological fatigue involves CNS
perception of muscle contraction
 Initial ATP reserve depletes quickly.
impossibility.
 Adenylate kinase and creatine kinase
produce ATP.
 Anaerobic respiration dominant after initial Oxygen Deficit and Excess Postexercise Oxygen
ATP depletion Consumption:
 Fast-twitch fibers break down glucose to
 Oxygen deficit: insufficient O2
lactate.
consumption at exercise onset, repaid
 Lactate shuttled to slow-twitch fibers for during and after exercise.
ATP or to blood for energy elsewhere.
 Excess postexercise oxygen consumption:
 Fast-twitch anaerobic and slow-twitch elevated O2 consumption after exercise,
aerobic pathways work together. restores homeostasis.

Muscle Fatigue Muscle Soreness:

 Temporary reduced work capacity.  After intense exercise, muscle pain due to
 Mechanisms: inflammatory chemicals affecting fibers.
1. acidosis and ATP depletion  Enzymes from injured fibers detected in
2. oxidative stress extracellular fluid, collagen fragments
3. local inflammation. indicate damage.
 Rest periods aid muscle tissue repair.
Acidosis and ATP Depletion:
 Anaerobic respiration breaks down glucose
to lactate and protons, reducing pH.
 Lowered pH leads to decreased Ca2+ 7.8 SMOOTH MUSCLE AND CARDIAC
effectiveness on actin and reduced Ca2+ MUSCLE
release.  Smooth muscle cells: small, spindle-shaped,
 Lactic acidosis from reduced lactate one nucleus, less actin/myosin.
clearance due to liver dysfunction or  No sarcomere organization, not striated,
increased anaerobic respiration. slower contraction, no oxygen deficit.
 Muscle fatigue correlates with localized ATP  Involuntary control, hormone-stimulated
decreases or specific transport system contraction, some autorhythmicity.
changes.  Layers with gap junctions for synchronized
contraction.
 Cardiac muscle cells: long, striated,
Oxidative Stress:
branching, one nucleus.
 Intense exercise increases ROS, breaking  Sarcomeres present but less uniform, less
down proteins, lipids, nucleic acids. distinct striation.
 ROS triggers IL-6, causing inflammation  Contraction rate between smooth and
and muscle soreness. skeletal muscle.
 Autorhythmic, sustained by aerobic
Inflammation: respiration, connected by intercalated disks.
 Exercise activates immune system, T  Involuntary control, hormone influence.
lymphocytes migrate to worked muscles.
 Immune system intermediates increase pain
perception.

Muscle Fatigue:
 Physiological contracture due to low ATP
binding to myosin, preventing muscle
relaxation.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
7.9 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SKELETAL 5. Origin and Insertion: Origin and insertion points
MUSCLE ANATOMY (e.g., sternocleidomastoid).
6. Number of Heads: Number of origins (e.g.,
biceps - two heads).
7. Function: Reflects muscle's action (e.g.,
abductors move away from midline).
Understanding these traits simplifies learning
muscle names.

 Muscles extend between bones and cross joints,

connected by tendons.
 Tendons come in various forms: long, broad
(aponeuroses), or short.
 Retinaculum holds tendons at wrists and ankles.
 Muscle contraction moves bones at joints,
causing body movement.
 Some muscles attach to skin, like facial muscles
during smiling.
 Muscle attachment points: origin (stationary
end) and insertion (moving end).
 Multiple origins are called heads; insertion
attached to moving bone.
 The muscle belly is between origin and
insertion.
 Muscle action causes specific body movement.
 Muscles work in groups: agonists (cause action)
and antagonists (oppose action).
 Synergists work together in muscle groups for
movements.
 Prime mover is the main muscle causing desired
movement.
 Fixators stabilize bones during distal bone
movement.
 Some muscles belong to multiple groups based
on movement type.

Muscle Names
Muscle Naming Criteria:
1. Location: Muscle named after where it is
situated (e.g., pectoralis in the chest).
2. Size: Reflects muscle size (e.g., gluteus
maximus - large, gluteus minimus - small).
3. Shape: Describes muscle shape (e.g., deltoid -
triangular).
4. Fascicle Orientation: Fascicle direction relative
to associated structure (e.g., rectus - straight).
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Muscles around the mouth contribute to lip and
skin movements:
1. Orbicularis oris encircles the mouth.
2. Buccinator is in cheek walls; used in
puckering and flattening cheeks
(whistling/blowing)
 Smiling involves zygomaticus muscles lifting
upper lip and mouth corner.
 Sneering is done by levator labii superioris
raising one side of the upper lip.
 Frowning and pouting involve depressor anguli
oris, depressing mouth corner.

 Surface anatomy aids in understanding muscle

anatomy.
 Visible muscles in upper and lower limbs
identified.
 Muscle details in head, neck, trunk, and limbs
explained later.
 Chapter tables provide summary for studying
muscular system.
 Locate muscle on figure, then find description in
table.
 Group muscles by actions, practice actions to
remember details.
 Study one muscle table at a time for better
understanding.

7.10MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NECK

The muscles of the head and neck include those
involved in forming facial expressions, chewing,
moving the tongue, swallowing, producing sounds, Mastication
moving the eyes, and moving the head and neck.  Mastication involves chewing with strong
Facial Expression muscles.
 Four pairs of chewing muscles:
 Human facial expressions are crucial for 1. Temporalis muscle
nonverbal communication. 2. Masseter muscle
 Muscles around the eyes and eyebrows play a 3. Pterygoid muscles (two pairs)
role in facial movements:  Temporalis and masseter muscles visible on
1. Occipitofrontalis raises eyebrows. head's side during chewing.
2. Orbicularis oculi tightly closes eyelids  Pterygoid muscles beneath the mandible.
and creates wrinkles at eye corners.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Lateral/posterior neck muscles rotate and
laterally flex head.
 Key muscle: sternocleidomastoid (SCM).
 SCM contraction: one side rotates head, both
sides flex/extend head-neck.

Tongue and Swallowing Muscles

 Tongue's importance: mastication and speech.
 Tongue's functions: moves food, holds food with
buccinator muscle, initiates swallowing.
 Tongue muscles:
1. intrinsic (inside tongue, shape change),
2. extrinsic (outside, move tongue).
 Swallowing involves:
1. hyoid muscles,
2. soft palate,
3. pharynx, (throat)
4. larynx (voicebox)
 Hyoid muscles
- suprahyoid (above hyoid bone),
- infrahyoid (below hyoid bone).
 Suprahyoid muscles stabilize hyoid, infrahyoid
muscles elevate larynx during swallowing.
 Soft palate and pharynx muscles prevent food
entering nasal cavity, elevate and constrict
during swallowing.
7.11 TRUNK MUSCLES
 Pharyngeal elevators lift pharynx,
 Pharyngeal constrictors push food down Trunk muscles include those that move (1) the
esophagus. vertebral column, (2) the thorax, (3) the abdominal
 Pharyngeal muscles also open auditory tube to wall, and (4) the pelvic diaphragm and perineum
equalize ear pressure (e.g., chewing gum when Vertebral Column Muscles
changing altitude).
 Erect posture in humans maintained by strong
back muscles.
 Erector spinae group of muscles on each side of
the back: main role in keeping back straight and
body erect.
 Deep back muscles between spinous and
transverse processes: responsible for vertebral
column movements - extension, lateral flexion,
rotation.
 Abnormal stretching or tearing of deep back
muscles: muscle strains, ligament sprains in
lumbar region, leading to low back pain.
Neck Muscles  Treatments: anti-inflammatory medication,
RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation).
 Deep neck muscles:  Low back exercises beneficial for addressing the
1. neck flexors issue.
2. neck extensors.
 Flexors originate on front vertebral bodies.
 Extensors originate on back vertebral bodies.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
2. Internal abdominal oblique
3. Transversus abdominis
 Muscle layers contract to flex/rotate vertebral
column or compress abdominal contents.

Thoracic Muscles
 Thoracic Muscles are primarily responsible for
breathing.
 External intercostals: Elevate ribs during
inhalation.
 Internal intercostals: Depress ribs during forced
exhalation.
 Diaphragm: Dome-shaped muscle, contracts to
flatten, increasing thoracic cavity volume for
inhalation.
 Diaphragm's contraction leads to inspiration in
quiet breathing.
Pelvic Diaphragm and Perineal Muscles
 The pelvis is a ring of bone with an opening
closed by a muscular floor.
 This floor is known as the pelvic diaphragm.
- It comprises the coccygeus
muscle and the levator ani
muscle.
 Below the pelvic diaphragm lies the perineum,
shaped like a diamond.
 The perineum is divided into the urogenital
triangle (front) and anal triangle (back).
 Pregnancy can stretch the pelvic diaphragm and
urogenital muscles.
 Special exercises can strengthen these muscles
during pregnancy.

Abdominal Wall Muscles

 Anterior abdominal wall muscles: Flex and
rotate vertebral column, compress abdominal
cavity, protect organs.
 Linea alba: Tendinous area, white connective
tissue, runs from sternum to pubis.
 Rectus abdominis: Straight muscle, tendinous
intersections create segmented appearance.
 Muscle layers lateral to rectus abdominis:
1. External abdominal oblique
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Arm Movements
 Pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi muscles
attach arm to thorax.
 Pectoralis major: Adducts and flexes shoulder,
extends from flexed position.
 Latissimus dorsi: Medially rotates, adducts arm,
and extends shoulder.
- Latissimus dorsi known as
"swimmer's muscle" due to its
role in freestyle stroke.

7.12 UPPER LIMB MUSCLES

Upper limb muscles attach the limb and pectoral
girdle to the body. They are found in the arm,
forearm, and hand.
Scapular Movements
 Upper limb connected to body by muscles:
1. Trapezius: Shoulder to neck, upper line.
2. Levator scapulae: Raises scapula.
3. Rhomboids: Scapular attachment.
4. Serratus anterior: Scapular origin, lateral
thorax.
5. Pectoralis minor: Scapular attachment.
 Muscles act as fixators for scapular stability.
 Scapular muscles allow various positions and
upper limb movement.
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 Rotator cuff muscles stabilize shoulder joint,

especially during arm abduction.
 Form a cuff over proximal humerus.
 Rotator cuff injury involves damage to these
muscles/tendons.
 Deltoid muscle: Attaches humerus to
scapula/clavicle, major upper limb abductor.
 Pectoralis major: Upper chest, deltoid: Rounded
shoulder mass.
 Deltoid often used for injections.

Forearm Movements
 Arm divided into anterior and posterior
compartments.
 Posterior compartment: Triceps brachii, primary
elbow extensor.
 Anterior compartment:
1. Biceps brachii: Primary elbow flexor.
2. Brachialis: Primary elbow flexor. Wrist and Finger Movements
 Brachioradialis: Assists in elbow flexion,  Forearm muscles can be divided into
despite being a posterior forearm muscle. anterior and posterior groups.
 Anterior forearm muscles flex the wrist and
fingers, while posterior forearm muscles
extend them.
 The retinaculum is a fibrous tissue that
holds flexor and extensor tendons in place
around the wrist.
 Carpal tunnel syndrome can result from
limited retinaculum flexibility.
 Flexor carpi muscles flex the wrist;
extensor carpi muscles extend it.
 Flexor carpi radialis tendon helps locate the
Supination and Pronation radial pulse.
 Overuse of wrist extensor muscles can lead
 Supination: Turning flexed forearm with palm to "tennis elbow."
up.  Flexor digitorum facilitates finger flexion;
o Muscles: Supinator, Biceps Brachii (also extensor digitorum handles extension.
flexes elbow).  Intrinsic hand muscles are within the hand,
 Pronation: Turning forearm with palm down. responsible for various thumb and finger
o Muscles: Two pronator muscles. movements.
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 Interossei muscles between metacarpal
bones manage finger abduction and
adduction.
 Intrinsic muscles contribute to thumb and
finger movements and fleshy areas between
thumb and little finger, and between thumb
and index finger. Leg Movements
 Anterior Thigh Muscles:
7.12LOWER LIMB MUSCLES  Quadriceps femoris (four muscles)
 Primary knee extensors
The muscles of the lower limb include those located  Common insertion: patellar tendon
in (1) the hip, (2) the thigh, (3) the leg, and (4) the  Patellar ligament extension onto tibial
foot. tuberosity
Thigh Movements  Vastus lateralis used for injections
 Sartorius:
 Hip muscles attach to femur via hip bone o Longest muscle in body
 Iliopsoas flexes hip o Flexes hip and knee
 Posterior and lateral hip muscles: gluteal o Rotates thigh laterally for cross-
muscles and tensor fasciae latae. legged sitting
 Tensor fasciae latae tenses iliotibial tract to  Posterior Thigh Muscles (Hamstrings):
stabilize femur-tibia standing.  Responsible for knee flexion
 Gluteus maximus: extends, abducts, laterally  Easily felt tendons on medial and lateral
rotates thigh (buttocks mass). posterior knee
 Gluteus medius: abducts, medially rotates thigh  Named after hog tendons used to hang
(smaller mass above maximus). hams
 Optimal gluteus maximus function: hip  Wolves disable prey by biting hamstrings
extension with flexed thigh at 45-degree angle.  Medial Thigh Muscles (Adductors):
 Thigh muscles also connect to hip bone, moving  Adduct the thigh
thigh:
1. Anterior: flex hip.
2. Posterior: extend hip.
3. Medial: adduct thigh.
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Ankle and Toe Movements
 Leg muscles categorized into three groups:
anterior, posterior, and lateral.
 Anterior muscles involved in foot dorsiflexion
and toe extension.
 Posterior muscles (gastrocnemius, soleus) in
calf, flexors for foot plantar flexion.
 Deep posterior muscles responsible for foot
inversion, toe flexion.
 Lateral fibularis muscles aid foot eversion and
plantar flexion.
 Intrinsic foot muscles (20 in total) control toe
movements: flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction.
 Intrinsic foot muscles organized similarly to
hand's intrinsic muscles.
REPRESENTATIVE DISEASES AND
DISORDERS: Muscular System