68 SURVEYING

θ θ

C A B A B D
d d d d

Fig. 3.8

3.12 EYE AND OBJECT CORRECTION

The heights of the instrument and signal at which the observation is made, are generally not same
and thus the observed angle of elevation θ′ as shown in Fig. 3.9, does not refer to the ground levels
at A and B. This difference in height causes the observed vertical angle θ′ to be larger than that
θ which would have been observed directly from those points. A correction (ε) termed as eye and
object correction, is applied to the observed vertical angle to reduce it to the required value.
The value of the eye and object correction is given by
B′′

h − hi B′
ε= s radians …(3.15) ε
θ θ′
hi
hs
d
hi B
h − hi
= 206265 s seconds …(3.16) A
d
d
Fig. 3.8

Example 3.1. The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff. Draw up a level
book page and reduce the levels by the height of instrument method.
0.578 B.M.(= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P., 1.888, 1.181, (3.679
and 0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.
Solution:
The first reading being on a B.M., is a back sight. As the fifth station is a change point, 2.005
is fore sight reading and 0.567 is back sight reading. All the readings between the first and fifth
readings are intermediate sight-readings. Similarly, the eighth station being a change point, 3.679 is
fore sight reading, 0.612 is back sight reading, and 1.888, 1.181 are intermediate sight readings. The
last reading 1.810 is fore sight and 0.705 is intermediate sight-readings. All the readings have been
entered in their respective columns in the following table and the levels have been reduced by height
of instrument method. In the following computations, the values of B.S., I.S., H.I., etc., for a
particular station have been indicated by its number or name.
Section-1:
H.I.1 = h1 + B.S.1 = 58.250 + 0.578 = 58.828 m
h2 = H.I.1 – I.S.2 = 58.828 – 0.933 = 57.895 m
h3 = H.I.1 – I.S.3 = 58.828 – 1.768 = 57.060 m
h4 = H.I.1 – I.S.4 = 58.828 – 2.450 = 56.378 m
h5 = H.I.1 – F.S.5 = 58.828 – 2.005 = 56.823 m
LEVELLING 69

Section-2:
H.I.5 = h5 + B.S.5 = 56.823 + 0.567 = 57.390 m
h6 = H.I.2 – I.S.6 = 57.390 – 1.888 = 55.502 m
h7 = H.I.2 – I.S.7 = 57.390 – 1.181 = 56.209 m
h8 = H.I.2 – F.S.8 = 57.390 – 3.679 = 53.711 m
Section-3:
H.I.8 = h8 + B.S.8 = 53.711 + 0.612 = 54.323 m
h9 = H.I.8 – I.S.9 = 54.323 – 0.705 = 53.618 m
h10 = H.I.8 – F.S.10 = 54.323 – 1.810 = 52.513 m
Additional check for H.I. method: Σ [H.I. × (No. of I.S.s + 1)] – Σ I.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ R.L.
– First R.L.
[58.828 × 4 + 57.390 ´ 3 + 54.323 × 2] – 8.925 – 7.494 = 557.959 – 58.250 = 499.709 (O.K.)
Table 3.3

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks

1 0.578 58.828 58.250 B.M.=58.250 m
2 0.933 57.895
3 1.768 57.060
4 2.450 56.378
5 0.567 2.005 57.390 56.823 C.P.
6 1.888 55.502
7 1.181 56.209
8 0.612 3.679 54.323 53.711 C.P.
9 0.705 53.618
10 1.810 52.513
Σ 1.757 8.925 7.494 557.956
Check: 1.757 – 7.494 = 52.513 – 58.250 = – 5.737 (O.K.)
Example 3.2. Reduce the levels of the stations from the readings given in the Example 3.1 by
the rise and fall method.
Solution:
Booking of the readings for reducing the levels by rise and fall method is same as explained
in Example 3.1. The computations of the reduced levels by rise and fall method is given below and
the results are tabulated in the table. In the following computations, the values of B.S., I.S., Rise
(r), Fall (f ), etc., for a particular station have been indicated by its number or name.
(i) Calculation of rise and fall
Section-1: f 2 = B.S.1 – I.S.2 = 0.578 – 0.933 = 0.355
f 3 = I.S.2 – I.S.3 = 0.933 – 1.768 = 0.835
f 4 = I.S.3 – I.S.4 = 1.768 – 2.450 = 0.682
r5 = I.S.4 – F.S.5 = 2.450 – 2.005 = 0.445
70 SURVEYING

Section-2: f 6 = B.S.5 – I.S.6 = 0.567 – 1.888 = 1.321

f 7 = I.S.6 – I.S.7 = 1.888 – 1.181 = 0.707
f 8 = I.S.7 – F.S.8 = 1.181 –- 3.679 = 2.498
Section-3: f 9 = B.S.8 – I.S.9 = 0.612 – 0.705 = 0.093
f 10 = I.S.9 – F.S.10 = 0.705 – 1.810 = 1.105
(ii) Calculation of reduced levels
h2 = h1 – f2 = 58.250 – 0.355 = 57.895 m
h3 = h2 – f3 = 57.895 – 0.835 = 57.060 m
h4 = h3 – f4 = 57.060 – 0.682 = 56.378 m
h5 = h4 + r5 = 56.378 + 0.445 = 56.823 m
h6 = h5 – f6 = 56.823 – 1.321 = 55.502 m
h7 = h6 + r7 = 55.502 + 0.707 = 56.209 m
h8 = h7 – f8 = 56.209 – 2.498 = 53.711 m
h9 = h8 – f9 = 53.711 – 0.093 = 53.618 m
h10 = h9 – f10 = 53.618 – 1.105 = 52.513 m
Table 3.4

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

1 0.578 58.250 B.M.=58.250 m
2 0.933 0.355 57.895
3 1.768 0.835 57.060
4 2.450 0.682 56.378
5 0.567 2.005 0.445 56.823 C.P.
6 1.888 1.321 55.502
7 1.181 0.707 56.209
8 0.612 3.679 2.498 53.711 C.P.
9 0.705 0.093 53.618
10 1.810 1.105 52.513
Σ 1.757 7.494 1.152 6.889

Check: 1.757 – 7.494 = 1.152 – 6.889 = 52.513 – 58.250 = – 5.737 (O.K.)

Example 3.3. The following consecutive readings were taken with a level on continuously
sloping ground at a common interval of 20 m. The last station has an elevation of 155.272 m. Rule
out a page of level book and enter the readings. Calculate
(i) the reduced levels of the points by rise and fall method, and
LEVELLING 71

(ii) the gradient of the line joining the first and last points.
0.420, 1.115, 2.265, 2.900, 3.615, 0.535, 1.470, 2.815, 3.505, 4.445, 0.605, 1.925, 2.885.
Solution:
Since the readings have been taken along a line on a continuously sloping ground, any sudden
large change in the reading such as in the sixth reading compared to the fifth reading and in the
eleventh reading compared to the tenth reading, indicates the change in the instrument position.
Therefore, the sixth and eleventh readings are the back sights and fifth and tenth readings are the
fore sights. The first and the last readings are the back sight and fore sight, respectively, and all
remaining readings are intermediate sights.
The last point being of known elevation, the computation of the levels is to be done from
last point to the first point. The falls are added to and the rises are subtracted from the known
elevations. The computation of levels is explained below and the results have been presented in the
following table.
(i) Calculation of rise and fall
Section-1: f 2 = B.S.1 – I.S.2 = 0.420 – 1.115= 0.695
f 3 = I.S.2 – I.S.3 = 1.115 – 2.265= 1.150
f 4 = I.S.3 – I.S.4 = 2.265 – 2.900= 0.635
f 5 = I.S.4 – F.S.5 = 2.900 – 3.615= 0.715
Section-2: f 6 = B.S.5 – I.S.6 = 0.535 – 1.470 = 0.935
f 7 = I.S.6 – I.S.7 = 1.470 – 2.815 = 1.345
f 8 = I.S.7 – I.S.8 = 2.815 – 3.505 = 0.690
f 9 = I.S.8 – F.S.9 = 3.505 – 4.445 = 0.940
Section-3: f 10 = B.S.9 – I.S.10 = 0.605 – 1.925 = 1.320
f 11 = I.S.10 – F.S.11 = 1.925 – 2.885 = 0.960
(ii) Calculation of reduced levels
h10 = h11 + f11 = 155.272 + 0.960 = 156.232 m
h9 = h10 + f10 = 156.232 + 1.320 = 157.552 m
h8 = h9 + f9 = 157.552 + 0.940 = 158.492 m
h7 = h8 + f8 = 158.492 + 0.690 = 159.182 m
h6 = h7 + f7 = 159.182 + 1.345 = 160.527 m
h5 = h6 + f6 = 160.527 + 0.935 = 161.462 m
h4 = h5 + f5 = 161.462 + 0.715 = 162.177 m
h3 = h4 + f4 = 162.177 + 0.635 = 162.812 m
h2 = h3 + f3 = 162.812 + 1.150 = 163.962 m
h1 = h2 + f2 = 163.962 + 0.695 = 164.657 m
72 SURVEYING

Table 3.5

Station Chainage
B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
(m)
1 0 0.420 164.657
2 20 1.115 0.695 163.962
3 40 2.265 1.150 162.812
4 60 2.900 0.635 162.177
5 80 0.535 3.615 0.715 161.462 C.P.
6 100 1.470 0.935 160.527
7 120 2.815 1.345 159.182
8 140 3.505 0.690 158.492
9 160 0.605 4.445 0.940 157.552 C.P.
10 180 1.925 1.320 156.232
11 200 2.885 0.960 155.272 Elevation
= 155.272 m
Σ 1.560 10.945 0.000 9.385
Check: 1.560 – 10.945 = 0.000 – 9.385 = 155.272 – 164.657 = – 9.385 (O.K.)

(iii) Calculation of gradient

The gradient of the line 1-11 is
difference of level between points 1 - 11
=
distance between points 1 - 11

155. 272 − 164. 657 − 9.385

= =
200 200
= 1 in 21.3 (falling)
Example 3.4. A page of level book is reproduced below in which some readings marked as
(×), are missing. Complete the page with all arithmetic checks.
Solution:
The computations of the missing values are explained below.
B.S.4 – I.S.5 = f5, B.S.4 = f5 + I.S.5 = – 0.010 + 2.440 = 2.430
B.S.9 – F.S.10 = f10, B.S.9 = f10 + F.S.10 = – 0.805 + 1.525 = 0.720
B.S.1 + B.S.2 + B.S.4 + B.S.6 + B.S.7 + B.S.9 = ΣB.S.
3.150 + 1.770 + 2.430 + B.S.6 + 1.185 + 0.720 = 12.055
B.S.6 = 12.055 – 9.255 = 2.800
LEVELLING 73

Table 3.6

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

1 3.150 ×
2 1.770 × 0.700 × C.P.
3 2.200 × ×
4 × 1.850 × × C.P.
5 2.440 0.010 ×
6 × × 1.100 × C.P.
7 1.185 2.010 × 222.200 C.P.
8 –2.735 × × Staff held
inverted
9 × 1.685 4.420 × C.P.
10 1.525 0.805 ×
Σ 12.055 × × ×

B.S.1 – F.S.2 = f2, F.S.2 = B.S.1 – f2 = 3.150 – (–0.700) = 3.850

I.S.5 – F.S.6 = r6, F.S.6 = I.S.5 – r6 = 2.440 – 1.100 = 1.340
B.S.2 – I.S.3 = 1.770 – 2.200 = – 0.430 = 0.430 (fall) = f3
I.S.3 – F.S.4 = 2.200 – 1.850 = 0.350 = r4
B.S.6 – F.S.7 = 2.800 – 2.010 = 0.790 = r7
B.S.7 – I.S.8 = 1.185 – (– 2.735) = 3.920 = r8
For the computation of reduced levels the given reduced level of point 7 is to be used. For
the points 1 to 6, the computations are done from points 6 to 1, upwards in the table and for points
8 to 10, downwards in the table.
h6 = h7 – r7 = 222.200 – 0.790 = 221.410 m
h5 = h6 – r6 = 221.410 – 1.100 = 220.310 m
h4 = h5 + f5 = 220.310 + 0.010 = 220.320 m
h3 = h4 – r4 = 220.320 – 0.350 = 219.970 m
h2 = h3 + f3 = 219.970 + 0.430 = 220.400 m
h1 = h2 + f2 = 220.400 + 0.700 = 221.100 m
h8 = h7 + r8 = 222.200 + 3.920 = 226.120 m
h9 = h8 – f9 = 226.120 – 4.420 = 221.700 m
h10 = h9 – f10 = 221.700 – 0.805 = 220.895 m
The computed missing values and the arithmetic check are given Table 3.7.
74 SURVEYING

Table 3.7.

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks

1 3.150 221.100
2 1.770 3.850 0.700 220.400 C.P.
3 2.200 0.430 219.970
4 2.430 1.850 0.350 220.320 C.P.
5 2.440 0.010 220.310
6 2.800 1.340 1.100 221.410 C.P.
7 1.185 2.010 0.790 222.200 C.P.
8 -2.735 3.920 226.120 Staff held
inverted
9 0.720 1.685 4.420 221.700 C.P.
10 1.525 0.805 220.895
Σ 12.055 12.266 6.610 6.365
Check: 12.055 – 12.266 = 6.610 – 6.365 = 220.895 – 221.100 = – 0.205 (O.K.)

Example 3.5. Given the following data in Table 3.8, determine the R.L.s of the points 1 to
6. If an uniform upward gradient of 1 in 20 starts at point 1, having elevation of 150 m, calculate
the height of embankment and depth of cutting at all the points from 1 to 6.
Table 3.8

Station Chainage (m) B.S. I.S. F.S. Remarks

B.M. – 10.11 153.46 m
1 0 3.25
2 100 1.10
3 200 6.89 0.35
4 300 3.14
5 400 11.87 3.65
6 500 5.98
Solution:
Reduced levels of the points by height of instrument method
H.I.B.M. = R.L.B.M. + B.S.B.M. = 153.46 + 10.11 = 163.57 m
h1 = H.I.B.M. – I.S.1 = 163.57 – 3.25 = 160.32 m
h2 = H.I.B.M. – I.S.2 = 163.57 – 1.10 = 162.47 m
h3 = H.I.B.M. – F.S.3 = 163.57 – 0.35 = 163.22 m
H.I.3 = h3 + B.S.3 = 163.22 + 6.89 = 170.11 m
LEVELLING 75

h4 = H.I.3 – I.S.4 = 170.11 – 3.14 = 166.97 m

h5 = H.I.3 – F.S.5 = 170.11 – 3.65 = 166.46 m
H.I.5 = h5 + B.S.5 = 166.46 + 11.87 = 178.33 m
h6 = H.I.5 – F.S.6 = 178.33 – 5.98 = 172.35 m
Levels of the points from gradient
Since the gradient is 1 in 20, for every 100 m the rise is 5 m.
Level of point 1, h′1 = 150 m (given)
Level of point 2, h′2 = 150 + 5 = 155 m
Level of point 3, h′3 = 155 + 5 = 160 m
Level of point 4, h′4 = 160 + 5 = 165 m
Level of point 5, h′5 = 165 + 5 = 170 m
Level of point 6, h′6 = 170 + 5 = 175 m
Height of embankment and depth of cutting
At point 1 h1 – h′1 = 160.32 – 150.00 = + 10.32 m (embankment)
At point 2 h2 – h′2 = 162.47 – 155.00 = + 7.47 m (embankment)
At point 3 h3 – h′3 = 163.22 – 160.00 = + 3.22 m (embankment)
At point 4 h4 – h′4 = 166.97 – 165.00 = + 1.97 m (embankment)
At point 5 h5 – h′5 = 166.46 – 170.00 = – 3.54 m (cutting)
At point 6 h6 – h′6 = 172.35 – 175.00 = – 2.65 m (cutting)
The computed values of the height of embankment and depth of cutting are tabulated below.
Table 3.9

Gradient Embankment/cutting
Station Chainage B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L.
(m) level Height (m) Depth (m)
B.M. – 10.11 163.57 153.46 –
1 0 3.25 160.32 150 10.32
2 100 1.10 162.47 155 7.47
3 200 6.89 0.35 170.11 163.22 160 3.22
4 300 3.14 166.97 165 1.97
5 400 11.87 3.65 178.33 166.46 170 3.54
6 500 5.98 172.35 175 2.65

Example 3.6. The readings given in Table 3.10, were recorded in a levelling operation from
points 1 to 10. Reduce the levels by the height of instrument method and apply appropriate checks.
The point 10 is a bench mark having elevation of 66.374 m. Determine the loop closure and adjust
the calculated values of the levels by applying necessary corrections. Also determine the mean
gradient between the points 1 to 10.
76 SURVEYING

Table 3.10

Station Chainage (m) B.S. I.S. F.S. Remarks

1 0 0.597 B.M.= 68.233 m
2 20 2.587 3.132 C.P
3 40 1.565
4 60 1.911
5 80 0.376
6 100 2.244 1.522 C.P
7 120 3.771
8 140 1.334 1.985 C.P
9 160 0.601
10 180 2.002
Solution:
Reduced levels of the points
H.I.1 = h1 + B.S.1 = 68.233 + 0.597 = 68.830 m
h2 = H.I.1 – F.S.2 = 68.233 + 3.132 = 65.698 m
H.I.2 = h2 + B.S.2 = 65.698 + 2.587 = 68.285 m
h3 = H.I.2 – I.S.3 = 68.285 – 1.565 = 66.720 m
h4 = H.I.2 – I.S.4 = 68.285 – 1.911 = 66.374 m
h5 = H.I.2 – I.S.5 = 68.285 – 0.376 = 67.909 m
h6 = H.I.2 – F.S.6 = 68.285 – 1.522 = 66.763 m
H.I.6 = h6 + B.S.6 = 66.763 + 2.244 = 69.007 m
h7 = H.I.6 – I.S.7 = 69.007 – 3.771 = 65.236 m
h8 = H.I.6 – F.S.8 = 69.007 – 1.985 = 67.022 m
H.I.8 = h8 + B.S.8 = 67.022 + 1.334 = 68.356 m
h9 = H.I.8 – I.S.9 = 68.356 – 0.601 = 67.755 m
h10 = H.I.8 – F.S.10 = 68.356 – 2.002 = 66.354 m
Loop closure and loop adjustment
The error at point 10 = computed R.L. – known R.L.
= 66.354 – 66.374 = –0.020 m
Therefore correction = +0.020 m
Since there are three change points, there will be four instrument positions. Thus the total
number of points at which the corrections are to be applied is four, i.e., three C.P.s and one last
F.S. It is reasonable to assume that similar errors have occurred at each station. Therefore, the
correction for each instrument setting which has to be applied progressively, is
0.020
= + = 0.005 m
4
LEVELLING 77

i.e., the correction at station 1 0.0 m

the correction at station 2 + 0.005 m
the correction at station 6 + 0.010 m
the correction at station 8 + 0.015 m
the correction at station 10 + 0.020 m
The corrections for the intermediate sights will be same as the corrections for that instrument
stations to which they are related. Therefore,
correction for I.S.3, I.S.4, and I.S.5 = + 0.010 m
correction for I.S.7 = + 0.015 m
correction for I.S.9 = + 0.020 m
Applying the above corrections to the respective reduced levels, the corrected reduced levels
are obtained. The results have been presented in Table 3.11.
Table 3.11

Station Chainage B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Correction Corrected

(m) R.L.
1 0 0.597 68.830 68.233 – 68.233
2 20 2.587 3.132 68.285 65.698 + 0.005 65.703
3 40 1.565 66.720 + 0.010 66.730
4 60 1.911 66.374 + 0.010 66.384
5 80 0.376 67.909 + 0.010 67.919
6 100 2.244 1.522 69.007 66.763 + 0.010 66.773
7 120 3.771 65.236 + 0.015 65.251
8 140 1.334 1.985 68.356 67.022 + 0.015 67.037
9 160 0.601 67.755 + 0.020 67.775
10 180 2.002 66.354 + 0.020 66.374
Σ 6.762 8.641

Check: 6.762 – 8.641 = 66.354 – 68.233 = – 1.879 (O.K.)

Gradient of the line 1-10

The difference in the level between points 1 and 10, ∆h = 66.324 – 68.233 = –1.909 m
The distance between points 1-10, D = 180 m
1.909
Gradient = – = – 0.0106
180
= 1 in 94.3 (falling)
Example 3.7. Determine the corrected reduced levels of the points given in Example 3.6 by
two alternative methods.
78 SURVEYING

Solution: Method-1
l
From Eq. (3.3), the correction c = −e
L
The total correction at point 10 (from Example 3.6) = + 0.020 m
The distance between the points 1 and 10 = 180 m
0.020
Correction at point 2 = + × 20 = + 0.002 m
180
0.020
Correction at point 6 = + ×100 = + 0.011 m
180
0.020
Correction at point 8 = + ×140 = + 0.016 m
180
0.020
Correction at point 10 = + ×180 = + 0.020 m
180
Corrections at points 3, 4, and 5 = + 0.011 m
Correction at point 7 = + 0.016 m
Correction at point 9 = + 0.020 m
The corrections and the corrected reduced levels of the points are given in Table 3.12.
Table 3.12
Station R.L. Correction Corrected R.L.
1 68.233 – 68.233
2 65.698 + 0.002 65.700
3 66.720 + 0.011 66.731
4 66.374 + 0.011 66.385
5 67.909 + 0.011 67.920
6 66.763 + 0.011 66.774
7 65.236 + 0.016 65.252
8 67.022 + 0.016 67.038
9 67.755 + 0.020 67.775
10 66.354 + 0.020 66.374

Method-2
In this method half of the total correction is applied negatively to all the back sights and half
of the total correction is applied positively to all the fore sights.
Total number of back sights = 4
Total number of fore sights = 4
 − 0.020 
Correction to each back sight = −   = + 0.0025 m
 2× 4 
LEVELLING 79

 − 0.020 
Correction to each fore sight = +   = - 0.0025 m
 2×4 
The correction to each intermediate sight is also the same as for the fore sights, i.e., - 0.0025
m. The correction and the corrected values of the reduced levels are tabulated in Table 3.13.
Table 3.13

Station Observed Corrected Corrected

Correction H.I.
B.S. I.S. F.S. B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L.
1 0.597 + 0.0025 0.5995 68.8325 68.233
2 2.587 3.132 + 0.0025 – 0.0025 2.5895 3.1295 68.2925 65.703
3 1.565 – 0.0025 1.5625 66.730
4 1.911 – 0.0025 1.9085 66.384
5 0.376 – 0.0025 0.3735 67.919
6 2.244 1.522 + 0.0025 – 0.0025 0.2465 1.5195 69.0195 66.773
7 3.771 – 0.0025 3.7685 65.251
8 1.334 1.985 + 0.0025 – 0.0025 1.3365 1.9825 68.3735 67.037
9 0.601 – 0.0025 0.5985 67.775
10 2.002 – 0.0025 1.9995 66.374

Example 3.8. Reciprocal levelling was conducted across a wide river to determine the difference
in level of points A and B, A situated on one bank of the river and B situated on the other. The
following results on the staff held vertically at A and B from level stations 1 and 2, respectively,
were obtained. The level station 1 was near to A and station 2 was near to B.
Instrument Staff reading on
at
A B
1 1.485 1.725
2 1.190 1.415

(a) If the reduced level of B is 55.18 m above the datum, what is the reduced level of A?
(b) Assuming that the atmospheric conditions remain unchanged during the two sets of the
observations, calculate (i) the combined curvature and refraction correction if the distance AB is
315 m, and (ii) the collimation error.
Solution:
To eliminate the errors due to collimation, curvature of the earth and atmospheric refraction
over long sights, the reciprocal levelling is performed.
From the given data, we have
a1 = 1.485 m, a2 = 1.725 m
b1 = 1.190 m, b2 = 1.415 m
The difference in level between A and B is given by
80 SURVEYING

(a1 − b1 )+ (a 2 − b2 )
∆h =
2
(1.485 − 1.190) + (1.725 − 1.415)
= = 0.303 m
2
R.L. of B = R.L. of A + ∆h
R.L. of A = R.L. of B – ∆h
= 55.18 – 0.303 = 54.88 m.
The total error e = el + ec – er
where
(b1 − a1 ) − (b2 − a 2 )
e=
2
(1.190 − 1.485) − (1.415 − 1.725)
= = 0.008 m
2
and ec – er = 0.067 d2
= 0.067 × 0.3152 = 0.007 m.
Therefore collimation error el = e – (ec – er)
= 0.008 – 0.007 = 0.001 m.
Example 3.9. To determine difference in level between two stations A and B, reciprocal
vertical angles have been observed as + 6°32′58.3″ from A to B and – 6°33′36.7″ from B to A,
the horizontal distance AB being 1411.402 m.
Compute
(i) the corrected vertical angle,
(ii) the coefficient of refraction,
(iii) the correction for the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction, and
(iv) the elevation of B if the elevation of A is 116.73 m. d
Take the mean radius of the earth equal to 6383.393 km.
A C
E
Solution: (Fig. 3.10)
In Fig. 3.10, from ∆ AEO, we have R+hA
θ⁄2
θ
θ
Chord AC = 2 (R + hA) sin O
2
Fig. 3.10
But for all practical purposes we can take
(R + hA )
Chord AC = arc AC = d
R
Unless hA is appreciable, chord AC = d since hA becomes negligible compared to R.
From Fig. 3.10, we get
θ AE chord AC 2 d
sin = =
2 AO R 2R
1411.402
=
2 × 6383.393 × 1000
LEVELLING 81

θ
= 22.8′′
2
The observed angle of elevation α = 6°32′58.3″
and the observed angle of depression β = 6°33′36.7″

α+β
(i) Correct vertical angle =
2

6 o 32′58.3′′ + 6 o 33′36.7′′
= = 6°33′17.5″
2
We know that
α +β
α + θ/2 – υ =
2

α +β
υ = α + θ/2 –
2
= 6°32′58.3″ + 22.8″ – 6°33′17.5″
= 3.6″″ .
υ
(ii) Coefficient of refraction K=
θ
3.6
= = 0.079.
2 × 22.8
Combined correction for curvature and refraction

3 d2
Ccr = −
7 R
3 1. 4114022 × 1000
= − × = – 0.134 m.
7 6383. 393
(iii) The difference of level in A and B is given by

F α + βI
∆h = AC tan
H 2 K
α + β 
= d tan  
 2 
= 1411.402 × tan 6°33′17.5″ = 162.178 m
Elevation of B hB = h A + ∆ h
= 116.73 + 162.178 = 278.91 m.