Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp.

3–27 3

Elections, Parties and Democracy in Croatia

Izvorni znanstveni članak

324(497.5)"199/200"
316.62:324](497.5) )"199/200"
Primljeno: 22. lipnja 2004.

Interest in Elections and Electoral Participation

IVAN ŠIBER

Faculty of Political Science, University of Zagreb

Summary

The author stresses that participation has an intrinsic value for the citizens. In
addition, it is also important as a means of civic education, a process in which
citizens learn civic values. A comparison of electoral participation in democratic
polities shows great differences among them. The author argues that the level of
voter turnout depends on a number of factors, such as the features of electoral law,
the characteristics of social situation, voters’ motivation and political mobiliza-
tion. Electoral law influences electoral participation in two ways: directly through
legal provisions regulating the voting procedure and indirectly through basic char-
acteristics of the electoral system, which more or less motivate the voters. The
features of social situation that have an impact on voter turnout include impor-
tance of elections, voters’ emotional involvement and uncertainty of electoral out-
come. Voters’ motivation depends on the type of individual involvement in poli-
tics, which ranges from a minority of political activists to a majority of political
spectators, whose involvement is confined to voting, and a large number of apa-
thetic citizens, who don’t care for politics at all. Electoral campaigns can be con-
sidered mainly as an instrument to mobilize the supporters of political parties, not
the apathetic. In the second part of the article the author looks more closely into
features of electoral participation or abstention in Croatia, based on empirical sur-
vey data from 1990 to 2003. His findings show that mainly two factors are im-
portant for the level of participation: the individual feeling of either helplessness
or positive impact in politics and the sense of political responsibility. Unlike in
most other democracies, socio-economic status doesn’t have a significant impact
on participation in Croatia.

Key words: elections, electoral participation, abstention, Croatia, democracy, voter

turnout, electoral system, motivation

Mailing address: Fakultet političkih znanosti, Lepušićeva 6, HR 10000

Zagreb. E-mail: [email protected]
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 4
The participation in political processes, especially in the processes of constituting
representative bodies, is the key assumption of a democratic society. Just as Franklin
(1996) pointed out that “participation is the blood stream of democracy, it involves a
various number of people into various activities at various times.” Normally it is con-
sidered, that the key indicator of elementary political interest is the act of voting at the
elections (Campbell, 1962). While sometimes political participation is understood as
exclusively referring to electoral participation, Nie, Verba and Petrocik (1976) think
that political participation comprises all forms of behaviour in the sphere of politics.
According to these authors, in line with the theory of democracy, participation is a proc-
ess that defines goals and means in relation to all sorts of social problems. The assump-
tion is that through participation the goals of society are set in a way to maximize the
allocations of social goods, in relation to the needs and wishes of the population. Par-
ticipation is not directed towards a specific social goal, but is rather the procedure for
the determination of goals, the choice of priorities and the decision about the way they
are accomplished. Apart from that, participation has two additional aims:
1. It is a source of contentment by itself – the fact that one participates in the decision-
making process creates the contentment of citizens. This is the so-called intrinsic
motivation, in other words a feeling that something useful is done, that the individ-
ual is an active participant of that process. Of course, in all that, the goals that the
activities want to achieve are not irrelevant, but also the activity as such is a source
of contentment in itself.1
2. Participation is an educational process that teaches basic civic values – through
participation, people are taught to take responsibility2. Although an individual vote
does not mean much by itself, the election result is a sum of such individual deci-
sions.
The data analysis – at first statistical data based on election results and later survey
data – has shown that voters’ real behaviour is far from the generally proclaimed postu-
lates of the democratic society, in which all adult citizens influence political processes
with their electoral decisions in the society they live in. The first research of electoral
behaviour was that by Merriam and Goswell (1924), who in 1923 did a research on the
reasons for electoral abstention. In their research, the opinion polling method was used
for the first time. In his often quoted and well laid out work on the issues of voter be-
haviour, Rossi (1959) gives a special emphasis to Rice’s book, Quantitative Methods in
Politics (1928), which, according to him, for the first time tried to develop political sci-

1
Herzberg (1959) introduced the problem of intrinsic motivation, and is very prominent in the framework
of the so-called participatory methods of management (Likert, 1961; Smith/ Tannenbaum, 1962; Adizes,
1989). There is no relevant psychological difference between participation in decision-making within politics
and at workplaces.
2
The activities of non-governmental organisations, e.g. Glas 99 before the elections in January 2000, are
a typical example of precisely this kind of educational activity, in other words explaining to the citizens that
going to the elections is their democratic right, that elections determine who will get the mandate to govern,
and that every vote is valuable. These kinds of activities are especially valuable in the societies that are
establishing democratic conditions with a historical lag. It is to be wished that political parties themselves
would take more care of this dimension of political education in their political campaigns.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 5
ence liberated of value biases. This book, which consists of 18 studies of different ori-
entations, covers four main problems.
The first problem relates to the political behaviour as an expression of political atti-
tudes. According to Rice, political facts are the results of individual views. In their
electoral choice, the citizens state their attitudes just like in any decision-making proc-
ess. Rice points out, that the views are only partially the result of reality, to a larger de-
gree they serve, as Katz (1960) has shown later, to give a meaningful insight into the
world where the individual is placed. As opposed to other characteristics of the person-
ality, attitudes are not distributed according to the logic of normal distribution, but
rather – because of a number of influences – show the tendency towards the “U” distri-
bution (higher percentage on both ends of the dimension, and significantly less in the
middle). Rice understands political attitudes as specific derivations of one basic contin-
uum: the continuum radicalism–liberalism–conservatism, and voters, political parties
and candidates are distributed along that continuum. The task of the politicians is to
keep their voters on one end of the continuum and to try to gain the support of those in
the middle.
The second problem that Rice analyses is related to political differences between
different social groups. Using electoral statistics, he points out the differences between
the urban and the rural districts, protestant or catholic districts, constituencies with a
worker or middle class majority, etc. and thus establishes the so-called ecological
analyses of electoral behaviour.
The third problem is the spatial distribution of political attitudes. Analysing the re-
sults of election statistics, Rice has come to the conclusion that the regions in the US
that are closely inter-connected also have similar political prefernces, thus creating spe-
cific clusters of liberal or conservative options. This is not the case only where there are
some outstanding structural differences between the regions (e.g. religious, etc.).
The fourth problem that Rice deals with concerns the changes of political prefer-
ences over a longer period. On the one hand he uses the electoral statistics data and on
the other the “before-after” method in studying the efects of some intervening variable,
for example a candidate’s lecture.
Regardless of the very simplified operationalizations of individual problems and
variables of the research, as well as of the low level of the statistical processing of the
obtained results, Rice has managed to point out the problems that are present today –
the structure of the attitudes, the relationship between the attitudes and the political
choice, the influence of campaigns, etc.
The analyses have shown that political passivity is rampant and perhaps most notice-
able in electoral abstention. To understand the reasons for this indifference we should
ask ourselves why people get interested in participating in political processes in the first
place. To be able to answer these questions the attempt was made to identify the profile
of “passive” voters. At first, the authors have limited themselves to the analysis of
demographic and social-economic categories, having in mind of course that the inter-
pretation of the results cannot avoid socio-psychological categories which are the inter-
vening variables between these features and the electoral decision, in this case the deci-
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 6
sion to participate in the elections. If we look at the analysis from another angle, we can
say that psychological analysis demands the understanding of a person and the psycho-
logical world surrounding him/her; or, as K. Lewin (1951) says: “The behaviour de-
pends on the position of the person and its environment. To be able to understand or
predict the behaviour, the person and its environment need to be examined as a constel-
lation of interdependent factors.”
A simple statistical fact about the smaller electoral participation of women means
the relationship of one demographic variable (gender) and political activity, and in itself
comprises socio-psychological categories, primarily attitudes and motivation that are the
result of the socioeconomic position of women and the cultural patterns of a society.
Just as some countries differ regarding the voter turnout, they also differ in the de-
gree and the type of participation in electoral processes.
In short, voter turnout depends on four types of variables: the features of electoral
law, the characteristics of social situation, voters’ motivation and political mobilisation.
Generally it is considered (Franklin, 1999) that the differences between individual
countries regarding the electoral abstention are far greater and more relevant than the
differences in the characteristics of voters that lead to electoral abstention. The differ-
ences among countries are explained by the differences in their electoral systems
(highly proportional electoral systems lead to high voter turnouts); obligatory voting
(the fines for not voting are not high, but are fines nevertheless); voting on Sundays
(which is most common); the possibility of postal voting; and the very significance of
elections. Table 1 shows an average voter turnout in some countries in the period 1961-
1999 (Franklin, 2003).

Table 1: Percentage of voter turnout in the period 1961-1999

Australia 95 Greece 82 Spain 74
Malta 94 Netherlands 82 Bulgaria 73
Belgium 92 Brazil 81 Ireland 73
Italy 90 Venezuela 81 Japan 69
Austria 90 Norway 81 Estonia 68
Iceland 89 Costa Rica 80 India 59
Luxemburg 89 Israel 80 Russia 58
Sweden 88 Latvia 79 Hungary 57
New Zealand 87 Portugal 77 Switzerland 52
Denmark 86 Rumania 76 USA 52
Germany 86 Finland 76 Poland 51
Argentina 83 Canada 75 Lithuania 50
Czech Republic 83 Great Britain 75
Chile 83 France 75 Croatia 73,43

3
For Croatia we took an average of all 5 democratic parliamentary elections in the 1990-2003 period.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 7
Just as some countries differ in the percentage of voter turnout, they also differ in
the degree and type of participation in electoral processes. While in the United States
only about 50% of citizens vote, in Austria this percentage is 90%; in the United States
14% of citizens actively participate in election campaigns, while in Austria only 5% of
them (Verba/ Schlozman/ Brady, 1998)!

1. Characteristics of electoral law

In reference to Duvereger (1951), Blais and Massicotte (1996) cite two kinds of
consequences of the type of electoral law: psychological and mechanical. Psychological
consequences, which we are faced with, refer to the electioral participation (and, of
course, to the political preferences), while the mechanical ones refer to the distribution
of mandates, dependending on the obtained votes and the electoral rules.
There are two basic characteristics of electoral law which affect voters’ behaviour
and casting or not casting their vote:

a. Legal provisions on voter turnout

Through its electoral law every state determines who can vote, when, how and
where. There are countries e.g. Belgium and Greece, where going to elections is a legal
duty which necessarily leads to higher level of electoral participation. In some other
countries, on the other hand, for instance in the United States, citizens need to register
as voters i.e. confirm with their signature that they wish to participate in elections. Some
countries hold elections exclusively on Sundays, some on workdays, and some over a
period of several days. In some countries postal voting is possible. All these factors in-
fluence a bigger or smaller electoral participation.

b. Characteristics of electoral system

For the purposes of this analysis, we will mention only the differences between the
proportional and the majoritarian electoral system, and their influence on political par-
ticipation. Proportional electoral systems are considerably more responsive to different
political programs; they enable representation in representative bodies and smaller po-
litical parties, which means taking the variety of interests of the electorate into consid-
eration. Majoritarian systems aspire to decrease the number of political parties, espe-
cially in the plurality systems.
From the perspective of voters’ motivation, proportional systems are considerably
more motivating, because they make it possible for even some minor interests to be rep-
resented, based on a certain number of votes. In line with the postulates of the economic
theory of democracy (Dawns, 1957), the question is why an individual, having in mind
some institutional solutions of the electoral law that makes it harder to achieve specific
minority interests, would put in an effort that obviously does not lead to the achieve-
ment of the goal?
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 8
In the framework of proportional election systems it is also worth noting the mean-
ing of the electoral threshold i.e the percentage of votes that is required for the partici-
pation in the distribution of mandates. Logically, a high electoral threshold is explicitly
discouraging, while a low one gives also the smaller parties and their potential voters
the chance to participate in sharing the “electoral cake”.
The legal definition of a electoral district is another element that can effect electoral
participation. Due to the existing election law in Croatia, with 10 electoral districts, the
Istrian Democratic Assemvly (IDS) in its district (which merges a part of the Primor-
sko-goranska and the whole of Istrian county) regularly wins (according to the results of
the previous elections) up to 25% of votes, which secures the party up to four represen-
tatives on its own, independently of any electoral coalitions. If Croatia was one electoral
district, the IDS would get about 2,5% of the votes, which means that with the electoral
threshold of 5% and if participating in the elections alone, they would not be repre-
sented in the Croatian parliament. The current legal solution is, of course, much more
motivating for the IDS voters. Let us have a look at what the composition of the Croa-
tian Parliament would look like with some different solutions regarding the number of
electoral districts and the threshold, based on the results of the 2003 parliamentary elec-
tions.4

Table 2: Influence of the electoral law on the composition of the Parliament – elections
of 2003
One electoral One electoral
Political party Election results
district (5%) district (3%)
HDZ 62 59 53
SDP 43 42 38
HNS 11 15 13
HSS 9 13 12
HSP 8 11 10
HSLS-DC 3 - 7
HSU 3 - 7
HDSS 1 - -

There is no doubt that the solution with one electoral district and a lower electoral
threshold (3%) better reflects the will of the electorate in the elections of 2003. These
are the mechanical consequences of the electoral law – as we have already said quoting
Duverge – but there is no doubt that this solution would also have some psychological
consequences – a larger participation of potential voters of relatively smaller parties.

4
This is just a simulation based on the percentages of the voter turnout and the obtained votes of
individual electoral lists within the framework of the existing legal solutions. Different solutions of the
Election law would probably result in a larger or smaller voter turnout, or in other words, a different voters’
electoral choice. There is no need to emphasize that the problem of forming parliamentary majority would
also be very different depending on particular solutions of the Election law.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 9

2. Characteristics of social situation

In the so-called stable democracies, elections are a continuing process of remaining
or alternating in power of some political parties or individuals based on their general
success in solving social and economic problems, or some especially pressing problems
in election time. If a country is faced with an outstanding problem of domestic or for-
eign affairs, then the public is mobilized to a higher degree and the turnout also in-
creases. The so called transitional countries, i.e those that have only begun to establish
liberal democracy, are faced with many more issues that motivate the public and the
need to change things through elections or to give support. On the other hand, the citi-
zens of those countries still do not have an adequately formed political culture and a
sense of responsibility which are also the requirements for a high level of participation.
In relation to the question of social situation, we can determine three elements that re-
sult in a higher or lower electoral participation: the importance of elections, the voters’
emotional involvement and the uncertainty of the election outcome. Of course, they are
interconnected and it is hard to establish their individual contribution.

a. The importance of elections

There is no doubt that in the short history of the Croatian multiparty system the first
free democratic elections of 1990 were the most important ones. Besides deciding about
who will come to power, which is the usual role of elections in parliamentary democra-
cies, those elections also decided on the break-up with the former political system, and
also paved the way for the break-up with the former state union. The elections of 1992
and 1995 did not have that content, and they were held in the wake of the euphoria fol-
lowing the international recognition of Croatia (1992) and the military victories (1995).
The elections of 2000 were primarily characterized by the desire of a large number of
voters for a change in the way of governing (from authoritarian to democratic), while
the elections of 2003, probably for the first time, were based on the evaluation of suc-
cess, or failure, of the government.

b. Voters’ emotional involvement

This factor that influences electoral participation depends to a large degree on the
nature of the opposed options. If social circumstances are stable, if political parties base
their programs more or less on common general value orientations, if they see each
other (and behave accordingly) as political opponents and not as enemies, then the
emotional involvement is small. And vice versa, when the value orientations are “either-
or”, when the relations are seen as “us” and “them”, or in other words when we have the
“friend-foe” relationship, then the emotional involvement is exceptionally high, and
consequently electoral participation is higher. In the analysis of the Croatian political
scene and voter turnout one would assume that the voters’ emotional involvement has
been decreasing from the first elections in 1990 to the elections of 2003. However, it
should be pointed out that emotional tension is often created on purpose in election
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 10
campaigns, even to the point of mutual exclusivity, because emotional saturation brings
voters to the ballot-boxes!

c. Uncertainty of the electoral outcome

When we talk about electoral outcome uncertainty, then we primarily refer to the
voter perception, and not so much to the results of polls or media comments (which, of
course, create the atmosphere of uncertainty). In short, the general rule is that the
greater the uncertainty, the bigger the importance of every individual vote and conse-
quently the motivation of voters to go out and vote. In line with that thesis the greatest
uncertainty concerning the electoral outcome should have been for the elections of 1990
and 2003, while the uncertainty was exceptionally small in the elections of 1992 and
1995.
These three features of the social situation, the importance of the elections, the emo-
tional saturation and the uncertainty of the outcome, and their assumed influence on the
electoral participation can also be shown graphically.5

Picture 1. Estimation of importance, emotional involvement and uncertainty of the

elections in 1990-2003

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1990 1992 1995 2000 2003
importance emotional involvement uncertainty

5
These are, of course, subjective estimates. In this case, individual aspects of electoral situations were
estimated by 32 graduate students of comparative politics, participating in the course on “Comparative
political behaviour”.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 11
The next picture demonstrates the electoral participation in the elections from 1990
to 2003.

Picture 2. Percentage of the voter turnout in the elections from 1990 to 2003

90

85

80

75

70

65

60
1990 1992 1995 2000 2003

It is interesting to compare the voters’ interest for individual parliamentary elections,

based on systematic surveys conducted on the eve of the elections.6
As we can see by comparing the data on these two pictures, the interest in the elec-
tions gauged by the replies of the respondents in the survey conducted on a sample of
citizens and the percentage of citizens who actually voted, show identical regular pat-
terns. The elections of 1990 and 2000 were the most important ones in the short history
of free democratic elections in Croatia. This certainly does not mean that the other elec-
tions did not play a significant role in the development of democratic relations and de-
termining who would get the mandate to govern in Croatia. However, the nature of the
problems in 1990 and 2000 about which the Croatian voters were deciding were cru-
cially important not only for the election of the government, but also for the establish-
ment of a different political regime.

6
These are systematic surveys conducted by the Faculty of Political Science within the project
“Elections, political parties and the parliament in Croatia”. All the data in the article related to the Republic of
Croatia, were collected during the project. It should be noted that the modalities of the answers in the survey
conducted in 2003 were somewhat different (in previous surveys the modalities were: very interested,
moderately interested and indifferent, while in the survey conducted for the 2003 elections one more modality
was introduced: poorly interested). However, we do not think that this has had any significant impact on the
basic trend of the responses.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 12
Picture 3. Interest in elections 1990-2003

60
large interest
50 indifferent

40

30

20

10

0
1990 1992 1995 2000 2003

3. Voters motivation
According to A. Campbell (1962) “…a truly passive citizen is the one that does not
vote for a lack of motivation”. To understand the motivational structure of the social
situation which underlies political passiveness, it is not enough to know its characteris-
tics, but also to know how the voters’ perceive the situation and what kind of expecta-
tions they have. To understand political motivation, this time applied to the domain of
voting behaviour, we can use the well-known thesis from Vroom's theory of expecta-
tions (1964): “The motivational force of the situation in which we choose will be pro-
portional to the perceived possibility that the choice of one and not some other alterna-
tive will lead to the wanted results.”
The circumstances connected to this kind of motivation are:
• It is discouraging if a candidate is a person who will not have any influence in the
representative body he/she is elected to. This occurs when the ruling authority wants
to give itself a democratic form, although the power is in someone else’s hands.
• The bigger the number of voters, the smaller the motivation, because the individual
vote is “lost” and the individual feels he/she is not deciding about it.
• The level of the elections: presidential or parliamentary elections are more stimulat-
ing than the elections for municipal or city assemblies.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 13
These are the reasons connected with the so-called interest voting or the voting
brought on by some values or interests and needs of the voters who seek to achieve
them through the participation in electoral processes. People, however, often participate
in elections not because they believe that any of the offered options has any bearing on
them, but simply because they are subjected to the group pressure that demands from
them to perform their “civic duty”. This form of participation is often called conformist
voting.7 According to that, passiveness can be the result of a lack of “interest” motiva-
tion i.e. lack of belief that one’s needs will be met through election activities and the ab-
sence of social “pressure” to participate in electoral activities.
Based on this, we can identify four rules which determine the electoral participation
of various groups. A group will participate in elections more if:
1. its interests are substantially connected with the competences and the policies of the
authority being elected8;
2. there are more possibilities to be informed about the importance of the policies that
the authority being elected has been implementing or can implement in its interest;
3. it is exposed to social pressure that voting demands9;
4. the pressure to vote is not dispersed in various political directions so that it creates a
conflict on how to vote.10
Certainly, the basis of voting motivation, as one of the key indicators of political
activism, is not identical in single-party (totalitarian) and multi-party (democratic) po-
litical systems. Nevertheless, one should not have illusions that the sole fact of existence
of a democratic system leads automatically to an increase in the interest for politics in
general, especially for elections.

7
Conformist voting is rampant in totalitarian societies where voting is mostly a form of controlled
plebiscitary support for a particular ruler, independently of the will of the electorate.
8
Most probably in Croatia these are now primarily groups of displaced people, participants of the
homeland war and pensioners.
9
In this thesis we can find the answer to the question why there is a significantly higher electoral
participation by voters in traditional, small communities in Croatia, which also means a potentially greater
support for the parties that have identified such voters as their focus group or they enjoy a high level of
support in them. In Croatia this foremost refers to the HSS (Croatian Peasants’ Party). This thesis is best
illustrated by the data from the Zagreb Municipal Assembly elections of 2001, when the voter turnout was
65%, and the HSS got about 3,5% of the votes, compared to the elections for the neighbourhood councils a
year later, where the voter turnout was 15%, and the HSS got 20% of the votes, primarily from suburbs and
villages.
10
In literature the most often cited example is that of the United States i.e. the conflict deriving from
party alignment and one’s own and presidential candidate’s religious affiliation. To be more concrete, a
conflict arises with a protestant supporter of the Democratic Party who is faced with the fact that his/her
party’s candidate is – a catholic! It has been observed that many voters confronted with this kind of a dilemma
stay at home. In Croatia it is possible to have this kind of conflict with the voters from a national minorities
who have to decide whether to vote as members of their minority for their minority representatives or to vote
as the citizens of Croatia for their political choice.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 14
In his seminal work on political participation Milbrath (1965) distinguished between
four groups of voters: the so-called gladiators, transients, spectators and the apathetic.
Picture 4 shows concrete forms of behaviour of these groups.

Picture 4. Hierarchical display of political inclusion (Milbrath, 1965)

Public or party function
Candidate for the function
Collecting means for political activities Gladiator activities
Visiting meetings where decisions are made
Active member of political party
Contribution to political campaign
Visiting political meetings
Giving financial means to the party Transitive activities
Contacting the public or political leaders
Wearing badges or labels on the car
Persuading others how to vote
Starting political conversations Observer activities
Going to the polls
Exposure to political influences
Apathetics Apathetics

Analyzing the share of individual groups in the American population he writes:

“Around one third of the American adult population can be described as politically
apathetic or passive; mostly they are, literally, unconscious of the political content they
live in. The next 60% are mostly observers of political processes; they observe, clap,
vote, but do not go into battles. Literally, it is probable that only 1 to 2% of citizens can
be called “gladiators”.
In his analysis of political activism, R. Rose (1989) begins with a somewhat sarcas-
tic attitude about “the little man in high politics” and, accordingly, offers some generali-
sations on the degree and the sort of activism. According to his estimate:
1. 10% of the population is politically very active; they participate on the local and the
state level, as well as in the preparation and organization of elections;
2. 20% of the population is moderately active and their activity is mainly manifested at
election time;
3. About 50% of the population participates only in elections, the only form of their
political activity;
4. The remaining 20% of the population do not participate in politics at all, not even in
elections.
Analysing the motivational base of political activism, R. Rose on the one hand
emphasises the spontaneous adoption of values within the family, and on the other the
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 15
conscious process of “indoctrination” through the institutions of society. In line with
this, Rose gives the following systematization of voters:
1. 20% of the population forms their attitudes entirely within the family; these are the
individuals with “traditional values” who automatically follow and repeat their par-
ents’ choices.
2. For 10% of the electorate the social environment can be taken as the “explanatory
principle”. This is the interaction between the family origin and the membership in
different social groups.
3. More than 1/3 of the voters have “informed” political attitudes and motives. Their
political attitudes and their electoral choices are determined by the system of values
they have adopted as adults. They have very specific understandings about the val-
ues of liberalism, conservatism or socialism, in other words about the left-right ori-
entation.
4. About 10% of the population is the active part of the public that does not participate
in party activities, but attentively monitor the activity of the parties and the govern-
ment bodies, critically evaluate them, and make their choices on the grounds of their
performance.
5. About 10% of the electorate are the so-called party activists and active participants
in political life. They are loyal partisans of some party, regardless of a party activity
and performance.
In their comparative analysis of citizens' behaviour at the level of local elections in
Great Britain and France, A. Mabileau and others (1989) have come up with the find-
ings shown in Picture 5.
Without questioning the general findings of political interest research, primarily the
high number of disinterested, apathetic, passive citizens, Neuman (1986) offers the so-
called “model of stratified pluralism”. The basic assumption of that model is that at
every level of expressed political interest and participation (with the exception of the
passive “silent majority”) there are subgroups that are interested, informed and active
regarding different problems. In other words, according to Neuman, it is difficult to talk
about a general political interest in the circumstances of complex social problems. His
theses are probably more and more topical considering the decreasing visibility of clas-
sical political cleavages, ideological patterns and parties in making political choices,
and the inreasing role of specific concrete problems that, from election to election, rally
interested groups and individuals. His model is shown in Picture 6.
Since in most countries participation in politics is voluntary, it depends primarily on
the motivation and individual capabilities. Besides, we should also have in mind some
specific social relationships i.e support or social pressures for participation. In other
words, the explanation of a person’s passivity lies in three simple reasons (Verba/
Schlozman/ Brady, 1995):
• because “they can't” (shortage of time or some other reasons)
• because they don't want to (disappointed in politics, perceived inability of influence)
• because nobody persuaded them (isolated from others, inadequate mobilisation).
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 16
Picture 5. Structure of political participation

constantly
active
22%

only in the
campaign
only voters
2%
50%

occasional
23%

passive
3%

Picture 6. Model of stratified pluralism (Neuman)

Elite

Activists
Stratified participation
and orientation

Interested
citizens

uninterested, undifferentiated
mass public

Problems in the
society
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 17
It is usually thought that election campaigns are some sort of a competition of pro-
grams, leaders, promises and so on in order to sway the voters and gain their affection.
In these campaigns everyone tries to impose their view of current and acute social
problems, identify social priorities (the so-called agenda setting), define the perception
of oneself as the 'God given' leader into the bright future, and the perception of the po-
litical opponent as simply incompetent to cope with social problems.11 However, analy-
ses show that election campaigns have a relatively small influence on the change of
electoral choice (3% to 5%), but that significantly influence the turnout. In other words,
election campaigns are more in the function of the mobilisation of the potential voters of
individual parties than they aspire to change electoral choice. The statements like: “We
enjoy a considerably higher support, but our voters stayed at home”, as a rationalisation
of electoral failure of individual parties, actually signify the inadequate political mobili-
sation of their potential voters. The already mentioned example of the campaign Glas 99
(Vote of 99) shows how political mobilisation of the electorate is possible even inde-
pendently of concrete party programs.

4. (Non)Participation in Croatian elections and the attitude towards

politics
It is quite difficult to unequivocally operationalize the problem of electoral
participation, the reasons for voting or non-voting, especially in comparison to other re-
search. It is especially difficult if the research itself is not entirely focused on that type
of problems. Since we depend on the surveys in Croatia, there is an additional problem:
a large percentage of respondents reject to participate in the surveys and it is very diffi-
cult to objectively determine the reasons for this rejection, the more so because in Croa-
tia the rejection is markedly greater in big urban areas, which contradicts the general
findings worldwide about the greater rejection in rural areas. Also, the assumption is
that there would be more resistance to participating in the survey by those who will
probably abstain from voting. However, based on the obtained responses, it is possible
to come to certain conclusions by comparing the responses of the respondents who had
already made their electoral choice at the time the research was conducted, and those
who had not and generally have doubts about voting or they had already decided not to
vote.
In Picture 7 we have shown the structure of the so-called independent variable
i.e.the intention of electoral participation.
The structure of the responses on this variable shows us that mostly those respon-
dents were willing to participate in the survey who were also more willing to vote. From
the metric point of view it is difficult to expect big statistical differences in relations to
these key variables and the other research variables. However, the fact that considering
the size of the sample in the categories “I don't know whether I will participate” and “I
won't participate” we have 48 and 58 respondents (which is usually taken as the limit
for the so-called “small groups”), enables us to use some statistical procedures. It needs

11
See further arguments in Edelman (2003) and Šiber (2003).
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 18
to be emphasized in explaining the differences between the groups of responses regard-
ing the willingness to vote that there are no differences regarding the demographic
characteristics of the repondents. This means that, at least in our sample i.e the respon-
dents who agreed to participate in the survey, there are no differences regarding the
gender, age and education.

Picture 7. Readiness to participate in elections

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
decided for doesn't know doesn't know will not
whom he/she for whom whether he/she participate
will vote he/she will vote will participate

a. Reasons for electoral (non)participation

In order to get answers to this, we listed nine different reasons in the form of state-
ments with the corresponding Likert scale. The responses were subjected to factor
analysis and we got three consistent and interpretable factors.12
These three isolated factors explain 55% of the overall variance (the difference
among the respondents on the applied scale). The first factor is bipolar; on one pole it
comprises the statements that refer to a certain feeling of helplessness: all politicians are
the same, I cannot change anything, and I have enough problems of my own. On the
other pole are the statements about the importance of participating in political life and
the importance of elections for the future of the country. We will call this factor the
feeling of helplessness.
12
In the study of the elections of 2000, we got four factors that also explained 55% of the overall variance
of the responses (Šiber, 2001). It is difficult to say whether this is due to a higher structuring of the responses
stemming from the firmer attitudes because of the political “maturing”, or to considerable statistical devia-
tions, often a result of the logic of big numbers. In any case, the content of the factors is identical, having in
mind that two factors obtained in 2000 are compressed into one in the 2003 survey.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 19
Table 3: Reasons for participation – factor structure
Statements F1 F2 F3
I am occupied with my own problems and I don't
.796
have time or will for politics and elections
The elections are of no interest to me, because there
.729
are no new people and ideas in Croatian politics
My vote is unimportant, I cannot change anything by
.706
participating in the elections
It is important to me that I participate in the political
- .536 .362
life of the community
If I go out to vote it will be exclusively on the
persuasion of my family, friend or colleague from .397
work
I don't want HDZ to come back into power .827
I expect that the ruling coalition and SDP get
- .814
removed from power at these elections
If I go out to vote, it will be exclusively because I
.834
consider it my civic duty
I consider these elections very important for the
- .430 .609
future of the country
Percentage of the explained overall variety: 28,33 14,68 12,15

The second factor is also bipolar and comprises mutually opposed statements about
the wish to prevent “the others” from winning. In some way this is about ideological
exclusivity i.e.the perception of danger in case the SDP or the HDZ come to power.
The third factor comprises the statements about civic duty and the importance of
elections; we will call this factor political responsibility.
What kind of assumptions can be made about the relationship between political
participation and the obtained factors? First, it is to be expected that the individuals who
will not participate in the elections, as well as the ones who have not yet decided, will
show a far higher degree of political helplessness (factor 1) and a smaller degree of po-
litical responsibility (factor 3). Regarding factor 2 (ideological exclusivity) we assume
there will not be any significant differences considering the degree of electoral partici-
pation.
The obtained data are congruent with the starting assumptions. For the factor of the
feeling of helplessness the ETA of 0.346 was obtained, which indicates a significant
correlation of that factor and the potential participation in elections. Those who have
decided not to participate, many more express the view that elections do not solve any-
thing and that their vote will not make any difference. The other extreme are the ones
who have already decided who they are going to vote for and who believe that electoral
participation enables a person to influence social processes. A similar but contrary rela-
tionship has been obtained for the factor of political responsibility. Those who know
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 20
who they are going to vote for emphasize the importance of participating in the political
life of the community and the importance of elections for the future of the country. As
predicted, there is no such connection with the factor of ideological exclusivity. With
this factor, the voters’ political orientation (primarily in the opposition HDZ-SDP), has
a significantly bigger, even the deciding role. This is visible from the next table.

Picture 8. Participation in elections and reasons for (non) participation

65
apathy
60
exclusivism
55
political
responsibility
50

45

40

35
will not probably doesn't probably for sure
vote for will not know will vote will vote
sure vote

Note: The factor results (the arithmetic mean of 0 and standard deviation of 1), have been con-
verted into the standard values with AM=50 and SD=10.

The data in this table show the perpetuation of the conflict between the HDZ and the
SDP i.e. a sort of the domination of passion in political orientations. Despite great
similarity between the elections in 2000 and 2003, there are some significant changes.
The HSLS voters from 2000 who, according to these data, at that time wanted to re-
move the HDZ from power, in the elections of 2003 wanted to remove the SDP. The
IDS voters, probably due to the electoral coalition with the SDP, became significantly
more critical towards the HDZ, just as the criticism of the HNS voters towards HDZ is
more evident.13 The reason why the HSP voters are less exclusive towards the SDP in
comparison to the HDZ voters perhaps lies in the fact that those voters who mainly vote

13
This is probably a result of the fact that many people who in 2000 gave their vote to the SDP in the
2003 elections voted for HNS.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 21
to thwart someone, to vote “against”, give their vote to the party they perceive as the
one that has a chance to achieve it – the HDZ or the SDP.

Table 4: Choice of political party and “ideological exclusivity” 2000-2003

Political Party 2000 2003
HDZ 61.21 61.17
HSP 53.64 54.10
HSS 49.95 48.31
HSLS 47.13 52.31
HNS 46.65 43.42
IDS 45.92 39.99
LS 44.04 45.52
SDP 42.27 40.35
Eta: 0.668 0.762

b. Emotions towards politics

Although not directly bearing on political behaviour, it is interesting to look at the
perceptual aspect of politics regarding this problem, or at the emotions that politics
arouses in individuals. In the operationalizaton of of this variable, we have come up
with three groups of emotions which cover the dimension positive-negative. The first
group are the positive emotions to politics: excitement, enthusiasm and interest; in sec-
ond group are the negative emotions: mistrust, anger and discomfort; in the third group
are the neutral emotions: indifference, boredom and the answer “I don't know”. Since
we applied the identical variable in an earlier research, in completely different social
conditions14, we can compare the emotional aspect of politics in two different political
systems in the same society.

Table 5: Emotions towards politics 1986–2003 (in %)

Emotions towards politics 1986 2003
Positive emotions: excitement, enthusiasm, interest 39 22
Negative emotions: mistrust, anger, discomfort 37 45
Neutral emotions: indifference, boredom, “I don't know” 24 33

The presented data unmistakably show that the institution of the democratic system
strengthened the negative emotions towards politics! The explanation of this fact should
probably be sought on two sides. One is the feeling of the freedom of expression. Re-
gardless of the fact that these surveys were anonymous, the respondents sometimes have

14
The data from the 1986 study of the delegate system (Šiber, 1991).
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 22
the feeling that their responses are controlled, judged, so that there might be unwanted
consequences due to their answers. Of course, this kind of “auto-censorship” was much
more present in the former political system. The other explanation that we are much
more inclined to is related to the expectations regarding politics. By establishing a mul-
tiparty system, politics becomes a competitive process in which citizens have a genuine
possibility, by choosing among different political options, to influence their position,
the realisation of their interests and values and in a broader sense channel social devel-
opments. Big expectations such as these, which surfaced almost overnight, for there was
no continued process of socialisation for democratic system, have clashed with the so-
cial reality, concrete political parties, politicians, restrictions within the country and in
its surroundings. There is a well-known psychological truism that motivation and con-
tentment of a person do not solely depend on what one has, but primarily on the dis-
crepancy between what one has and what one wants. Big expectations accompanying
the change of a political system and the difficulties in the realization stir up negative
emotions towards the political sphere.15
But what about the emotions towards politics and the readiness to vote? At the level
of assumption, those that are going to vote have more positive emotions towards politics
than those who are not. On the one hand the indifference to politics and on the other the
negative emotions to it results in electoral abstention.

Table 6: Electoral participation and emotions towards politics

Electoral participation Positive emotions Negative emotions Indifference
For sure will vote 27.1 44.2 28.7
Probably will vote 8.1 49.4 42.5
Does not know 21.5 42.9 33.3
Probably will not vote 0.0 40.0 57.1
Will not vote for sure 2.0 45.2 58.0

The acquired contingency coefficient C = 0.294 shows there are significant differ-
ences among individual groups of respondents, considering their willingness to vote and
the emotions towards politics. However, the starting assumption is not completely con-
firmed. The negative emotions towards politics are mostly equally present with all
groups of respondents, which means they are not the ones who demotivate or lead to
electoral abstention. Electoral abstention is primarily the result of the alienation from
politics or, as it stands in the already quoted Cambpell’s sentence, the really passive
citizens are those that do not participate in the elections.

15
Unfortunately, we do not have the data on the emotions towards politics for the period between 1990
and 2003. We just assume that in the function of time the positive feelings fade and the negative or neutral
ones get stronger.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 23
c. Electoral participation and political attitudes
Since it is very difficult to influence the already formed political choices, to what
extent can a political party attract voters from the relatively sizeable group of those who
do not vote.16 Regardless of what we have seen before and concluded that the citizens
who do not vote are not interested in politics, they do have their political views, world-
views, concrete political opinions. Upon analysing all the indicators of the respondents
attitudes to various aspects of social life, the current problems and relationships, we
have singled out only one indicator that distinguishes the respondents according to their
interest in elections and their willingness to vote. This indicator is the obtained factor
within the analysis of the perception of the future government’s goals after the elections
and consists of the following contents:
• Support to the Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina
• Protection of the dignity of the Homeland war
• Strengthening the military power and state security
• Spiritual renewal
• Stimulation of population growth
All these contents point to a latent dimension (factor) which we can call the state-
building-conservative. 17
The data in Picture 9 show that statistically there is a bigger interest in elections and
the readiness to vote among the voters who want the future government to direct its ef-
forts primarily to the so-called “statebuilding” problems that are, as all the analyses of
previous and the last elections have shown, mainly the preoccupation of the right-wing
voters and the right-wing parties.
This conclusion can be illustrated with the data in Table 7 on the relations between
the political worldview and the statebuilding–conservative orientation, or by Picture 10
about the left-right self-identification and the statebuilding-conservative orientation.

16
It is widely held that the former American president Bill Clinton won the 1992 elections not because he
had managed to persuade a part of the Republican concstituency that he was the better candidate but mostly
because he had managed to get to the polls the members of mainly marginal social groups who otherwise do
not participate in elections.
17
The survey covers three sets of indicators: the focus of the future government on specific goals, the
conservative-liberal values and the role of the state, the market, enterpreneurship and social politics. The
indicators are subjected to the factor analysis. Specific factors of higher order were gained that point to the
hierarchical structure of social and political views. Besides the statebuildin-conservative factor, within the
perception of the desired goals of the future government, we singled out the factors that we tentatively called:
the socio-liberal, the Euro-liberal and the enterpreneurially-liberal. Among those factors, however, there are
no differences regarding the political interest and the willingness to vote.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 24
Picture 9. Probability of voting and interest in elections and the statebuilding-
conservative orientation

54
political
interest
voting in
52
elections

50

48

46

44
will for sure/large probably probably will will not for
interest will/medium not/weak interest sure/indifferent
interest

Table 7: Political worldview and the statebuilding-conservative orientation

Worldview AM
Christian democracy 55.11
Nationalism 53.92
Conservatism 52.34
Liberalism 46.94
Social democracy 46.21
Communism 45.67

A plausible assumption can be made based on these findings, that among the voters
who demonstrated a smeller interest in the previous elections and a smaller readiness to
go to the elections, the potential voters of liberal and left-wing options predominate.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 25
Picture 10. Left-right self-identification and the statebuilding-conservative orientation

65

60

55

50

45

40
1 - left 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -
right

5. Conclusion
The problem of participation and political interest in general can mainly be analysed
through three types of comparisons: the comparison in time, meaning the analysis of the
demonstrated interest and the electoral participation in the longitudinal analysis (in
Croatia mainly in the period 1990-2003); the comparison in space, an analysis of politi-
cal participation and interest in relation to other countries (the analysis can be focused
on the transitional countries which share some common historical heritage and political
culture with Croatia, or on the comparison with developed and stable democratic coun-
tries); the comparison within Croatia, a sort of a typological analysis within which the
political participation and the interests of various social and political groups are ana-
lysed. Methodologically, there are two basic approaches to the analysis of electoral be-
haviour: the analysis of election statistics18, primarily based on the percentage of voter
turnout, or the results of survey research by which we can get the data on motivation,
views, interests, etc. which enables us to analyse the differences between individual
groups of voters.
Our longitudinal analysis has shown that the electoral participation in Croatia de-
pends, firstly, on the importance of elections; particularly important were the elections
of 1990 and 2000, the elections when momentous political changes were at stake: the
changes of the political system and the status of Croatia (1990), or the mode of rule –
18
In literature, this kind of analysis is called the aggregate study, ecological analysis or electoral
geography.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 26
democratic or authoritarian (2000), and secondly, on the uncertainty of electoral winner
(elections of 1990 and 2003). We have also put forward some data showing that in the
function of time and direct experience with the functioning of a democratic political
system certain disappointment in politics sets in. That finding can be explained by a
certain discrepancy between the starting expectations and the everyday experience
which has not fulfilled these expectations. Since the political culture that is required by
the democratic system necessarily needs some time and maturing (part of that is most
certainly the formation of realistic expectations about what politics can achieve and un-
der which circumstances), it is to be expected that this gap between the expectations and
the possibilities will narrow with time, and that politics itself will lose that general im-
portance and emotional saturation which often leads to apathy and passiveness when the
expectations remain unfulfilled.
Within the agreagte comparative analysis to other countries, it has turned out that the
electoral participation in Croatia is mainly at the level of the lower average values of the
countries with a significantly longer democratic tradition, but that the level of participa-
tion is also significantly higher than in many former “socialist” countries in transition.
The analysis of the electoral participation and the political interest in Croatia has
shown that the assumptions according to which the non-participation in the elections is
the result of political discontent and disappointment that leads to apathy are not true, but
that the politically passive persons are indeed not interested in politics and elections.
Contrary to the findings of other research, primarily in the US, that people of a higher
socio-economic status (higher education, higher income, certain professions, etc.) are
significantly more politically active (Verba et al., 1998), in Croatia these differences do
not exist.
One of the indicators of the reasons for electoral participation that most significantly
distinguishes the electorates is more of an indicator of the nature of the political scene in
Croatia than of the concrete interests of individual groups. There is a kind of a dichot-
omy of the negative voting of the HDZ and SDP constituencies: people vote in order to
prevent the other party to come to power.
Šiber, I., Interest in Elections and ..., Politička misao, Vol. XLI, (2004), No. 5, pp. 3–27 27

References
Adizes, I., 1989: Kako riješiti krizu upravljanja, Globus, Zagreb
Blais, A./ Massicotte, L., 1996: Electoral System, in: LeDuc, L./ Niemi, R.G./ Norris, P. (eds.),
Comparing Democracies. Elections and Voting in Global Perspective, Sage, London
Campbell, A., 1962: The Passive Citizen, Acta Sociologica – Scandinavian Review of Sociology,
(6) 1-2
Downs, A., 1957: An Economic Theory of Democracy, Harper, New York
Duverger, M., 1951: Political Parties, John Wiley, New York
Edelman, M., 2003: Konstrukcija političkog spektakla, Politička kultura, Zagreb
Franklin, M.N., 1996: Electoral Participation, in: LeDuc, L./ Niemi, R.G./ Norris, P (eds.) Com-
paring Democracies. Elections and Voting in Global Perspective, Sage, London
Herzberg, F., 1959: The Motivation to Work, Wiley, New York
Lewin, K., 1951: Field Theory in Social Science, Harper, New York
Likert, R., 1961: New Patterns of Management, McGraw Hill, New York
Merriam, C.E./ Goswell, H.F., 1924: Non-Voting, Univ. Of Chicago Press, Chicago
Milbrath, L., 1966: Political Participation, Rand McNally, New York
Neuman, W. R., 1986: The Paradox of Mass Politics. Knowledge and Opinion in the American
Electorate, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge
Nie, N./ Verba, S./ Petrocik, J., 1976: The Changing American Voter, Harvard Univ. Press, Cam-
bridge
Rose, E., 1989: Ordinary People in Public Policy, Sage, London
Rossi, H.P., 1959: Four Landmarks in Voting Research, in: Burdick, E./ Brodbeck, J.A. (eds.),
American Voting Behavior, Free Press, Glencoe: 5-54
Rice, S.A., 1928: Quantitative Methods in Politics, Knopf, New York
Smith, C./ Tannenbaum, A.S., 1964: Organizational Control Structure, University of Michigen
Survey Research Center, Ann Arbor
Šiber, I., 1991: Political Socialization in Yugoslavia, in: Dekker, H./ Meyenberg, R. (eds.), Poli-
tics and the Younger Generation, BiS, Oldenburg: 103-129
Šiber, I., 2001: Političko ponašanje birača u izborima 1990-2000, in: Kasapović, M. (ed.), Hrvat-
ska politika 1990-2000, FPZ, Zagreb: 65-98
Šiber, I., 2003: Politički marketing, Politička kultura, Zagreb
Verba, S./ Schlozman, K./ Brady, H., 1995: Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American
Politics, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge
Vroom, V.H., 1964: Work and Motivation, Wiley, New York