PHS 212: GEOPHYSICS I

OUTLINE: (Magnetic Methods)

Magnetic Methods: Definitions; concept of Geomagnetism, Origin, properties of rocks,
Magnetic field survey; Instruments; Data processing; Interpretations, field work.
The Earth, Internal structure and construction.

Magnetic Methods
Geomagnetism
For centuries, navigators of the world’s oceans have been familiar with an effect of Earth’s magnetic
field: It imparts a directional preference to the needle of a compass. Although in some settings
magnetic orientation remains important, the modern science of geomagnetism has emerged from its
romantic nautical origins and developed into a subject of great depth and diversity. The geomagnetic
field is used to explore the dynamics of Earth’s interior and its surrounding space
environment, and geomagnetic data are used for geophysical mapping, mineral exploration, risk
mitigation, and other practical applications. A global distribution of ground-based magnetic
observatories supports those pursuits by providing accurate records of the magnetic-field direction and
intensity at fixed locations and over long periods of time.
Magnetic observatories were first established in the early 19th century in response to the influence of
Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Friedrich Gauss. Since then, magnetic measurement has advanced
significantly, progressing from simple visual readings of magnetic survey instruments to include
automatic photographic measurement and modern electronic acquisition. To satisfy the needs of the
scientific community, observatories are being upgraded to collect data that meet ever more stringent
standards, to achieve higher acquisition frequencies, and to disseminate data in real time.

Introduction to Magnetic Exploration

Historically, man has been systematically observing the earth's magnetic field for almost 500
years. Sir William Gilbert published the first scientific treatise on the earth's magnetic field
entitled De magnete. In this work, Gilbert showed that the reason compass needles point toward
the earth's north pole is because the earth itself appears to behave as a large magnet. Gilbert also
showed that the earth's magnetic field is roughly equivalent to that which would be generated by a
bar magnet located at the center of the earth and oriented along the earth's rotational axis. During
the mid- nineteenth century, Karl Frederick Gauss confirmed Gilbert's observations and also
showed that the magnetic field observed on the surface of the earth could not be caused by
magnetic sources external to the earth, but rather had to be caused by sources within the earth.
Geophysical exploration using measurements of the earth's magnetic field was employed earlier
than any other geophysical technique. von Werde located deposits of ore by mapping variations in
the magnetic field in 1843. In 1879, Thalen published the first geophysical manuscript entitled
The Examination of Iron Ore Deposits by Magnetic Measurements. Even to this day, the magnetic
methods are one of the most commonly used geophysical tools. This stems from the fact that
magnetic observations are obtained relatively easily and cheaply and few corrections must be
applied to the observations. Despite these obvious advantages, like the gravitational methods,
interpretations of magnetic observations suffer from a lack of uniqueness.

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 Similarities Between Gravity and Magnetics
Geophysical investigations employing observations of the earth's magnetic field have much in
common with those employing observations of the earth's gravitational field. Thus, you will find
that your previous exposure to, and the intuitive understanding you developed from using, gravity
will greatly assist you in understanding the use of magnetics. In particular, some of the most
striking similarities between the two methods include:
(i) Geophysical exploration techniques that employ both gravity and magnetics are passive.
By this, we simply mean that when using these two methods we measure a naturally
occurring field of the earth: either the earth's gravitational or magnetic fields.
Collectively, the gravity and magnetics methods are often referred to as potential
methods*, and the gravitational and magnetic fields that we measure are referred to as
potential fields

(ii) Identical physical and mathematical representations can be used to understand magnetic
and gravitational forces. For example, the fundamental element used to define the
gravitational force is the point mass. An equivalent representation is used to define the
force derived from the fundamental magnetic element. Instead of being called a point
mass, however, the fundamental magnetic element is called a magnetic monopole.
Mathematical representations for the point mass and the magnetic monopole are
identical.

(iii) The acquisition, reduction, and interpretation of gravity and magnetic observations are
very similar.

Note: *The expression potential field refers to a mathematical property of these types of force
fields. Both gravitational and the magnetic forces are known as conservative forces. This
property relates to work being path independent. That is, it takes the same amount of work to
move a mass, in some external gravitational field, from one point to another regardless of the
path taken between the two points. Conservative forces can be represented mathematically by
simple scalar expressions known as potentials. Hence, the expression potential field.

Differences Between Gravity and Magnetics

Unfortunately, despite these similarities, there are several significant differences between gravity
and magnetic exploration. By-and-large, these differences make the qualitative and quantitative
assessment of magnetic anomalies more difficult and less intuitive than gravity anomalies.
(i) The fundamental parameter that controls gravity variations of interest to us as exploration
geophysicists is rock density. The densities of rocks and soils vary little from place to
place near the surface of the earth. The highest densities we typically observe are about
3.0 gm/cm^3 , and the lowest densities are about 1.0 gm/cm^3. The fundamental
parameter controlling the magnetic field variations of interest to us, magnetic
susceptibility, on the other hand, can vary as much as four to five orders of magnitude*.
This variation is not only present amongst different rock types, but wide variations in
susceptibility also occur within a given rock type. Thus, it will be extremely difficult with
magnetic prospecting to determine rock types on the basis of estimated susceptibilities.

(ii) Unlike the gravitational force, which is always attractive, the magnetic force can be either
attractive or repulsive. That is, mathematically, monopoles can assume either positive or
negative values.

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 (iii) Unlike the gravitational case, single magnetic point sources (monopoles) can never be
found alone in the magnetic case. Rather, monopoles always occur in pairs. A pair of
magnetic monopoles, referred to as a dipole, always consists of one positive monopole
and one negative monopole.

(iv) A properly reduced gravitational field is always generated by subsurface variations in

rock density. A properly reduced magnetic field, however, can have as its origin at least
two possible sources. It can be produced via an induced magnetization, or it can be
produced via a remanent magnetization. For any given set of field observations, both
mechanisms probably contribute to the observed field. It is difficult, however, to
distinguish between these possible production mechanisms from the field observations
alone.

(v) Unlike the gravitational field, which does not change significantly with time**, the
magnetic field is highly time dependent.

Note: 1. *One order of magnitude is a factor of ten. Thus, four orders of magnitude represent a

variation of 10,000.

2. **By this we are only referring to that portion of the gravity field produced by the internal
density distribution and not that produced by the tidal or drift components of the
observed field. That portion of the magnetic field relating to internal earth structure can
vary significantly with time.

Definitions, Basic Concepts and Units of Geomagnetism

Magnetic Monopoles
Recall that the gravitational force exerted between two-point masses of mass m1 and m2 separated by
a distance r is given by Newton's law of gravitation, which is written as:

𝐹𝑔 𝐺𝑚1𝑚2
= 𝑟2 1
where G is the gravitational constant. This law, in words, simply states that the gravitational force
exerted between two bodies decreases as one over the square of the distance separating the bodies.
Since mass, distance, and the gravitational constant are always positive values, the gravitational force
is always an attractive force.
Charles Augustin de Coulomb, in 1785, showed that the force of attraction or repulsion between
electrically charged bodies and between magnetic poles also obey an inverse square law like that
derived for gravity by Newton. To make the measurements necessary to prove this, Coulomb
(independently of John Michell) invented the torsion balance. The mathematical expression for the
magnetic force experienced between two magnetic monopoles is given by:
1 𝑝1𝑝2
𝐹 = 2.
𝑚 𝜇 𝑟2

where µ is a constant of proportionality known as the magnetic permeability, p1 and p2 are the
strengths of the two magnetic monopoles, and r is the distance between the two poles. In form, this
expression is identical to the gravitational force expression written above. There are, however, two

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important differences.

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 (i) Unlike the gravitational constant, G, the magnetic permeability, µ, is a property of the
material in which the two monopoles, p1 and p2, are located. If they are in a vacuum, µ is
called the magnetic permeability of free space.
(ii) Unlike m1 and m2, p1 and p2 can be either positive or negative in sign. If p1 and p2 have
the same sign, the force between the two monopoles is repulsive. If p1 and p2 have
opposite signs, the force between the two monopoles is attractive.

Magnetic Dipoles
So far everything seems pretty simple and directly comparable to gravitational forces, albeit with
attractive and repulsive forces existing in the magnetic case when only attractive forces existed in
the gravitational case.
Now things start getting a bit more complicated. The magnetic monopoles that we have been
describing have never actually been observed!!
Rather, the fundamental magnetic element appears to consist of two magnetic monopoles, one
positive and one negative, separated by some distance. This fundamental magnetic element
consisting of two monopoles is called a magnetic dipole.
Now let's see what the force looks like from this fundamental magnetic element, the magnetic
dipole? Fortunately, we can derive the magnetic force produced by a dipole by considering the
force produced by two magnetic monopoles. In fact, this is why we began our discussion on
magnetism by looking at magnetic monopoles. If a dipole simply consists of two magnetic
monopoles, you might expect that the force generated by a dipole is simply the force generated by
one monopole added to the force generated by a second monopole. This is exactly right!!

Figure1: A magnetic Dipole and a magnetic monopole

The force associated with this fundamental element of magnetism, the magnetic dipole, now looks
more complicated than the simple force associated with gravity. Notice how the arrows describing the
magnetic force appear to come out of the monopole labeled N and into the monopole labeled S.
You may recognize this force distribution. It is nothing more than the magnetic force distribution
observed around a simple bar magnet. In fact, a bar magnet can be thought of as nothing more than
two magnetic monopoles separated by the length of the magnet. The magnetic force appears to
originate out of the north pole,N, of the magnet and to terminate at the south pole, S, of the magnet

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The closeness of the flux lines shown in figure 1, i.e., the flux per unit area, is called the flux
density, B (and is measured in weber / m2 = tesla, T). B, which is also called the magnetic
induction, is a vector quantity. (The former cgs unit of flux density was the gauss, equivalent
to 10-4 T). The units of tesla are too large to be practical in geophysical work, so a sub-unit
called the nanotesla (nT = 10-9T) is used instead, where 1nT is numerically equivalent to 1
gamma in cgs units (1 nT is equivalent to 10-5 gauss). Practically, the magnetic permeability
of water and air can be taken to be equal to the magnetic permeability of free space (a
vacuum), denoted by𝜇0 which has the value 4𝜋 × 10−7𝑊𝑏𝐴−1𝑚−1. For any medium other
than a vacuum, the ratio of the permeabilities of a medium to that of free space is equal to the
relative
permeability, such that 𝜇
= 𝜇0 and it is a ratio, it has no units.
𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑟

The magnetic field can also be defined in terms of a force field which is produced by electric
currents. The magnetising field strength, H is defined following Biot-Savart’s law, as being
the field strength at the centre of a loop of wire of radius r through which current, I is flowing
such that H = I / 2r. Consequently, the units of the magnetising field strength H are amperes
per meter (A/m).

The ratio of the flux density B to the magnetising field strength H (i.e., 𝐵⁄𝐻) is a constant
called the absolute magnetic permeability (𝜇).
Magnetic Susceptibility
The intensity of magnetization, I, is related to the strength of the inducing magnetic field, H, through
a constant of proportionality, k, known as the magnetic susceptibility. The magnetic susceptibility is a
unitless constant that is determined by the physical properties of the magnetic material. It can take on
either positive or negative values. Positive values imply that the induced magnetic field, I, is in the
same direction as the inducing field, H. Negative values imply that the induced magnetic field is in the
opposite direction as the inducing field. In magnetic prospecting, the susceptibility is the fundamental
material property whose spatial distribution we are attempting to determine. In this sense, magnetic
susceptibility is analogous to density in gravity surveying

Relationship between Magnetic flux density, B, Magnetising force, H, and Susceptibility, k

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From the last expression in the box above, it is clear that for a vacuum, 𝐵 = 𝜇0𝐻 (as k = 0).
From the box also, it is clear that in a medium other than a vacuum, an extra magnetising
field strength of 𝑘𝐻, called the intensity of magnetisation, J, is induced by the H.
The surface concentration of free poles or pole strength per unit area, m, is a measure of the
intensity of magnetisation, J. The stronger the magnetisation, the greater will be the
concentration of free poles. Further, if a body of volume V is magnetised uniformly with
intensity J, then the body is said to have magnetic moment M, which is defined as the product
of pole strength m and the length L separating the poles.

Induced and Remanent magnetisation

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So far, the discussion has centred upon a magnetisation that is induced by an applied field, H
where the induced intensity of magnetisation is denoted by 𝐽𝑖. In many cases, in the absence
of an applied field, H, there is still a measurable intensity of magnetisation which is sustained
by the internal field strength due to permanently magnetic particles. The intensity of this
permanent or remanent magnetisation is denoted by 𝐽𝑟.
A rock mass containing magnetic minerals will have an induced as well as a remanent
magnetisation. These magnetisations may have different directions and magnitudes of
intensity (figure 2)

Figure 2: Vectorial summation of induced and remanent intensities of magnetisation.

The magnitude and orientation of the resultant J dictate both the amplitude and shape of a
magnetic anomaly respectively

Mechanisms for Induced Magnetization

The nature of material magnetization is in general complex, governed by atomic properties, and well
beyond the scope of this course. Suffice it to say, there are three types of magnetic materials:
paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and ferromagnetic.
(i) Diamagnetism - Discovered by Michael Faraday in 1846. This form of magnetism is a
fundamental property of all materials and is caused by the alignment of magnetic
moments associated with orbital electrons* in the presence of an external magnetic field.
For those elements with no unpaired electrons in their outer electron shells, this is the
only form of magnetism observed. The susceptibilities of diamagnetic materials are
relatively small and negative. Quartz and salt are two common diamagnetic earth
materials.

(ii) Paramagnetism - This is a form of magnetism associated with elements that have an odd
number of electrons in their outer electron shells. Paramagnetism is associated with the
alignment of electron spin directions in the presence of an external magnetic field. It can
only be observed at relatively low temperatures. The temperature above which
paramagnetism is no longer observed is called the Curie Temperature. The susceptibilities
of paramagnetic substances are small and positive.

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(iii) Ferromagnetism - This is a special case of paramagnetism in which there is an almost
perfect alignment of electron spin directions within large portions of the material referred
to as domains. Like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism is observed only at temperatures
below the Curie temperature. There are three varieties of ferromagnetism.

(a) Pure Ferromagnetism - The directions of electron spin alignment within each domain
are almost all parallel to the direction of the external inducing field. Pure
ferromagnetic substances have large (approaching 1) positive susceptibilities.
Ferromagnetic minerals do not exist, but iron, cobalt, and nickel are examples of
common ferromagnetic elements. Ferromagnetism disappears when the temperature
of the material is raised above the curie temperature.

(b) Antiferromagnetism - The directions of electron alignment within adjacent domains

are opposite and the relative abundance of domains with each spin direction is
approximately equal. The observed magnetic intensity for the material is almost zero.
Thus, the susceptibilities of antiferromagnetic materials are almost zero. Hematite is
an antiferromagnetic material.

(c) Ferrimagnetism - Like antiferromagnetic materials, adjacent domains produce

magnetic intensities in opposite directions. The intensities associated with domains
polarized in a direction opposite that of the external field, however, are weaker. The
observed magnetic intensity for the entire material is in the direction of the inducing
field but is much weaker than that observed for pure ferromagnetic materials. Thus,
the susceptibilities for ferrimagnetic materials are small and positive. The most
important
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 magnetic minerals are ferrimagnetic and include magnetite, titanomagnetite, ilmenite,
and pyrrhotite

Susceptibilities of Rocks and Minerals

Although the mechanisms by which induced magnetization can arise are rather complex, the field
generated by these mechanisms can be quantified by a single, simple parameter known as the
susceptibility, k. As we will show below, however, the determination of a material type through a
knowledge of its susceptibility is an extremely difficult proposition, even more so than by determining
a material type through a knowledge of its density.
Unlike density, notice the large range of susceptibilities not only between varying rocks and minerals
but also within rocks of the same type. It is not uncommon to see variations in susceptibility of several
orders of magnitude for different igneous rock samples. In addition, like density, there is considerable
overlap in the measured susceptibilities. Hence, a knowledge of susceptibility alone will not be
sufficient to determine rock type, and, alternately, a knowledge of rock type is often not sufficient to
estimate the expected susceptibility.
This wide range in susceptibilities implies that spatial variations in the observed magnetic field may
be readily related to geological structure. Because variations within any given rock type are also large,
however, it will be difficult to construct corrections to our observed magnetic field on assumed
susceptibilities as was done in constructing some of the fundamental gravitational corrections
(Bouguer slab correction and Topographic corrections).
Susceptibilities of various rocks and minerals are shown below.
Mineral or Rock type Susceptibility x 10^3 (SI)
Air 0
Quartz -0.01
Rock salt -0.01
Calcite -0.001 – 0.01
Sphalerite 0.4
Pyrite 0.05-0.5
Hematite 0.5-35
Ilmenite 300-3500
Magnetite 1200-19,200
Limestones 0-3
Sandstones 0-20
Shales 0.01-15
Schist 0.3-3
Gneiss 0.1-25
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 Slate 0-35
Granite 0-50
Gabbro 1-90
Basalt 0.2-175
Peridotite 90-200
.
For magnetic ore bodies with extremely high susceptibilities (𝑘 ≥ 106𝑆𝐼), the measured susceptibility
– more correctly referred to as the apparent susceptibility, ka – can be reduced substantially by a shape
factor 𝑁∝ which depends on a direction ∝.

Now, 𝑘
= 3
𝑘𝑎 1+𝑁∝𝑘

For a sphere, 𝑁∝ = 1 in all directions. In the case of a thin sheetlike body with high true susceptibility
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(𝑘~106 SI); 𝑁∝ ~ 1 in the transverse direction, giving susceptibility 𝑘𝑎 ≈ 0.5𝑘; and 𝑁∝ ~ 0 in the
longitudinal direction, so that 𝑘𝑎 ≈ 𝑘.

Susceptibilities can be measured either in the field using a hand-held susceptibility meter such as the
kappameter, or on samples returned to a laboratory where they can be analysed more accurately.

Remanent magnetisation and Konigsberger Ratio

In addition to the induced magnetisation, many rocks and minerals exhibit a permanent or
natural remanent magnetisation (NRM) of intensity J r when the applied field H is zero. The
various processes by which rocks can acquire a remanent magnetisation are listed in the table
below.

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Primary remanent magnetisations are acquired by the cooling and solidification of an igneous rock
from above the Curie temperature (of the constituent magnetic minerals) to normal surface
temperature (TRM) or by detrital remanent magnetisation (DRM). Secondary remanent
magnetisation, such as chemical, viscous or post-depositional remanent magnetisations, may be
acquired later in the rock
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history. This is especially true for igneous rocks which have later undergone one or more periods of
metamorphism, particularly thermal metamorphism.
The intensity of the remanent magnetisation, Jr may swamp that of the induced magnetisation, Ji
particularly in igneous rocks and thermally metamorphosed rocks. The ratio of the two intensities( 𝐽𝑟)
𝐽𝑖
is called the Konigsberger ratio, Q, which can be expressed in terms of the Earth’s magnetic field at a
given locality and the susceptibility of the rock.
𝐽𝑟
𝑄= 𝐹 4.
𝑘( )
𝜇0

Where Jr is the intensity of remanent (NRM) magnetisation, k is the susceptibility, 𝜇0 is the

permeability of free space and F is the magnitude of the earth’s magnetic field (in tesla) at a given
location in the same sense as the B-field (flux density).
Just as susceptibility can vary within a single rock type, so too can the Kongsberger ratio. However,
similar rock types have characteristic values of Q, some of which are listed in table below.

A four-broad generalization on the basis of Q was made by Nagata (1961) as below:

(i) 𝑄 ~ 1 for slowly crystallised igneous and thermally metamorphosed rocks in continental
areas.
(ii) 𝑄 ~ 10 for volcanic rocks.
(iii) 𝑄 ~ 30 − 50 for many rapidly quenched basaltic rocks
(iv) 𝑄 < 1 in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, except when iron ore is involved.

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The Earth's Magnetic Field
Magnetic Field Nomenclature
As you can see, although we started by comparing the magnetic field to the gravitational field, the
specifics of magnetism are far more complex than gravitation. Despite this, it is still useful to start
from the intuition you have gained through your study of gravitation when trying to understand
magnetism. Before continuing, however, we need to define some of the relevant terms we will use to
describe the Earth's magnetic field. When discussing gravity, we really didn't talk much about how we
describe gravitational acceleration. To some extent, this is because such a description is almost
obvious; gravitational acceleration has some size (measured in geophysics with a gravimeter in
mGals), and it is always acting downward (in fact, it is how we define down). Because the magnetic
field does not act along any such easily definable direction, earth scientists have developed a
nomenclature to describe the magnetic field at any point on the Earth's surface.
At any point on the Earth's surface, the magnetic field, F*, has some strength and points in some
direction. The following terms are used to describe the direction of the magnetic field.
(i) Declination - The angle between north and the horizontal projection of F. This value is
measured positive through east and varies from 0 to 360 degrees.
(ii) Inclination - The angle between the surface of the earth and F. Positive declinations
indicate F is pointed downward, negative declinations indicate F is pointed upward.
Declination varies from -90 to 90 degrees.
(iii) Magnetic Equator - The location around the surface of the Earth where the Earth's
magnetic field has an inclination of zero (the magnetic field vector F is horizontal). This
location does not correspond to the Earth's rotational equator.
(iv) Magnetic Poles - The locations on the surface of the Earth where the Earth's magnetic
field has an inclination of either plus or minus 90 degrees (the magnetic field vector F is
vertical). These locations do not correspond to the Earth's north and south poles.

As observed on the surface of the earth, the magnetic field can be broken into three separate
components:
(i) Main Field - This is the largest component of the magnetic field and is believed to
be caused by electrical currents in the Earth's fluid outer core. For exploration work,
this field acts as the inducing magnetic field.

• External Magnetic Field - This is a relatively small portion of the observed magnetic

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field that is generated from magnetic sources external to the earth. This field is
believed to be produced by interactions of the Earth's ionosphere with the solar wind.
Hence, some temporal variations associated with the external magnetic field are
correlated to solar activity.

• CrustalField - This is the portion of the magnetic field associated with the
magnetism of crustal rocks. This portion of the field contains both magnetism caused
by induction from the Earth's main magnetic field and from remanent magnetization.

The main magnetic field refers to that portion of the Earth's magnetic field that is believed to be
generated within the Earth's core. It constitutes the largest portion of the magnetic field and is the field
that acts to induce magnetization in crustal rocks that we are interested in for exploration applications

The geomagnetic field is produced by electric currents induced within the conductive liquid outer
core as a result of slow convective movement within it. It is for this reason that the analogy of the
earth’s field to that induced by an electromagnet is preferred to that of a permanently magnetised bar
magnet. The liquid core behaves as a geodynamo but the precise nature of the processes involved has
yet to be resolved. Models to explain the disposition of the magnetic field must also account for the
slow but progressive change in field intensity and westward drift in the direction known as secular
variation. Furthermore, the models must also explain how the Earth’s magnetic field goes through
reversal of magnetic polarity.
The study of how the Earth’s magnetic field has changed through geological time is known as
palaeomagnetism,
The use of magnetic reversals to provide global chronometric calibration of geological events is
known as magnetostratigraphy

Elements of the Magnetic Field

The geomagnetic field can be described in terms of the declination, D, inclination, I, and the total
force vector, F

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 Figure 3: Elements of the magnetic field:
A freely suspended magnetised needle will align itself along F vector so that at the magnetic (dip)
north, the inclination is 900; i.e., the needle will point vertically downwards. At the south magnetic
(dip) pole, the needle will point vertically upwards. At the magnetic equator, the needle will lie
horizontal (see figure 4)

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Figure 4: Variation of inclination with latitude

Furthermore, the vertical component of the magnetic intensity of the Earth’s magnetic field varies
with the latitude, from a minimum of about 30,000 nT at the magnetic equator to 60,000 nT at the
magnetic poles.
Time Variable field
Observations of the Earth’s magnetic field have been made for over four centuries at London and
Paris. From these data, it is clear that the geomagnetic and magnetic pole positions drift with time,
known as the secular variation in the magnetic field. In addition, the intensity of the main magnetic
field is decreasing at about 5% per century.
The Earth’s magnetic field changes over a daily period, this is known as the diurnal variation. These
are caused by changes in the strength and direction of currents in the ionosphere.
On a magnetically ‘quiet’ (Q) day, the changes are smooth and are on average about 50 nT but with
maximum amplitude up to 200 nT at the geomagnetic equator. The changes are least during the night
when the background is almost constant, and decrease in amplitude from dawn to midday whereupon
they increase to the daily maximum about mid-late afternoon before settling down to the night-time
value.
Magnetically disturbed (D) days are marked by a rapid onset of fluctuations of the order of hundreds
of nanoteslas followed by slower but still erratic fluctuations with decreasing amplitude. These
disturbances, which are called magnetic storms, may persist for several hours or even days. Such
frenetic magnetic activity is caused by sunspot and solar activity resulting in solar-charged particles
entering the ionosphere. This may happen on fine sunny days and not necessarily in stormy weather.
Magnetic observatories around the world provide an advance warning service to advise of the
probability of magnetic storm activity. In severe storms, all magnetic surveying has to stop as it is not
practicable to correct for such extreme fluctuations. In minor disturbances, if a continuous-reading
base station magnetometer is used, the diurnal variations can be corrected.

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MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS

Instruments for measuring aspects of the Earth's magnetic field are among some of the
oldest scientific instruments in existence. Magnetic instruments can be classified into two
types.

(a) Mechanical Instruments - These are instruments that are mechanical in nature that
usually measure the attitude (its direction or a component of its direction) of the
magnetic field. The most common example of this type of instrument is the simple compass.
The compass consists of nothing more than a small test magnet that is free to rotate in the
horizontal plane. Because the positive pole of the test magnet is attracted to the Earth's
negative magnetic pole and the negative pole of the test magnet is attracted to the Earth's
positive magnetic pole, the test magnet will align itself along the horizontal direction of the
Earth's magnetic field. Thus, it provides measurements of the declination of the magnetic
field. The earliest known compass was invented by the Chinese at least two thousand years
ago.
Although compasses are the most common type of mechanical device used to measure the
horizontal attitude of the magnetic field, other devices have been devised to measure other
components of the magnetic field. Most common among these are the dip needle and the
torsion magnetometer. The dip needle, as its name implies, is used to measure the inclination
of the magnetic field. The dip needle may have been the first device used specifically for
geophysical exploration, for magnetite ore. The torsion magnetometer is a device that can
measure, through mechanical means, the strength of the vertical (or horizontal) component of
the magnetic field.

(b) Magnetometers - Magnetometers are instruments, usually operating nonmechanically,

that are capable of measuring the amplitude (strength) of the magnetic field, or of a
component of the field. The first advances in designing these instruments were made during
World War II when Fluxgate Magnetometers were developed for use in submarine detection.
Since that time, several other magnetometer designs have been developed that include the
Proton Precession and Alkali-Vapor magnetometers.

In the following discussion, we will describe only the fluxgate and the proton precession
magnetometers, because they are the most commonly used magnetometers in ground
exploration surveys. (Fluxgate magnetometers are now obsolescent as exploration
instruments, but the transducers themselves are found in other devices, ranging from
electronic compasses to some kinds of electrical exploration equipment.)

Fluxgate Magnetometer
The fluxgate magnetometer was originally designed and developed during World War II. It
was built for use from low-flying aircraft as a submarine detection device. Today it is used
for making borehole measurements, and the transducers are found in electronic compasses
and in laboratory devices for measuring remanent magnetisation. Much airborne magnetic
surveying was carried out using fluxgate detectors between 1945 and 1985, and hand-held
portable devices were used for making vertical-component ground measurements between
1965 and 1985. A schematic of the fluxgate magnetometer is shown below.

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Figure 5: The fluxgate magnetometer

The fluxgate magnetometer is based on what is referred to as the magnetic saturation

circuit. Two parallel bars of a ferromagnetic material are placed closely together. The
susceptibility of the two bars is large enough so that even the Earth's relatively weak
magnetic field can produce near magnetic saturation* in the bars.
Each bar is wound with a primary coil, but the direction in which the coil is wrapped around
the bars are reversed. An alternating current (AC) is passed through the primary coils causing
a large, artificial, and varying magnetic field in each coil. This produces induced magnetic
fields in the two cores that have the same strengths but opposite orientations, at any given
time during the current cycle.
If the cores are in an external magnetic field, one component of the external field will be
parallel to the core axes. As the current in the primary coil increases, the magnetic field in
one core will be parallel to the external field and so reinforced by it. The other will be in
opposition to the external field and so smaller. The field will reach saturation in one core at
a time different from the other core (and fall below saturation, as the current decreases, at a
different time. This difference is sufficient to induce a measurable voltage in a secondary
coil that is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field in the direction of the cores.
The secondary coil surrounds the two ferromagnetic cores and the primary coil. The
magnetic fields induced in the cores by the primary coil produce a voltage potential in the
secondary coil. In the absence of an external field (i.e., if the earth had no magnetic field),
the voltage detected in the secondary coil would be zero because the magnetic fields
generated in the two cores have the same strength but are in opposite directions (their
effects on the secondary coil exactly cancel). In the presence of an external field component,
the behaviour in the two cores differs, by an amount which depends on the external field.
Thus, the fluxgate magnetometer is capable of measuring the strength of any component of
the Earth's magnetic field by simply reorienting the instrument so that the cores are parallel

19
to the desired component. Fluxgate magnetometers are capable of measuring the strength of
the magnetic field to about 0.5 to 1.0 nT. These are relatively simple instruments to
construct, hence they are relatively inexpensive. Unlike the commonly
used gravimeters, fluxgate magnetometers show no appreciable instrument drift with time.

Note: *Magnetic saturation refers to the induced magnetic field produced in the bars. In general, as
the magnitude of the inducing field increases, the magnitude of the induced field increases in the
same proportion as given by our mathematical expression relating the external to the induced
magnetic fields. For large external field strengths, however, this simple relationship between the
inducing and the induced field no longer holds.
Saturation occurs when increases in the strength of the inducing field no longer produce larger
induced fields

Resonance Magnetometers
There are two types of resonance magnetometer: (i) The proton precession (ii) The Alkali
vapour magnetometer. Both types monitor the precession of atomic particles in an ambient
magnetic field to provide an absolute measure of the total magnetic field, F

Proton Precession Magnetometer

For land-based magnetic surveys, the most commonly used magnetometer is the proton
precession magnetometer. Unlike the fluxgate magnetometer, the proton precession
magnetometer only measures the total amplitude (size) of the Earth's magnetic field. These
types of measurements are usually referred to as total field measurements. A schematic of
the proton precession magnetometer is shown below.

Figure 6: The Proton Precession Magnetometer

The sensor component of the proton precession magnetometer is a cylindrical container filled
with liquid rich in hydrogen atoms surrounded by a coil. Commonly used liquids include
water, kerosene, and alcohol. The sensor is connected by a cable to a small unit in
which is housed a power supply, an electronic switch, an amplifier, and a frequency
counter. When the switch is closed, a DC current delivered by a battery is directed through
the coil, producing a relatively strong magnetic field in the fluid-filled cylinder. The
hydrogen nuclei (protons), which behave like minute spinning dipole magnets, become
aligned along the direction of the applied field (i.e., along the axis of the cylinder). Power is
then cut to the coil by opening the switch. Because the Earth's magnetic field generates a
torque on the aligned, spinning hydrogen nuclei, they begin to precess* around the direction
of the Earth's
20
total field. This precession produces a time-varying magnetic field which induces a small
alternating current in the coil. The frequency of the AC current is equal to the frequency of
precession of the nuclei. Because the frequency of precession is proportional to the strength
of the total field and because the constant of proportionality is well known, the total field
strength can be determined quite accurately.
Like the fluxgate magnetometer, the proton precession magnetometer is relatively easy to
construct. Thus, it is also relatively inexpensive. The strength of the total
field can be measured down to about 0.1 nT. Like fluxgate magnetometers, proton
precession magnetometers show no appreciable instrument drift with time.
One of the important advantages of the proton precession magnetometer is its ease of use
and reliability. Sensor orientation need only be set to a high angle with respect to the Earth's
magnetic field. No precise levelling or orientation is needed. If, however, the magnetic field
changes rapidly from place to place (larger than about 600 NT/m), different portions of the
cylindrical sensor will be influenced by magnetic fields of various magnitudes, and readings
will be seriously degraded. This may occur if the sensor is placed close to magnetically
susceptible material, for instance. Finally, because the signal generated by precession is
small, this instrument cannot be used near AC power sources.

Note: *Precession is the motion like experienced by a top as it spins and "wobbles". Because of the
Earth's gravitational field, a top whose spin axis is not parallel to the direction of gravity not only
spins about its axis of rotation, but the axis of rotation also rotates about the vertical direction. This
rotation of the top's spin axis is referred to as precession

The Alkali vapour or Optical absorption Magnetometer

This magnetometer utilises the optical pumping technique. Under normal conditions of temperature
and pressure, electrons exist at certain energy states around the nucleus of the atom. According to
quantum physics, it is only possible to transfer an electron from a lower energy state to one with
higher energy in discrete jumps. If a vapour of an element such as rubidium or caesium is illuminated
by a light whose filament is made of the same element, the light emitted is at the correct wavelength
for incident photons to be absorbed by the vapour and the low-energy state electrons excited up to
higher levels.
In the rubidium and caesium-vapour magnetometer, a polarize light-bean is shown at approximately
450 to the magnetic field direction. In the presence of the Earth’s magnetic field, the electrons precess
about the field direction at the Larmor precessional frequency. At one part of the precessional cycle,
an electron spin is almost parallel to the field direction and one half-cycle later, it is nearly
antiparallel. The varying absorption causes a fluctuation of intensity of the light beam at Larmor
frequency. This is detected by the photo cell and converted to an alternating current. By means of
feedback circuit, the signal is supplied to a coil around the container of rubidium gas and a radio-
frequency resonant circuit is created. The ambient geomagnetic field Bt that causes the splitting of the
ground state is proportional to the Larmor frequency, and is given by:

𝐵𝑡 = 2𝜋
𝑓 5.
𝛾𝑒
Where 𝛾𝑒 is the gyromagnetic ration of the electron, which is about 1800 times larger than 𝛾𝑝. The
precessional frequency is correspondingly higher and easier to measure precisely. The sensitivity of
an optically pumped magnetometer is very high, about 0.01 nT; greater than that of flux-gate or
proton precession magnetometer.

21
 Figure 7: Optical pumping principle of the Alkali vapour magnetometer

Total Field Measurements

Given the ease of use of the proton precession magnetometer, most exploration geophysical
surveys employ this instrument and thus measure only the magnitude of the total magnetic
field as a function of position. Surveys conducted using the proton precession magnetometer
do not have the ability to determine the direction of the total field as a function of location.
Ignoring for the moment the temporally varying contribution to the recorded magnetic field
caused by the external magnetic field, the magnetic field we record with our proton precession
magnetometer has two components:

• The main magnetic field, or that part of the Earth's magnetic field generated by deep (outer core)
sources. The direction and size of this component of the magnetic field at some point on the Earth's
surface is represented by the vector labelled Fe in figure 8 below

• The anomalous magnetic field, or that part of the Earth's magnetic field caused by magnetic
induction of crustal rocks or remanent magnetization of crustal rocks. The direction and size of this
component of the magnetic field is represented by the vector labelled Fa in figure 8
The total magnetic field we record, labelled Ft in the figure, is nothing more than the sum of
Fe and Fa.
Typically, Fe is much larger than Fa, as is shown in the figure (50,000 nT versus 100 nT). If
Fe is much larger than Fa, then Ft will point almost in the same direction as Fe regardless of the
the direction of Fa. That is because the anomalous field, Fa, is so much smaller than the main field
Fe, that the total field, Ft, will be almost parallel to the main field.

Figure 8:

22
MAGNETIC SURVEYING

Field Survey Procedures

Modes of Acquiring Magnetic Observations

Magnetic observations are routinely collected using any one of three different field
operational strategies.
• Airborne - Both fluxgate and proton precession magnetometers can be mounted within or towed
behind aircraft, including helicopters. These so-called aeromagnetic surveys are rapid and cost
effective. When relatively large areas are involved, the cost of acquiring 1 km of data from an
aeromagnetic survey is about 40% less than the cost of acquiring the same data on the ground. In
addition, data can be obtained from areas that are otherwise inaccessible. Among the most difficult
problems associated with aeromagnetic surveys is fixing the position of the aircraft at any time. With
the development of real-time, differential GPS systems, however, this difficulty has been overcome.

• Shipborne - Magnetic surveys can also be completed over water by towing a magnetometer behind a
ship. Obviously, marine magnetic surveying is slower than airborne surveying. When other
geophysical methods are being conducted by ship, however, it may make sense to acquire
magnetic data simultaneously.

• Ground Based - Like gravity surveys, magnetic surveys are also commonly conducted on
foot or with a vehicle. Ground-based surveys may be necessary when the target of interest
requires more closely-spaced readings than are possible to acquire from the air. In the next
discussion we will concentrate on ground-based surveys. All of this discussion, however,
could be applied to air- and ship-borne surveys also.

Because magnetic surveying is generally far cheaper than other geophysical methods,
magnetic observations are commonly used for reconnaissance. These surveys can cover large
areas and are used to identify the locations of targets for more detailed investigations.
Because of their cost effectiveness, magnetic surveys usually consist of areal distributions of
data instead of single lines of data. We will refer to the collection of geophysical
observations over a geographic area as two-dimensional surveys. Data that is collected along
a single line of observations will be referred to as one-dimensional surveys.

Magnetic Cleanliness and Interference

When making total field measurements from which estimates of the subsurface distribution
of magnetic susceptibility or the presence of subsurface magnetized bodies are made, it is
imperative that factors affecting the recorded field other than these be eliminated or isolated
so that they can be removed. We have already discussed several of these added
complications, including spatial variations of the Earth's main magnetic field and temporal
variations mostly associated with the external magnetic field. In addition to these factors
which we cannot control, there are other sources of noise that we can control.

Because any ferromagnetic substance can produce an induced magnetic field in the presence
of the Earth's main field and because modern magnetometers are very sensitive (0.1 nT), the
field crew running the magnetic survey must divest itself of all ferrous objects. This includes,
but is not limited to, belt buckles, knives, wire-rimmed glasses, etc. In addition, proton
precession magnetometers are typically placed on two-to-three-meter poles to remove them
from potential noise sources at ground level.

23
In addition to noise sources carried by the operators, many sources of magnetic noise may be
found in the environment. These can include any ferrous objects such as houses, fences,
railroad rails, cars, rebar in concrete foundations, etc. Finally, when using a proton precession
magnetometer reliable reading will be difficult to obtain near sources of AC power such as
utility lines and transformers. Good observational practice will see visible, non-geological
magnetic sources recorded as part of the field observations.

Data Reduction and Correction

In principle, Latitude corrections, elevation corrections, slab corrections, and topography
corrections could be applied to magnetic observations also. In practice, the only corrections
routinely made for are spatial variations in the Earth's main magnetic field, which would be
equivalent to latitude corrections applied to gravity observations. Why aren't the other
corrections applied?

Variations in total field strength as a function of elevation are less than 0.015 nT per meter.
This variation is generally considered small enough to ignore. Variations in total field
strength caused by excess magnetic material in topography could, on the other hand, be quite
significant. The problem is the large variation in susceptibilities associated with earth
materials even when those materials are of the same rock type.

Recall that in applying the slab and elevation corrections to our gravitational observations,
we had to assume an average density for the rocks making up the corrections. Rock densities
do not vary much from rock type to rock type. Density variations of 0.5 gm/cm^3 are large.
Variations among different samples of the same rock type vary by even less. Therefore, we
can assume an average density for the correction and feel fairly confident that our
assumption is reasonable.

Magnetic susceptibilities vary by orders of magnitude even among samples of the same rock
types. So, how can we choose an average susceptibility on which to base our correction? The
answer is we can't. Therefore, instead of applying a set of corrections that we know will be
wrong, we apply no correction at all to attempt to account for excess material and
topography. (For the magnetic equivalent of the Bouguer correction, the solution is even
simpler; the magnetic effect of an inductively-magnetized, parallel-sided slab is everywhere
zero!)

Correcting for Main Field Variations

Corrections for spatial variations in the strength of the Earth's main magnetic field are
referred to as geomagnetic corrections. One commonly used method of accounting for these
variations are to use one of the many models of the Earth's main magnetic field that are
available. One such set of commonly used models of the main field is referred to as the
International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF).
The IGRF models are regularly updated to account for secular variations. Given the latitude
and longitude of some point on the Earth's surface, the total field strength of the Earth's main
magnetic field can be calculated.

Consider a small two-dimensional survey. A plan view of such a survey is shown in figure 9.
One commonly used method of applying the main field correction is to linearly
interpolate the computed values of the main field at the corners of the survey throughout the
survey region. These interpolated values can then be subtracted from the field observations.
After applying this correction, you are left with that portion of the magnetic field that can not

24
be attributed to the Earth's main magnetic field.

Figure 9

This two-dimensional application of linear interpolation is only slightly more complex than
the one-dimensional linear interpolation used to reduce our gravity observations. Values of
the Earth's main magnetic field are first determined from the IGRF for each corner point of
the survey (c1, c2, c3, c4). To determine the strength of the main field at the point p, we first
perform two linear interpolations up the edges of the survey in the y direction to determine
the values of the field at the points t1 and t2. That is, first determine the value of the Earth's
main magnetic field at the point t1 by linearly interpolating between the points c1 and c4.
Then determine the value of the main field at the point t2 by linearly interpolating between
the points c2 and c3. Now, linearly interpolate in the x direction between t1 and t2. The
result is the two-dimensionally interpolated value of the field at the point p.

Noise in ground Magnetic Surveys

Magnetic readings in populated areas are often affected by cultural noise that is, stray fields from
pieces of iron and steel that are irrelevant to the survey objectives. Since these are often quite small
and likely to be buried within a meter of the ground surface, the effects are very variable. Even if no
obvious sources are visible, profiles obtained along roads are usually distorted compared to those
along parallel transverses through open fields only 10 or 20 m away.
One approach to the noise problem is to try to take all readings well away from likely sources, noting
in the field books where this has not been possible. Alternatively, the almost universal presence of
ferrous noise can be accepted and the data can be filtered. For this method to be successful, many mor

25
readings must be taken than would be needed to define purely geological anomalies. The technique is
becoming more popular with increasing use of data loggers, which discourage note-taking but allow
vast numbers of readings to be taken and processed with little extra effort, and is most easily used
with alkali vapour and flux-gate instruments, which read virtually continuously.
Note that: (i) High-cut filters cannot be used in archaeological surveys, since they are likely to
remove the signals along with the noise. Data in such surveys are usually displayed as images in
which each pixel corresponds to an individual reading point and is coloured or grey-shaded according
to the value.
(iii) Low-cut filters may be used prior to display to emphasise the short-wavelength features.

The most significant correction is for the diurnal variation in the Earth’s magnetic field. Base station
readings taken over the period of a survey facilitate the compilation of the diurnal drift as illustrated in
figure 10 below:

Figure 10: Diurnal drift curve measured using a proton magnetometer.

Measurements of the total field made at other stations can easily be adjusted by the variation in the
diurnal curve. For example, at point A in figure 10, the ambient field has increased by 10 nT and thus
the value measured at A should be reduced by 10 nT. Similarly, at B, the ambient field has fallen by
19 nT and so the value at B should be increased by 19 nT.
In airborne and Shipborne surveys, it is obviously not possible to return to a base station
frequently. By designing the survey so that the track lines intersect, the dataset can be
approximately corrected (see figure 11).

26
Figure 11: Tracks of a shipborne or Airborne magnetic survey.

In other to produce a magnetic map of a region, the data have to be corrected to take into
account the effect of Latitude and, to a lesser extent, Longitude. As the earth’s magnetic field
strength varies from about 30,000 nT at the magnetic equator to about 60, 000 nT at the
poles, the increase in magnitude with latitude needs to be taken into account. Survey data at
any location can be corrected by subtracting the theoretical field value F th, obtained from the
International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF), from the measured value, F obs. In some
situations, it is better to use a local correction which can be considered to vary linearly over
the magnetic survey area. Regional latitude (𝜑) and longitude (𝜃) gradients can be determined
for areas concern and tied to a base value (𝐹0), for example, at the south-east corner of the
survey
area. Gradients northwards (𝛿𝐹) and westwards (𝛿𝐹) are expressed in nT / km and can easily be
𝛿𝜑 𝛿𝜃
calculated for any location within the survey area. For example, in Great Britain, gradients of
213 nT / km north and 0.26 nT / km west are used. Consequently, the anomalous value of the
total field (𝛿𝐹) can be calculated arithmetically as shown in the box below:

So, in calculating the anomalous total field strength 𝛿𝐹,

𝛿𝐹 𝛿𝐹
𝛿𝐹 = Fobs – (𝐹 + + ) (nT) 6.
0 𝛿𝜑 𝛿𝜃

27
Another method of calculating the anomalous field 𝛿𝐹 is to determine statistically, the trend
of a regional field to isolate the higher frequency anomalies, which are then residualised in
the same way that the gravity residuals are calculated. The regional field is subtracted from
the observed filed to produce the residual field (𝛿𝐹). See figure 12 a.

Figure 12 a: Magnetic residuals (A) Subtraction of a regional field gradient

28
If the survey is so literary restricted, as in the case of small-scale archaeological, engineering
or detailed mineral prospecting surveys (e.g., < 500 m x500 m in area), the use of regional
gradients is not practicable. Instead, profile data can be referred to a local base station (F b)
which is remote from any suspected magnetic sources. In this case, the anomalous field 𝛿𝐹 is
obtained by subtracting the base value (F b) from every diurnal-corrected observed value F obs
along the profile:
𝛿𝐹 = Fobs – Fb 7. (see figure 12b)

Figure 12 b: Magnetic residuals (B) Reference to a local arbitrary station.

QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION

Once magnetic data have been fully corrected and reduce to their final form, they are usually
displayed either as profiles or as maps and the interpretation procedures are different for the two
cases. However, it must be borne in mind that, although the techniques used are similar to those for
gravity surveys, there two important complications: first, the Earth’s magnetic field is dipolar, which
means that a single anomaly can have the form of a positive peak only, a negative peak only or a
doublet consisting of both positive and negative peals. Secondly, the single largest unknown is
whether there is any remanent magnetisation and if there is, its intensity and direction (J r) need to be
ascertained. It must also be remembered that many geophysical interpretations may fit the observed
data and that a given interpretation may not be unique. For this reason, it is always useful to use other
geophysical methods in the same area to help constrain the interpretations. If some geological
information already exists for the area, then this should be used to help with the geological
interpretation.

Recall that the gravity anomaly is a function of density distribution only. Magnetic anomalies, on the
other hand, are a function of two independent parameters: the subsurface distribution of susceptibility
and the orientation of the Earth's main magnetic field. Change one of these parameters and you
change the resulting magnetic anomaly. What this means in practice is that magnetic anomalies over
the same susceptibility distribution will be different if the distribution is in a different location, say
one located beneath the equator versus one located beneath the north pole. Additionally, the magnetic
anomaly over a two-dimensional body such as a tunnel will look different depending on the
orientation of the tunnel, say east-west or north-south, even if the magnetic profile is always taken
perpendicular to the trend of the tunnel.

With these complexities in mind, we will not spend a great deal of time analysing the shapes of
magnetic anomalies over simple structures; there are many computer programs available that do this
quite well. Rather, we will look at several simple examples and qualitatively construct the magnetic
anomalies over them so that you can get a better feeling for the complexities involved and for how it
might be done in the computer

29
Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized Sphere at the North Pole
Let's now qualitatively construct what the magnetic anomaly of a metallic sphere located
beneath the north pole would look like. The geometry of the sphere, the Earth's main
magnetic field, the field lines associated with the anomalous field, the direction and
magnitude of the anomalous field, and a plot of the intensity of the anomalous field that
would be recorded are shown.

At the north (magnetic) pole, the Earth's main magnetic field, Fe, points straight down. Because the
buried sphere is composed of a material with a non-zero susceptibility, the Earth's main magnetic field
causes the sphere to produce an induced magnetic field. Field lines associated with this induced field
are shown by black lines, and the magnitude and direction of the induced, anomalous field, Fai, at the
surface of the earth are shown by the blue arrows.
The total field, whose strength will be recorded on a proton precession magnetometer, will be sum of
the main field, Fe, and the induced, anomalous field, Fa. Notice that to either side of the sphere, the
anomalous field points in the opposite direction as the main field. Thus, when the main field is
removed from our observations, we will observe negative values for the anomalous field. Near the
sphere, the anomalous field points in the same direction as the main field. Therefore, when the main
field is removed, we will observe positive values for the anomalous field.
In this case, the anomalous magnetic field is symmetric about the centre of the buried sphere, is
dominated by a central positive anomaly, and is surrounded on both sides by smaller negative
anomalies.

Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized Sphere at the Equator

Now, let's examine the shape of the anomalous magnetic field for the exact same metallic sphere
buried at the equator. At the equator (magnetic), the direction of the Earth's main magnetic field is
now horizontal. It still induces an anomalous magnetic field in the metallic sphere, but the orientation
of field lines describing the magnetic field are now rotated 90 degrees. As in the previous case, these

30
field lines are indicated by the black lines, and the strength and direction of the anomalous field at the
surface of the earth are shown by the blue arrows. Above the sphere, the anomalous magnetic field,
Fa, now points in the opposite direction as the Earth's main magnetic field, Fe. Therefore, the total
field measured will be less than the Earth's main field, and so upon removal of the main field, the
resulting anomalous field will be negative. On either side of the sphere, the anomalous field points in
the general direction of the main field and thus reinforces it resulting in total field measurements that
are larger than the Earth's main field. Upon removal of the main field contribution, these areas will
show positive magnetic anomalies. As with the previous case, the resulting anomaly is again
symmetrically distributed about the center of the sphere. In this case, however, the prominent central
anomaly is negative (even though the susceptibility anomaly is positive) and is surrounded by two
smaller positive anomalies.

Magnetic Anomaly: Magnetized Sphere in the Northern

Hemisphere
Finally, let's examine the shape of the anomalous magnetic field for a metallic sphere buried
somewhere in the northern hemisphere, say near Denver.

31
As in the previous examples, the Earth's main magnetic field induces an anomalous field in
surrounding the sphere. The anomalous field is now oriented at some angle, in this case 45 degrees,
from the horizontal. By looking at the direction of the anomalous field, Fa, in comparison with the
Earth's main field, Fe, you can see that there will be a small negative anomaly far to the south (to the
right in the diagram) of the sphere, a large positive anomaly just south of the sphere, and a small,
broad, negative anomaly north of the sphere. Notice that the magnetic anomaly produced is no longer
symmetric about the sphere. Unless you are working in one of those special places, like the magnetic
poles or equator, this will always be true.

We can consider the situation in the Southern hemisphere, at the same magnetic latitude, by
making some mental adjustments to the same diagram. If we take North to be to the right, and
reverse the direction of the main-field arrows, we have created the southern- hemisphere
setting. The shape of the induced, anomalous field will be the same, but the direction will
reverse as a consequence. The outcome is that the profile will have exactly the same
shape! A generalisation is that, where there is an isolated anomaly due to magnetisation
by induction, the maximum will always be on the equator side of the anomaly, and the
minimum will be on the pole side.
What does the anomaly look like if we take the profile EW rather than NS, in any of these cases?

From this simple set of examples, you now see that it is indeed more difficult to visually
interpret magnetic anomalies than gravity anomalies. These visual problems, however,
present
32
no problem for the computer modeling algorithms used to model magnetic anomalies. You
simply need to incorporate the location of your survey into the modeling algorithm to
generate an appropriate magnetic model.

Consider two magnetic anomalies arising from buried magnetized bodies:

For the two anomalies shown above, A has short wave length compared with anomaly B, indicating
that the magnetic body causing anomaly A is shallower than the body causing B. As the amplitude of
anomaly B is identical to that of anomaly A, despite the causative body being deeper, this must
suggest that the magnetization of body B is much greater than for body A, as amplitude decreases
with increasing separation of the sensor from the magnetized object.

Some general guidelines for the qualitative interpretation of magnetic profiles and maps are listed in
table below and an example in figure 13.

Table: Guidelines to qualitative interpretation of magnetic profiles and maps

33
Figure 13: Magnetic anomaly map associated with a fault-bounded sedimentary basin with
upthrown horst block to south-east.

Profiles
The simplest interpretation technique is to identify zones with different magnetic
characteristics. Segments of profile with little variation are termed magnetically ‘quiet’ and
are associated with rocks with low susceptibilities. Segments showing considerable variation
are called magnetically ‘noisy’ and indicate magnetic sources in the sub-surface. The relative
amplitudes of any magnetic anomalies (both positive and negative) and the local magnetic
gradients can all help to provide an indication of the sub-surface.
Figure 14 below illustrates the difference between noisy and quiet zones in a typical profile,
where the magnetically noisy segments indicate metalliferous mineralisation.

Figure 14: Magnetic zonation of a proton magnetometer profile

34
The negative profile occurring as the northern part of the doublet indicates that there is little
remanent magnetisation and that the anomaly is due largely to induction (Ji >> Jr).

QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION

The essence of quantitative interpretation is to obtain information about the depth to a

particular magnetic body, its shape and size, and details about its magnetisation in
two possible ways.
(i) Direct, where the field data are interpreted to yield a physical model.
(ii) Inverse method, where models are generated from which synthetic
magnetic anomalies are generated and fitted statistically against the
observed data.
The degree of detail is limited by the quality and amount of available data and by the
sophistication of either the manual methods or the computer software that can be used.

Anomalies due to different geometric forms

Just as with gravity data, magnetic data can be interpreted in terms of specific geometric
forms which approximate to the shapes of sub-surface magnetised bodies. This tends to be
true where profiles are to be interpreted only in terms of two dimensions. Three dimensional
models are far more complex and can be used to approximate to irregularly shaped bodies.
The commonest shapes used are the sphere and the dipping sheet, both of which are assumed
to be uniformly magnetised and, in the simplest cases, have no remanence.
We consider as an example, the case of a uniformly magnetised sphere, the horizontal and
vertical components are shown in addition to the total field anomaly.

Figure 15: Horizontal and vertical component and the total field over a uniformly magnetised
Sphere.

35
The anomaly shape changes considerably with strike direction, from being a positive-
negative doublet when the dyke is striking east-west (with negative on the norther side) to
being a single symmetric positive peak when the dyke strikes north-south.

Figure: 15:

In all cases, when an inductively magnetised body of regular shape is oriented north-south, its
anomaly is symmetric.

The effects on anomaly shape caused by changing the depth to the top of a vertical
magnetised dyke are illustrated in figure 16.

Figure 16: Total field anomalies over 10 m vertical sheet-like body oriented east-west and
buried at depths of 20 m, 60 m and 110 m; the position of the magnetised body is
indicated

36
With increasing depth, the anomaly decreases in amplitude and widens.

Simple Depth Estimation

It is possible to obtain a very approximate estimate of depth to a magnetic body using the
shape of the anomaly. By referring to either a simple sphere or horizontal cylinder, the width
of the
main peak at half its maximum value
𝛿𝐹 is very crudely equal to the depth to the centre
( 𝑚𝑎𝑥⁄2 of the magnetic body.

Figure 17: Simple graphical method to estimate the depth to the top of a magnetised body.

The simplest rule of thumb to determine depth is to measure the horizontal extent, d, of the
approximately linear segment of the main peak (see figure 17). This distance is
approximately equal to the depth (to within ±20% ).

Peters’ Half slope method

A more theoretically based graphical method was devised by Peters (1949) and is known as
Peters’ half slope method. (see figure 18).
A tangent (Line 1) is drawn to the point of maximum slope and, using a right-angled triangle
construction, a line (Line 2) with half the slope of the original tangent is constructed. Two
further lines with the same slope as Line 2 are then drawn where they form tangents to the
anomaly (Line 3 and 4). The horizontal distance, d, between these two tangents is a measure
of the depth to the magnetic body.
The depth to the top of the magnetised body is
(𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)⁄
𝑧= 𝑛 8.
Where, d is the horizontal distance between half-slope tangents;
1.2 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 2, but usually n = 1.6, 𝛼 is the angle subtended by the normal to the strike of the
magnetic anomaly and true north.

For instance, if d = 24 m, n = 1.6, 𝛼 = 100, then 𝑧 ≈ 15 𝑚.

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Figure 18: Peters’ Half-slope method of determining the depth to the top of a magnetised dyke.

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