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Cerebellum- Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and visual and

equilibrium pathways.

Corpora quadrigemina- Largest midbrain nuclei, raise four domelike protrusions on the dorsal midbrain
surface.
corpus callosum- One very large fiber tract, the corpus callosum, connects the cerebral hemispheres;
such fiber tracts are called commissures.

Hypothalamus- makes up the floor of the diencephalon; it is an important autonomic nervous system
center because it plays a role in the regulation of body temperature, water balance, and metabolism; it is
also the center for many drives and emotions, and as such, it is an important part of the so-called limbic
system or “emotional-visceral brain”; the hypothalamus also regulates the pituitary gland and produces
two hormones of its own.

Medulla- most inferior part of the brain stem. It blends imperceptibly into the spinal cord at the level of
the foramen magnum of the skull.

Midbrain
- Located between the diencephalon and pons.
- Extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly
- It is composed of two bulging fiber tracts. The cerebral.

Pons- rounded structure that protrudes just below the midbrain, and this area of the brain stem is
mostly fiber tracts; however, it does have important nuclei involved in the control of breathing.

Thalamus- which encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain, is a relay station for sensory impulses
passing upward to the sensory cortex.

1. Study the anatomy of left cerebral hemisphere and know how to locate at least 5 different
functional areas and specific functions.
2. difference/s between autonomic and somatic nervous system basis of functional classification
of neurons

 The somatic nervous system (SoNS) is the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with
the voluntary control of body movements through the skeletal muscles and mediation of
involuntary reflex arcs.
 The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls
visceral functions that occur below the level of consciousness.

3. The functional classification of neurons is based on the direction the action potential (i.e.
information) travel relative to the central nervous system. Afferent neurons convey information
from tissues and organs into the central nervous system (e.g. sensory neurons). Efferent neurons
transmit signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to the effector cells (e.g. motor
neurons ). Afferent and efferent also refer generally to neurons that bring information to or send
information from a brain region. Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the
central nervous system.
Basis of Functional classification of neurons
sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.
4. Diff between cranial and spinal nerves
Cranial nerves are mixed nerves, where they carry both sensory and motor fibers whereas spinal nerves
are mixed nerves. Cranial nerves are involved in vision, sense of the smell, hearing, sense of taste and
eye movements. Spinal nerves are involved in movement, sensation and sweat secretion.
5. three functions of the skeletal system
 Support. Bones, the “steel girders” and “reinforced concrete” of the body, form the internal
framework that supports the body and cradle its soft organs; the bones of the legs act as pillars
to support the body trunk when we stand, and the rib cage supports the thoracic wall.
 Protection. Bones protect soft body organs; for example, the fused bones of the skull provide a
snug enclosure for the brain, the vertebrae surround the spinal cord, and the rib cage helps
protect the vital organs of the thorax.
 Movement. Skeletal muscles, attached to bones by tendons, use the bones as levers to move
the body and its parts.

6. four phases of fracture repair


1. Hematoma formation.
2. Granulation tissue formation.
3. Bony callus formation.
4. Bone remodeling.
7. Diagram the normal spinal curvatures and the curvatures seen in scoliosis
8. structure of compact bone differ from that of spongy bone
Compact bone is a robust and heavy bony structure that forms the diaphysis of long bones,
whereas spongy bone is a soft and smooth bony structure that forms the epiphysis of long
bones.
9. isotonic and isometric contractions differ

 Isometric: A muscular contraction in which the length of the muscle does not change.
 isotonic: A muscular contraction in which the length of the muscle changes.

10. skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle based on six characteristics
Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical, multinucleated, striated, and under voluntary control.
Smooth muscle cells are spindle shaped, have a single, centrally located nucleus, and lack striations.
They are called involuntary muscles.
Cardiac muscle has branching fibers, one nucleus per cell, striations, and intercalated disks.
Its contraction is not under voluntary control.

11. when is oxygen deficit happening


An oxygen deficit occurs when the body needs more oxygen than that which is immediately available to
produce energy. This means that the body is not getting enough oxygen from breathing and must find
another way to make up the difference.

12. How does a Schwann cell help insulate a nerve fiber


Schwann cells are the glial cells of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). They insulate axons by forming a
specialized extension of plasma membrane called the myelin sheath.
13. How nerve impulses are initiated and transmitted
A nerve impulse begins when a neuron receives a chemical stimulus. The nerve impulse travels
down the axon membrane as an electrical action potential to the axon terminal. The axon
terminal releases neurotransmitters that ca rry the nerve impulse to the next cell.
14. why conduction at synapses is always one-way

Conduction at synapses is always one-way because when the voltage passes through a neuron, it induces
an action potential that travels down its length. This means that if the voltage is passed through one side
of a synapse, it cannot return through the same path.
15. function of intervertebral discs
The inter- vertebral disc serves primarily to allow movement between adjacent vertebral bodies, to
absorb shock, and to transmit loads through the vertebral column.

16. Fibrous joints contain fibrous connective tissue and cannot move; fibrous joints include sutures,
syndesmoses, and gomphoses.
Cartilaginous joints contain cartilage and allow very little movement; there are two types of
cartilaginous joints: synchondroses and symphyses.

17. 4 distinguishing features of all synovial joints

 Synovial fluid
 Articular capsule
 Articular cartilage
 Reinforcing ligaments
 Joint cavity or capsules
 Reinforcing ligaments
 Nerves and blood vessels

18. major function of muscle

1. Producing movement. Mobility of the body as a whole reflects the activity of the
skeletal muscles, which are responsible for all locomotion; they enable us to respond
quickly to changes in the external environment.
2. Maintaining posture. We are rarely aware of the skeletal muscles that maintain body
posture, yet they function almost continuously, making one tiny adjustment after
another so that we can maintain an erect or seated posture despite the never-ending
downward pull of gravity.
3. Stabilizing joints. As the skeletal muscles pull on bones to cause movements, they also
stabilize the joints of the skeleton; muscle tendons are extremely important in
reinforcing and stabilizing joints that have poorly fitting articulating surfaces.
4. Generating heat. The fourth function of muscle, generation of body heat, is a by-
product of muscle activity; as ATP is used to power muscle contraction, nearly three-
quarters of its energy escape as heat and this heat is vital in maintaining normal body
temperature.

19. Why are the connective tissue wrappings of skeletal muscles important
Connective tissue wrappings of skeletal muscle provide support and protection to the muscle. They help
to keep it in place and maintain its shape. Connective tissue wrappings of skeletal muscle help protect
the muscles from injury.

20. what happens to muscles when they are exercised regularly

When they are exercised regularly, muscles become more endurable. Endurance exercises, such as
aerobic exercise, makes fibers in the muscles produce more mitochondria which results in increased
energy production thus enabling them to withstand longer periods of exercise. Additionally, this type of
exercise stimulates angiogenesis therefore providing more oxygen to the cells in the muscle fiber,
essential for energy generation through oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria.

Resistance exercises, such as lifting weights stimulates generation of sarcomeres myofibrils which
increase muscle thickness. This results in a state called hypertrophy. There is no increased angiogenesis
nor mitochondria counts in these muscles. But, resistance exercise contributes to formation of
connective tissue around the muscles which causes them to become more massive and contains their
structure throughout short periods of strenuous exercise.

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