Def Physio
Def Physio
Def Physio
TERMINOLOGY:
Absorption – the intake of water, and nutrients in the roots and leaves or any part of the
plant.
Accumulation – concentration of ions or substances inside the cell or organ.
Accumulation ratio – ratio of the amount of ions or substances inside the cell to the
amount of ions outside the cell (external solution)
Acid – a substance that can donate a proton.
Active absorption – movement of nutrients, substance or dissolved materials into the
cell or organ against an electrochemical potential gradient
Active mechanism – process that requires expenditure of energy
Adsorption – the concentration and accumulation of ions or molecules of a substance
at a surface or interface.
Allocation – metabolic fate of carbon either newly assimilated in the source leaf or
delivered to a sink.
Amino acids – organic compounds containing amino and carboxylic groups; building
blocks of protein
Amphoteric compound – a compound which can either donate or accept a proton and
has the properties of both acid and base
Anabolism – synthesis of complex molecules from simpler substances
Antagonism – presence or excess of one ion impairs the absorption of another ion or
induces a deficiency of another.
Antiport – linked movement of two entities in opposite directions at the same site in a
protoplasmic membrane.
Apical dominance – inhibition of lateral buds by the apex or apical meristem
Assimilation – metabolic transformation of simple nutrients and substances to organic
plant constituents.
Base – a substance that can accept a proton (H+).
Buffer solutions – solutions which can resist abrupt changes in pH
Catabolism – breakdown of complex molecules into simpler substances.
Cell – basic unit of life.
Cell wall – layer of material chiefly elongated polymers laid down outside the plasma
membrane to protect the protoplast and limit its expansion.
Chloroplast – a plastid that contains chlorophyll pigment that absorb light energy during
photosynthesis.
Cohesion – strong mutual attraction between water molecules resulting from hydrogen
bonding.
Hereditary
Potentialities Environment
TREE GROWTH
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Absorption
Translocation
Transpiration
etc.
Kleb’s Concept - emphasizes that the only way in which heredity and environment
can affect growth of an organism is by affecting its internal
processes and conditions.
Vascular tissues:
1) xylem – water conducting tissue
a. xylem fibers
b. xylem parenchyma
c. tracheary elements
tracheid
vessel elements
2) phloem – food conducting tissue
a. sieve tube members
b. companion cells
c. phloem parenchyma
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are a group of organic compounds containing the elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 or approaching the empirical formula of
(CH2O) n.
Carbohydrates that participate in metabolic reaction are generally present as
monosaccharide such as glucose, whereas the storage and structural carbohydrates
are found as polysaccharides.
Importance of Carbohydrates:
1. It represents an important food reserve or as a means for storage of the energy
trapped from the sun through photosynthesis (food storage function).
2. Forms the supporting tissue of the plant enabling it to achieve erect growth
(structural function).
3. Provides the carbon skeleton for most if not all of the organic compounds that make
up a plant.
Classification:
a) Monosaccharide – carbohydrate monomer
1. Triose sugars – 3 carbon sugar; the simplest monosaccharide; serve as
important intermediates in photosynthesis and respiration
2. Tetrose – 4 carbon sugar (erythrose); respiratory intermediates; use in the
synthesis of phenylalamine, tyrosine, lignin and anthocyanin pigment; exists in
phosphorylated form.
Structural polysaccharides:
Cellulose
Hemicellulose; mannans and xylans
Pectin
Gums and muscilages
Types:
a) Pectic acid – unbranched molecules consisting of about 100 D-galacturonic acid
residues bound together by (1-4) linkages
b) Pectins – closely resemble pectic acid, except that many of the carboxyl groups are
methylated.
c) Protopectins – insoluble pectic substances
Hemicellulose - cellulose-like and can be extracted from cell walls with a strong base.
Gums and muscilages - hydrophillic (not hygroscopic) polymers of rhamnose arabinose,
xylose, galactose, glucuronic acid
LIPIDS
Lipids (Gp. Lipos; fat) are a rather mixed group of compounds that have the
characteristic of being hydrophobic.
They are soluble in organic solvents such as acetone, chloroform and others, but
sparingly in water.
Group of Lipids:
1) neutral lipids
2) phospholipids – component of cellular membrane
3) glycolipids – component of chloroplast membrane
4) terpenoids
5) waxes
Importance of lipids:
Neutral lipids including fats and oils function primarily as storage molecules.
Phospholipids and glycolipids function as structural lipids because they are
components of membranes.
PROTEINS
Proteins - are large and complex molecules with high molecular weight and considered
as the ultimate translational product of RNA.
Functions of Protein
Regulate cellular metabolism by acting as catalyst in various chemical reactions
taking place in living cell (regulatory function).
Serve as structural components of membranes and cell walls. Most structural
proteins of plants have regulatory functions as well (structural function).
Storage molecules especially in seeds i.e. zein (storage function)
Types/Classification of Protein:
1. Simple
a) Protamines - small, water-soluble proteins with high number of basic amino
acids, soluble in ammonia, uncoagulable by heat.
b) Albumins - common proteins of plants and animals that are soluble in water and
dilute salt; readily precipitated by saturated (NH4)2SO4 coagulable by heat (i.e. -
amylase)
c) Histones - large, water soluble proteins with high number of basic amino acids;
arginine and lysine rich protein.
d) Globulins - common proteins of plant and animals that are insoluble in water but
soluble in dilute salt solution; precipitated by ½ saturated (NH4)2 SO4 solutions
(i.e. -amylase).
e) Glutelins - plant proteins that are insoluble in water and dilute salt solution (i.e.
Oryzenin from rice).
f) Prolamins - plant proteins found in seeds that are soluble in 70-80% alcohol
solution; insoluble in water and salt solution (i.e. zein from corn).
2. Conjugated protein – protein with prosthetic grp.
a) Mucoprotein or glycoprotein – protein with carbohydrate moiety; plays an
important role in cell recognition system and cell defense against fungi and
microorganisms.
b) Lipoprotein - with lipid group
c) Nucleoprotein - with nucleic acid group; involved in transmission of information
during nuclear division and protein synthesis.
d) Chromoprotein - with chromatophore (pigment) grp.
e) Metalloprotein - with metal group (i.e. calcium, potassium, etc.)
Type of inhibition:
1. Competitive inhibition - structural analogs compete with the normal substrate for
active sites on the enzymes
2. Non-competitive inhibition - non-competitive inhibitors do not compete with the active
sites on the enzyme, but reacts either with parts of the enzyme not involve in
catalytic activity or with the enzyme-substrate complex.
3. Only 5.8% of the total light energy which strikes the leaves is converted to chemical
free energy of organic compounds.
4. Quantum requirement: 4 to 8 quanta of light is needed to evolve one volume of
oxygen or reduce one volume of CO2
5. Portion of the spectrum between 400nm and 700nm is called photosynthetically
active radiation (PAR).
6. Blue and red light are absorbed by the chlorophyll.
7. Photosynthetic pigments
a. chlorophyll – a magnesium porphyrin with a long hydrocarbon phytol tail.
b. Carotenoids – linear tetraterpenoids which are usually red, orange, yellow or
brown in color; includes carotenes and xantophyll
b.1. Function
a. prevent photo-oxidation of chlorophyll
b. serves as accessory pigment for gathering light and transferring energy
to chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll a – universally present in all photosynthetic plants and serves as the
primary energy trap during photosynthesis
Properties of Pigment
Properties Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Carotenoids
Structure of side Methyl group Aldehyde group ---
chain at ring II (CH3) (HC=O)
Importance:
1. Produces ATP and reductants (NADPH) for the reduction of CO 2 to
carbohydrate level.
2. Provides continuous supply of ATP to support a variety of other metabolic
activities in the chloroplast.
Types:
1. Cyclic photophosphorylation – involves production of ATP; electrons
cycled back to P700; associated with photosystem I (PSI)
2. Non-cyclic – electrons from water are transported in a unidirectional
manner to ferredoxin (Fd) and reduce NADP; involves production of ATP
and reduction of NADP.
3. Pseudocyclic – electrons are transferred from Fd back to oxygen reducing
it to water and in the process ATP may be produced.
Illumination of chloroplast with long wavelength stops non-cyclic
photophosphorylation, thus, NADPH is no longer formed and CO2
assimilation is retarded.
Emerson Enhancement Effect – states that the effect of two
superimposed beams of light on the rate of photosynthesis exceeds
the sum effect of both beams used separately.
Red drop – decrease in quantum yield at wavelength greater than 680
nm, an area of the spectrum occupied by the red wavelength.
Mineral Nutrients
Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll
Iron (Fe) and Copper (Cu) are cofactors in the electron flow
(photophosporylation)
Chlorine (Cl) and Manganese (Mn) are involved in Hill reaction.
Phosphorous (P) is needed in ATP production
Chlorotic leaves have lower concentration of chlorophyll.
PHOTORESPIRATION
A light-dependent oxidation of organic compound (glycolate) to CO 2 occurring in
chlorophyllous tissues.
Represents a potentially serious loss of energy from a plant.
Over 30% of the carbon reduced during photosynthesis is reoxidized to CO 2 during
Pr. Thus, the process contributes to the reduction in dry matter accumulation and
ultimately yield.
For every mole of CO2 lost in Pr, 6 ATPs and 3 NADPH are consumed.
One ATP and 2 NADPH are still used for reassimilation of NH3
An increase in O2 concentration in the external environment will increase the amount
of glycolic acid synthesis in the illuminated leaves.
Organelles involved:
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
To sum up, 2 molecules of phosphoglycolic acid produced by oxygenase reactions
are converted to one molecule each of O2 and PGA.
Peroxisomes in C4 plants are present in the bundle sheath cells while in C3, numerous
peroxisomes occur in the mesophyll cells
Physical Properties
1. High heat of vaporization
a. Provides maximum cooling per unit water lost. Each gram of water lost by a leaf
requires 2258 joules hence, this much heat will be lost for each gram of water
transpired.
b. Minimize the lost of water.
2. High heat of fusion – heat required to change a solid to a liquid is high for water (ice)
compared to other substances
3. Extremely high surface tension- the tendency of the surface to contract and resemble
an elastic membrane is very high for water. Water droplets tend to form spheres, a
condition resulting in less energy per unit of surface relative to volume.
The energy associated with the surface is surface tension. The greater the surface
tension, the greater the rise of water in the capillary.
4. High specific heat (great heat capacity) – water has the highest specific heat among
the common liquids.
Importance:
a. Great heat capacity of water causes it to be a temperature buffer which protects
living things against violent changes in temperature
b. Water has a better storage capacity for heat than air. Living organism containing
large quantities of water tend to be protected from significant changes in
temperature due to small changes in heat load.
5. Viscosity – resistance to flow is higher in water than in most liquids due to hydrogen
bonding. Viscosity decreases with increasing temperatures.
6. Volume and density
a. Water is more dense at 4 C and less dense above and below 4 C. As
temperature increases or decreases from 4 C, the volume occupied by 1 g of
water increases.
b. Water is less dense as a solid than as a liquid.
c. Water expands when it freezes while all other substances contract upon cooling
and freezing
WATER POTENTIAL
1. Principle involved in water transport: Water moves from a region of higher free
energy (high water potential) to a region of low free energy (low water potential) or
simply stated “Water runs downhill”.
Free energy – energy available for work
2. Difference in water potential between the source and sink indicates the direction of
water flow.
3. Free energy of water in the sink must be less than the free energy in the source for
spontaneous water flow.
4. Basic unit for water potential is bar
a) 1 bar = 106 dynes/cm2; b) 0.987 bar = 1 atm
5. Two most important components of water potential
a) Osmotic potential (solute potential)
The decrease in water potential brought about by substances either in ionic
or non-ionic form in the solution is referred to as solute potential
Solute potential takes the place of osmotic pressure expressed in bars with
positive sign while osmotic potential has negative sign. When solute potential
decrease, the solution becomes more negative
Pressure Potential () or turgor pressure – In an osmotic system, water will
flow from higher concentration to a lower concentration on a water
potential gradient.
The pressure normally exerted in the contents of a plant cell is mainly due to
the tensile strength and elastic stretch of the cell wall. The hydrostatic
pressure that develops in the vacuole as a result of inwardly directed wall
pressure is called turgor pressure.
Turgor pressure is the outwardly directed pressure exerted by the contents of
the cell on the cell wall. It is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the pressure of the cell wall.
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration – is the water loss in vapor form through the aerial parts of the plant
Type of Transpiration:
1) Stomatal – accounts for 90% or more water loss
2) Lenticular
3) Cuticular
Importance:
Lowers the internal temperature of leaves during hot days, since evaporation of liquid
exerts cooling effect. On bright days, transpiration may lower the leaf temperature
by 20 o.
Furnishes a pull in the leaves that is principally responsible for the rise of sap in the
plants.
Rapid transpiration favors a corresponding rapid absorption of nutrient ions from the
soil.
Disadvantages:
Causes excessive loss of water resulting in wilting and oftentimes death of the
plants. If transpiration outbalances absorption, wilting is inevitable.
Stomatal Movement
The degree of stomatal opening is influenced by changes in the turgor pressure of
the guard cells and epidermal cells, especially those adjacent to the guard cells. In
general, an increase in the turgor pressure of the guard cells relative to epidermal
cells leads to the widening of stomatal aperture.
The usual diurnal pattern in the movement of the stomates indicates that guard cells
are more turgid during daylight than during nighttime. Osmotic potential of guard
cells is usually more negative during daytime than nighttime.
N Constituent of amino acids, amides, Leaf changes color from green to pale
proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides and green; in severe deficiency, the color
coenzymes, hexoseamines, purines, changes to lemon yellow and finally to
purimidines. Proteins consist of 18%N; yellow; stunted growth.
70% leaf N is in chloroplast.
P Component of sugar phosphates, nucleic Leaf color changes to slightly pale then
acids, nucleotides, co-enzymes, to dark green; red or purple coloration at
phospholipids, phytic acid, etc. Has key the base of the stem or at the leaf midrib.
role in reactions in which ATP is involved. Gradually, the leaf color changes to dull
grayish green. Sign of burning or
necrosis appears along the leaf margin.
K Required as a cofactor for 40 or more Leaf color changes to slightly ash-gray at
enzymes. Has a role in stomatal the tips, gradually spreading over the leaf
movements. Maintains electro-neutrality in margin. Necrosis lesions beginning at
plant cells. Promotes translocation of the older leaf tips gradually progressing
photosynthates from leaves. Involves in along the margins to the younger cells
osmotic and ionic balance. near the leaf base.
S Component of cysteine, cystine, Generalized chlorosis
methionine, and thus of proteins.
Constituent of lipoic acid, coenzyme A,
thiaminepyrophosphate, gluthionin, biotin,
adenosine-5’-phosphosulfate and 3’-
phosphoadenosine, 5’-phos-phosulfate and
other compounds. Volatile compounds
containing contri-bute to the odors of
onions, mustard, etc.
Ca A constituent of the middle lamella of cell Initial necrosis will appear on top of the
walls as Ca pectate. Required as a new leaves or the upper portion of the
cofactor by some enzymes involved in the outer edges and does not develop over
hydrolysis of ATP and phos-pholipids. Ca the entire leaf. Most severe in new
is a metal in the metalloenzyme, amylase. leaves; formation of black spot at the
Needed for germination and growth of center of the new plant because of tissue
pollen tube. Acts as counter-ion for necrosis.
negative charges. Maintains membrane
per-meability.
Diffusible ions
Outer space =
External concentration
Where:
Diffusible ion (DI) – umole/g. fresh weight
External concentration (EC) – umole/ml
Outer space (OP) – ml/g. f.w.
1. Ion exchange – ions are adsorbed on the surface of the cell walls and may exchange
with ions from the external solution.
2. Donnan equilibrium – takes into account the effect of fixed or indiffusible ions. The
membrane is permeable to some ions and the inner side of the membrane has
anions to which the membrane is impermeable (fixed anion).
3. Mass flow – ions move through the roots along with water. Increase transpiration
increases ion absorption.
4. Adsorption – accumulation of ions at interfaces. In many ways, roots act as a
sponge in the absorption of ions. Most substances in contact with water assume a
negative charge, including roots. The site of the charge.
5. Diffusion – the simplest process by which ions enter a cell or root. In diffusion, there
is net movement of ions from the region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
Plant hormones
1. Auxins
2. Gibberellins
3. Cytokinins
4. Abscissic acid
5. Ethylene – gaseous hormones
Causes of senescence
1. Competition for nutrients
2. Production of inhibitors
3. Change in enzyme pattern – more catabolic than anabolic reactions
Translocation - movement of materials from cell to cell, tissue to tissue and organ to
organ within the plants.
Salt movement outside the vascular system can occur in three ways:
1. Active transport in the cytoplasm
2. Diffusion
3. Mass movement in transpiration stream
ACCUMULATION
Accumulation of reserve food is very important for growth and survival of a tree.
This is particularly true for deciduous trees where the maintenance of life during summer
and resumption of growth during the wet season are entirely dependent on food
accumulated during the previous season.
Role of mycorrhiza
1. absorption of nutrients – phosphorous is the main nutrient involved
2. increase absorption of water
3. helps in biological control of pathogenic organisms
4. promotes nodulation and nitrogen fixation
5. improves soil aggregation
6. promotes nutrient cycling
7. production of growth promoting hormones which improve plant growth