ATP

 Composed of three phosphate groups which are negatively charged

 having the same charge will tend to repel from each other
 the third phosphate group is the most eager to get away
 bond between them is broken through hydrolysis (water-mediated breakdown) reaction
releasing energy; remaining group is called adenosine diphosphate
 Pi stands for inorganic phosphate group; ATP is hydrolyzed in the ff reaction;
ATP+H2O↔ADP+Pi+energy

ATP-ADP Cycle

 The hydrolysis of ATP and ADP is reversible

 main example of them is charged and uncharged batteries respectively
 ATP is used to power cellular processes or reactions; ADP needs to be recharged again
 ATP regeneration is the reverse of hydrolysis; ADP+Pi+energy↔ ATP+H2O
 When ATP is broken down, energy is released and ADP is formed
 When ADP binds with another phosphate group, energy is stored and ATP is formed
 (carbs) energy: 1 glucose is 36 ATP molecules; are most commonly broken down to make ATP,
not stored in large
 (fats/lipids) energy: 146 ATP molecules (triglyceride); stored most of our energy and 80% of
energy in our body
 (proteins) about 36 ATP molecules; least likely to be broken down for ATP and amino acids not
usually needed for energy

ATP in energy coupling

 Hydrolysis of ATP also results in the overheating of organisms due to dissipation of energy that
excites nearby molecules which also results in heat or thermal energy
 Energy in cells needs to be linked to other processes to be useful
 Energy coupling is the transfer of energy from one chemical reaction to another
 An energetically favorable reaction is exergonic directly linked with;
 An energetically unfavorable reaction which is endergonic
 Through energy coupling, the cell can perform nearly all of the tasks it needs to function.
 Chemical reactions can be classified as either exergonic (energy outward) or endergonic (energy
inward)
 Exergonic reaction - proceeds with a net release of free energy
 Endergonic reaction - one that absorbs free energy from its surrounding

The Importance of Chlorophyll and Other Pigments

 Absorbs light from sun

 The structure and number of pigments determine the variations in color
 chlorophyll pigment help make photosynthesis happen by absorbing light energy to put
together carbon dioxide and water to form glucose/food
  All colors of visible light except green are absorbed by chlorophyll
 If all colors or wavelengths of visible light are absorbed and none are reflected, the pigment
appears black
 if all colors or wavelengths of light are reflected, the pigment appears white

Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

 Chlorophyll is found in Chloroplasts

 The visible light spectrum ranges from red (the longest wavelength) to violet (the shortest
wavelength)
 Chlorophyll a is the core pigment for light-dependent photosynthesis, absorbing violet/blue and
red light

Accessory pigments

 Chlorophyll b: Absorbs more in the blue and orange-red ranges, looks yellowish green, and
transfers energy to chlorophyll a.
 Carotenoids: Absorb light from violet to greenish-blue, appear yellow or yellow-orange, and
efficiently transfers absorbed photons to chlorophyll a.
 Anthocyanins: Do not participate in photosynthesis, appear red, purple, or blue, and protect
against excessive sunlight in leaves.
 Xanthophylls: Pass along light energy to chlorophyll a, act as antioxidants, and produce the
yellow color in fall leaves.
 Mesophyll cells in leaves contain chloroplasts, where photosynthetic pigments are located.
 Accessory pigments stored in vacuoles explain the varied colors of leaves, Accessory pigments
are crucial for absorbing light and transferring energy to chlorophyll a during photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, certain other protists and some prokaryotes
 Requirements for photosynthesis:
1. Inorganic molecules (carbon dioxide and water)
2. Light energy
3. Chlorophyll inside the chloroplast

Two phases of photosynthesis

 Light reaction – occurs in thylakoids membranes

 Dark reaction or Calvin cycle – happens in stroma

CO2 and water

  CO2 from the atmosphere will enter into the leaves of the plants through the stomates
 Water from soil will enter into the roots thorough the root hairs

Sunlight

 When the white light from the sun passes through a prism it produces rainbow colors
 Two colors are used for photosynthesis, the blue and red that are trapped by the chlorophyll a
and b (P680 and p700).
 Most of the colors are reflected to the environment

Chloroplasts: the sites of photosynthesis in plants

 The leaves of plants are the major sites of photosynthesis

 Composed of:
1. Outer membrane
2. Inner membrane
3. Stroma that contains small circular DNA and ribosomes; it’s the area for
dark reaction
4. Thylakoids are piled into granum, plural for granum is grana

Chlorophyll

 Chlorophyll A: main photosynthetic pigment

 Chlorophyll B: An accessory pigment
- When a pigment absorbs light, it goes from a ground stable to an excited status, which
is unstable
- Chloroplasts split water into hydrogen and oxygen, incorporating the electrons of
hydrogen into sugar molecules

ALTERNATE PATHWAY FOR CARBON FIXATION

Photorespiration

 is a wasteful pathway that occurs when the Calvin cycle enzyme rubisco acts on oxygen rather
than carbon dioxide.
 Is a series of reactions that start when the rubisco enzyme adds Oxygen rather than Carbon
dioxide to RuBP which prevents the Calvin cycle from synthesizing sugar, reducing
photosynthetic efficiency.
 Therefore, they lose carbon dioxide wasting the ATP and NADPH along the process.
 to adapt/modify/adjust to photorespiration, there are alternate pathways for carbon fixation: C4
and CAM.

C4 PATHWAY
  the mesophyll cell captures more carbon dioxide using PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate) carboxylase.
 PEP carboxylase (3carbons) will bind to carbon dioxide to make oxaloacetic acid (OAA) which is
a 4-carbon molecule.
 this OAA will be quickly converted into malate(4-carbons) which will enter the bundle sheath
cells and will be broken down forming 3-carbon molecule pyruvate and releases the carbon
dioxide which requires more ATP.
 Using extra ATP, C4 plants can convert pyruvate back to PEP permitting the cycle to cycle
 Corn is a typical example of a C4 plant.

CAM

 Differ in C4: carbon is captured and sugar is synthesized in the same mesophyll cells at different
times of the day
 Open their stomata at night allowing CO2 to diffuse in the mesophyll cells while minimizing
water loss.
 At daytime, stomata are closed to reduce evapotranspiration. And this time the malate is
transported to chloroplasts, broken down and form pyruvate and releases CO2 will be fixed into
sugar by Calvin cycle. Some plants that are adapted to dry environments, such as cacti and
pineapples, use the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway to minimize photorespiration.
This name comes from the family of plants, the Crassulaceae family, in which scientists first
discovered the pathway.

C4 PATHWAY CAM

RESPIRATION

 THE PRODUCTS of Photosynthesis are used in cellular respiration.

 Pertains to the metabolic processes that occur in the cells converting energy from nutrients into
ATP.
  Biochemical pathway involving catabolic reactions (breaking large molecules into smaller
molecules) releasing energy in the process where weak “high-energy” bonds are replaced by
stronger bonds in the products.
 All living cells must carry out cellular respiration. It is one of the primary ways a cell releases
energy to fuel cellular activities as one of the primary ways a cell releases energy to fuel cellular
activities.
 It is considered as exothermic that releases heat.
 It can be Aerobic or Anaerobic.

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC

 Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to produce ATP. A characteristic of eukaryotic cells
when they have enough oxygen and most of it occurs in mitochondria.
 Anaerobic respiration is the release of a relatively small amount of energy in cells by the
breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen. It occurs in the cytoplasm of a
prokaryotic cell.

THREE PHASES OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION

A. Glycolysis
B. Krebs Cycle
C. Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis

Glycolysis

 Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of

glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism.
 “glyco” means sweet and “lysis” means split apart.
 It is a series of reactions that extract energy from
glucose (6-carbon sugar) by splitting it into two
molecules of pyruvate (3-carbon sugar) with the
production of 2ATP molecules.
 In this process, some of the electrons from glucose
are transferred to NADH, an electron carrier molecule.
 does not need oxygen and proceeds the same way
under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
 After this process, the ATP molecules are converted
to energy while the pyruvate molecules and the
NADH enter the mitochondria.

Krebs Cycle

 The Krebs cycle (named after Hans Adolf Krebs) is a part of cellular respiration. Its other names
are the citric acidity cycle, and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle). Carbon dioxide is a gas
resulting from decarboxylation reactions and an important ubiquity source of the catabolite is
the Krebs cycle.
 The “Krebs cycle” is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms in their energy
conversion processes. The Krebs cycle uses the two molecules of pyruvic acid formed in
glycolysis and yields high-energy molecules of NADH and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2), as
well as some ATP.
 The Krebs cycle comes after the link reaction and provides the hydrogen and electrons needed
for the electron transport chain. If this transfer does not occur, the oxidation steps of the citric
acid cycle also do not occur. It takes place inside mitochondria. It occurs in the mitochondrion of
a cell.
Primary functions of the electron transport chain (ETC):

 Proton Gradient Production: Generates a proton gradient, storing energy for ATP creation during
chemiosmosis.
 Electron Carrier Generation: Produces electron carriers (e.g., NAD+ and FAD) for use in glycolysis
and the citric acid cycle.
ATP synthase: Enzyme present in all domains of life, powered by a transmembrane proton
electrochemical gradient created by the ETC.

 Result of redox reactions: The series of redox reactions in the electron transport chain produces
the proton gradient, which is crucial for ATP synthesis.
 ATP utilization: ATP serves as the energy source for metabolic processes and cellular functions
within the cell.

Fermentation

Energy Production in Fermentation:

 Result: 2 ATP molecules.

 Comparison: Yields less energy than aerobic cellular respiration.
End Products of Fermentation (Organism-dependent):

 Bacteria, fungi, protists, and animal cells: Lactic acid, lactate, carbon dioxide, and water.

Definitions of Fermentation:

 Preservation methods for food via microorganisms (general use).

 Any process producing alcoholic beverages or acidic dairy products (general use).
 Large-scale microbial process occurring with or without air (common definition used in industry).
 Energy-releasing metabolic process under anaerobic conditions (more scientific).
 Metabolic process releasing energy from organic molecules, without oxygen or an electron
transport system, using an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor (most scientific).