Capitol University

Senior High School Department

Cagayan de Oro City

Practical Research 2
Lesson Packet
Topic: An Overview of Quantitative Research
Objectives: In this lesson packet, you will be able to do the following:
 Describe the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research
 Illustrate the importance of quantitative research across fields
 Compare qualitative research and quantitative research
 Discuss the different quantitative research designs
 Differentiate the kinds of variables and their uses
 Discuss the different scales of measurement of variables

Definition of Research
Ordinarily speaking, research is a general word used to describe an activity that involves a
systematic method of finding out things that either you do not know or no one else knows. Reading
an academic book is already considered research. Moreover, surfing the internet and watching the
news are activities that connote research. However, science does not use the term "research" the
way it is used in an ordinary setting. A more academic and formal definition of research is given by
various authors and authorities.
The American College Dictionary (1964) defines research as a diligent and systematic inquiry
or investigation about a subject or a particular topic with the primary goal of discovering facts or
principles. Research, according to Clarke (2005), refers to the conduct of a careful, systematic,
and objective investigation to obtain valid facts, draw conclusions, and establish principles
regarding an identifiable problem in some field of knowledge.
Best and Khan (2006) define research as the "systematic, objective analysis, and recording of
controlled observation that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, and theories,
resulting in predictions and ultimate control of many events that may be consequences or causes of
specific activities." Shone noted that any "systematic and unbiased way of solving a problem (by
answering questions or supporting hypotheses) through generating verifiable data describes the
term research."
Generally, research includes any systematic and objective activity of gathering data,
information, and facts for the advancement of the frontiers of knowledge. The Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) describes that the ultimate purpose of research is
to "increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture, and society, and the use
of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications."
Research emphasizes that collecting relevant facts and interpreting them are key to gaining
meaningful understanding of the world around us and even within us.

Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research

In any research undertaking, you will be required to either determine the frequency of things
of interpret the meaning of the experiences of people. From these two different activities, you can
derive the two major approaches in research: quantitative research and qualitative research.
Previously, you were introduced to qualitative research. Although there are instances that a
researcher will document the number of observations, the numerical data derived will be used to
obtain a qualitative description of the subject under investigation.
 The main intention of qualitative research is to build a complete and detailed
understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations of people for their particular action(s). It
also seeks to establish meaning and how people interpret their experiences and the occurrences in
the world around them. Qualitative research emphasizes the quality of information that can be used
to gather insights about a phenomenon from the perspectives of those who experience it.
Not everything in this world can be quantified. Qualitative research studies can uncover details
about human behavior, emotions, and personality characteristics that quantitative research cannot
match.
Quantitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with data that are quantifiable or
measurable. In other words, it deals with numbers. It uses measurable data to formulate facts and
uncover patterns that explain a particular phenomenon. Figure 1.1 summarizes the description of
quantitative research.
Quantitative Research

Deals with Measurable

numbers data

Figure 1.1. Description of quantitative research

In general, quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of a phenomenon

and involves gathering numerical data; performing statistical, mathematical, or computational
techniques on the data gathered; and deriving a generalization of the results based on the sample
taken from the population of interest. Numerical data may be collected through polls,
questionnaires, surveys, or experiments. Quantitative research, and also qualitative research,
emphasizes the objective collection of data and appropriate analysis of these data using statistical,
mathematical, or numerical tools to derive a valid generalization or inference.
In quantitative research, why must researchers collect data objectively and analyze these data
using statistical or mathematical tools appropriately?
Both types of research, qualitative and quantitative, vary widely. They differ not only in the
types of data involved and their results but also in other important aspects. Table 1.1 provides a
clear breakdown of the distinction between qualitative research and quantitative research by
McDonald and Headlam (2009).
Aspect Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Aim The aim is a complete, detailed The aim is to count the things to explain
description of what is observed. what is observed.

Purpose Contextualization, interpretation, Inferences, cause-effect relationship,

understanding perspectives application of the study results involving a
sample of the population under
consideration (generalizability).

Tools Researchers use surveys, among Researcher uses surveys and scientific
others, to collect data. experiments, among others, to collect
numerical data.
Data Unstructured Structured
Collection

Output Textual data are generated. Numerical data are generated.

Sample Statistical sampling Statistical Sampling

Objective/ Subjective—data obtained depends Objective—data are obtained though precise

Subjective on the individual interpretations of measurement and quantitative analysis.
events

Role of the Researcher tends to become Researcher tends to remain objectively

Researcher subjectively immersed in the subject separated from the subject matter.
matter.

Analysis Interpretive or exploratory Statistical

Table 1.1. Distinction between Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research

Although quantitative and qualitative studies differ in many aspects, they can be both applied
effectively in research undertakings to gather information and derive understanding of an observed
phenomenon or a particular situation in the community or the world.

Although quantitative and qualitative studies have clear differences, they are similar in the
following aspects according to Bechman (2009):
1. Empirical research is aimed at creating new knowledge.
2. Research creates knowledge by observing phenomena.
3. All the variables of interest can only be inferred from observing what people do or say in a given
setting.
4. All researchers are concerned about generalizability—they desire to find meaning for the research
results beyond a particular study.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

There are eight major characteristics of quantitative research that distinguish it from
qualitative research according to Bhasin (2019). These important characteristics are summarized in
figure 1.2.
Characteristics of Quantitaive Research

Large Close- Generalization Prior

Structured Highly Reusable Numerical
sample research reliable ended of the outcome study
outcome outcome
size methods outcome questions

Figure 1.2 Characteristics of quantitative research

1. Large sample size. The primary characteristic of quantitative research is that it uses a large
sample size to conduct research; hence, the results are based on a large sample size that is
representative of the population.
2. Structured research methods. All aspects of quantitative research are carefully planned and
designed before they are implemented. Quantitative research uses structured research methods,
such as surveys, observations, and experimentations. Data are gathered through structured
research instruments, such as questionnaires, test instruments, rating scales, and checklists.
These instruments are standardized and pretested and provide direction in gathering accurate,
reliable, and valid data. Tools, such as computer software, are also used by researchers to collect
and analyze data.
3. Highly reliable outcome. The use of research instruments that gather specific and measurable
responses from the sample or population makes quantitative research quite reliable. There is a
small chance of obtaining vague information. Data gathered through quantitative research are in
the form of numbers and statistics. Often, these data are organized and presented using tables,
graphs, or figures that clearly show patterns, relationships, or comparisons between the variables.
In this way, readers can easily understand the information in the research study.
4. Reusable outcome. The outcome of quantitative research can be used several times. So, the data
collected for a particular study can be used in succeeding studies of another related research
problem. Doing such can save money and time required to conduct the research. Also, given that
quantitative research is highly reliable, it can be replicated or repeated. Researchers can repeat or
replicate the research to confirm or verify the results of previous studies. In addition, the results of
previous studies can be used to support or strengthen the results of a new but related research.
5. Close-ended questions. Quantitative research has clearly defined research questions to which
objective answers are sought. Data-gathering instruments, therefore, contain close-ended
questions. These questions solicit measurable characteristics of the sample or population that are
specific and aligned with the research objectives. Examples of close-ended questions are "What is
your average grade in mathematics? and "How much is your daily allowance?" These questions are
answerable with numbers that can be used to derive meaningful conclusions.
6. Numerical outcome. The outcome of quantitative research is always numerical in form. The data
gathered through relevant research instruments can be managed and presented using frequency,
percentage, range, and others. Tables, graphs, or figures can be used as well to summarize these
numerical data, making data easier to read, understand, and interpret.
Statistics is viewed as a challenging field. However, when fully understood, statistical
analyses allow researchers to derive important facts from research data; including preferences,
trends, differences between groups, and demographics.
7. Generalization of outcome. Quantitative research involves many representative samples taken
from a population of interest. The results of quantitative research based on the data gathered from
the samples provide a scientific basis to form a generalization for the whole population. Also, the
data obtained from the samples can be used to predict future results or establish causal
relationships.
8. Prior study. Many researchers that employ quantitative research methods review and analyze
the outcomes or results of previous related studies to provide a strong framework or support for
their research problem. These outcomes or results justify the need to investigate the current
research problem.
Strengths of Quantitative Research
Babbie (2010) enumerates the following specific strengths of using quantitative research to study or
investigate research problems;
1. Quantitative research can involve a greater number of respondents, hence enhancing the
generalizability of the results of the study to the population under consideration.
2. Quantitative research is more objective, accurate, valid, and reliable. The variables under study
are measured using appropriate statistical procedures.
3. Through a well-written research methodology, quantitative research can be replicated and
analyzed. Further, findings of related quantitative studies can be compared.
4. Data obtained from a large sample can be summarized using relevant categories.
5. Personal biases can be eliminated by applying appropriate numerical, computational, and
statistical procedures.

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

While the results of quantitative research may be statistically significant, these do not take into
account some important humanly aspects. Some specific limitations associated with using
quantitative research are the following (Babbie, 2010):
1. Quantitative data can be used to test the hypothesis, but they do not uncover other important
concepts and deeper details.
2. The procedures for gathering data are fixed and inflexible.
3. The development of research questions for the data-gathering instrument is prone to structural
bias and false representations. The framing of questions depends on the intention of the researcher
and not based on the perception of the target respondents.
4. Results of quantitative research provide limited information on humanly aspects such as
behavior, attitudes, and motivation
5. Quantitative research may deal with a data set that is superficial and narrower than that of
qualitative
6. Often, quantitative research provides limited numerical descriptions because respondents are not
required to narrate or elaborate their responses.
7. Quantitative research involves an environment that is controlled by the researcher that may not
reflect an actual situation in the real world.
8. Answers to questions in the research instrument are preset and readily provided by the
researchers. In cases where the actual answer is not captured in the instrument, the respondents
are left to indicate the closest match to their actual feeling about the subject of the study.

Importance of Quantitative Research across Fields

Quantitative research plays an important role in various fields, such as healthcare and
medicine, education, social sciences, education, economy, business, and psychology. Some uses of
quantitative research are highlighted here.
Health research can provide important information about disease trends and risk factors,
outcomes of treatment or an intervention implemented to address public health issues, functional
abilities, patterns of and trends in health care, and costs and uses of various healthcare services.
In medicine, quantitative research, specifically experimental research, is used to determine
proper and appropriate treatment for diseases. In some situations, instead of directly using the
body of a patient as the subject, a tissue sample from the patient's body or a cell line is taken by
the researchers. Changes observed as results of the treatment are recorded, which consequently
determine its effectiveness.
The field of education also derives massive benefits from quantitative research. Educational
studies employing the quantitative approach are generally concerned with improving academic
standards and policies. These include refining the curriculum, enhancing the quality of teaching
and learning, evaluating students’ performance in various subjects or topics, testing the
effectiveness of various instructional methodologies and strategies, assessing the effects of a
program currently implemented, and identifying relevant programs that will enhance students'
learning.
In the field of social sciences, quantitative research is used by social scientists to uncover
facts and understanding about various social events and human interactions, preferences of a
group of people, opinions of the public about a particular issue, or acceptability of a certain idea.
Quantitative research design is also useful in obtaining relevant information to gain full
understanding of a pressing problem, identify possible solutions, and design an intervention
program to address a social problem under investigation. Generally, social research studies
significantly contribute to local and national development by continuously devising creative and
innovative solutions to various societal problems.
Various quantitative research studies using both descriptive and experimental designs are
conducted in the field of psychology for many purposes. One, it helps in understanding how people
think, feel, and act in certain ways. Another purpose is to study psychological disorders, their
symptoms, and characteristics to understand their impact on the individual and on society.
Ouantitative research also allows psychologists to understand how human relationships, societal
development, schools, family, peers, and religion affect individuals and society. It also helps develop
effective treatments to improve individuals' mental health and to develop tests that measure a
specific psychological phenomenon.
Also, quantitative market research studies play an important role in determining factors
that will lead business establishments and companies to success. Generally, market research
studies are done to estimate the size of a potential market and to understand competition in the
market about a particular product. They are also used to estimate consumer attitudes and
behaviors and to guide the decisions of business companies and establishments about product
inventory and purchases. Data for this kind of research must be measurable and quantifiable to
make relevant decisions. Toward this end, researchers employ various survey methods, such as
online surveys, personal interviews, email interviews, intercept studies, and phone interviews.
Furthermore, quantitative research is used in economics to study and understand society in
terms of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. It is also employed to
gather data on inflation, employment and unemployment, labor, taxes, domestic and international
trade, and various social issues that may affect the economy. Researchers who conduct research
studies related to economics have a firm grasp and understanding of quantitative research
procedures and data analysis so that the findings can guide them in crafting appropriate plans and
decisions.
Reliable information generated from well-implemented research studies can facilitate
understanding of the different aspects of the world. This can also guide people in making wise
decisions for the purpose of improving the quality of life and the society.
 Listed here are some of the reasons that most researchers prefer to conduct quantitative
research than a qualitative one.
1. More scientific. Data are gathered and treated using appropriate statistical procedures.
2. Control-sensitive. Researchers have great control over the data-collection procedures.
3. More objective. Answers from respondents are gathered by the researcher in relation to the
research questions or objectives.
4. Focused. Appropriate research methodology is applied to provide evidence to support or reject
the research hypothesis.
5. Deals with larger samples. Quantitative research may allow for a greater number of samples
from the population under consideration, thereby enhancing the generalizability and validity of
research results.
6. Repeatable. Quantitative research can be replicated and repeated.
7. Arranged in simple analytical methods. Gathered data can be managed and organized in the
form of a table, chart, figure, or other non-textual forms.
8. Generalizable. Quantitative research results can be used to develop a generalization about the
population being studied from the data gathered from a sample, make an inference, or establish a
cause-effect relationship.
9. Relatable. Similar quantitative research can be compared, hence allowing researchers to test or
validate existing theories or a hypothesis.
10. More structured. Quantitative research involves data-gathering instruments designed and
structured by the researcher.
11. Pertinent in later stages of research. Given its highly reliable results, quantitative research is
generally useful in later stages of research.
12. Consistent with data. Quantitative research deals with data that are precise, reliable and
consistent, quantitative, and numerical.
13. More acceptable. Numerical data can be precise.
14. Fast. Collection and analysis of numerical data are faster and more time-efficient than
qualitative data.
15. Useful for decision making. Results of quantitative research can inform and guide important
decision-making.

Quantitative Research Designs

Quantitative designs are research techniques that are used to gather quantitative data that
can be sorted, classified, and measured. In designing a quantitative research study, you must first
decide whether it will be descriptive or experimental. This is a vital step as your choice of the
quantitative research method will provide directions in terms of how you gather data and analyze
them and how you interpret the results of the analyses.
Descriptive research design answers the questions who, what, when, where, and how in
relation to the research problem. Various books in quantitative research methodologies emphasize
that a descriptive study cannot "conclusively ascertain answers to why." Descriptive research is
employed when you want to obtain information or identify the characteristics or current status of
an observed phenomenon. It is also used when your aim is to investigate the correlations between
two or more variables under considerations.
 A descriptive research study is governed by the following rules:
a. Generally, the subjects or participants are measured only once.
b. The main purpose of the study is to only establish associations between variables.
c. The study may involve a sample population, preferably as large as possible, to ensure that a valid
estimate of a generalized relationship between variables is obtained.
Descriptive research studies can result in rich data that can lead to important
recommendations in practice. Practically speaking, it would be more advantageous to the society if
people will learn the value of systematic and careful investigations in conceptualizing action plans.
Descriptive research design has three types, as shown in figure 1.3: (1) observation studies,
(2) correlational research, and (3) survey research.
Observation studies are present in both quantitative research and qualitative research. In
quantitative research, emphasis is placed on a specific quantifiable factor of behavior. The
researcher maintains objectivity in examining the behavior being studied.
Table 1.2 summarizes the strategies in observation studies that you can implement using the
quantitative research approach.
Strategy Description
Use of a rating scale A rater uses a rating scale (e.g. Likert scale) to evaluate the specific aspects
of a behavior.

Define the behavior A clear and concise definition about the behavior being studies is provided to
easily recognize its occurrence.

Use two or more Two or more raters independently evaluate the behavior being observed. The
raters raters do not have any knowledge about each other’s ratings.

Cluster the The observation period is divided into small time intervals. Then the behavior
observation periods is recorded based on its occurrence during each time interval.

Train the rater(s) The raters are oriented and trained on how to evaluate the behavior being
observed to ensure consistency of ratings among raters.
Table 1.2. Strategies used in Observation Studies

Correlational research explores the association between two or more quantifiable variables
in a single group using statistical analyses. It does not look for cause and effect but for a correlation
that exists between two variables when one increases or decreases correspondingly with the other.
In this type of research, you will gather data about two or more variables in a particular group.
Generally, these data are numerical that reflect measurements such as test scores, amount of time
spent reviewing, width of the road, or intelligent quotient scores. The results of this type of research
can be presented using a scatterplot, which provides a quick visual representation of the
association between two variables.
Survey research, also called descriptive survey or normative survey, is a popular design of
collecting primary data from a large or small population by selecting samples from the desired
population to answer your research questions. The main purpose of survey research is to gather
information about a large population by surveying a sample of the population. As the researcher,
you are going to ask a series of questions to the members of the selected sample using face-to-face
interviews, telephone interviews, or questionnaires; then you summarize their responses using
frequency distribution, percentages, and other statistical approaches. Basically, information from
survey research is obtained by asking questions to the respondents through interviews or
questionnaires.
If you want to conduct a survey, you need to carefully consider some aspects for it to be
effectively implemented. You have to understand who you want to survey, how you are going to select
them, how you are going to survey them, what you want to ask them, and how you are going to
organize the task.
There are two types of survey that you can implement: (1) cross-sectional survey and (2)
longitudinal survey. A firm understanding of these two types of survey can help you appropriately
determine which one will be used in relation to your research problem and the scope of your
research work. If you intend to identify or compare opinions of a group(s) of people about a
particular issue at a given time, then it would be appropriate to use the cross-sectional survey.
However, if you want to compare changes in opinion over time, a longitudinal survey is appropriate
to use. The two common types of longitudinal survey are cohort studies and panel studies. Further
information about these types of longitudinal survey will be part of the activity in this module. The
types of survey research are shown in figure 1.3.

Survey Research

Cross-sectional survey Longitudinal survey

Cohort studies Panel studies

Figure 1.3. Types of survey research

When you want to establish the cause and effect relationship between two defined sets of
variables, then the experimental research design is appropriate to use. According to Mitchell
(2015, the experimental research method is known to have high causal validity or internal validity.
Causal validity puts emphasis on the accuracy of statements regarding cause and effect
relationships—it identifies what variable causes variation to the other variable. This nature of
experimental research makes it more applicable and appropriate to explanatory and evaluation
research than to exploratory or descriptive research.
Experimental research strictly follows a rigorous scientific research design. Basically, an
experimental research study has a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated or controlled
(independent variable) by the researcher, and variables that can be measured, calculated, and
compared (dependent variable). Most importantly, experimental research is conducted in a
controlled environment. Data are collected and analyzed. The results of the analyses will either
support or reject the hypothesis. This process is known as hypothesis testing.
As mentioned, experimental research follows rigorous procedures. First, the experimental
research method is concerned about drawing comparisons between two or more groups. These
groups must he similar or comparable in all characteristics with respect to the variable or outcome
that you want to measure. Note that any baseline differences between the groups must be
controlled by carefully matching each member of one group to the members of the other group,
through random assignment, or by applying any statistical techniques that control their differences.
 In an experimental research study, the researcher must ensure that any baseline differences
between the groups being compared are controlled. Otherwise, any observed differences between the
groups after the experiment might be attributed to their differences in characteristics at the start of the
experiment. Fairness is key in obtaining objective results.
The second consideration in the conduct of an experimental research study is
randomization. The groups being compared must be randomly assigned to either the treatment
group, also known as the experimental group, or the control group. Random assignment is only one
way of controlling baseline differences between the groups to be compared. Random assignment of
the treatment group or control group can be done by tossing a coin or by the lottery method.
Last, the important feature of an experimental research study is manipulation by the
researcher. This manipulation is popularly known as the treatment or intervention or stimulus, and
it is what the researcher believes to be the cause of the outcome or the dependent variable. In
experimental research, the researcher should see to it that the treatment is implemented
consistently and in the same manner every time.
Every person, situation, place, or profession has a unique feature. In research, treatments are
the distinct and unique feature of experimental research design. These are widely applied in the
physical and social sciences, psychology, and education where two or more groups of respondents are
being compared.
Some familiar examples of manipulation include applying an innovative teaching strategy to
one class or group of students, using a weight management program for a group of obese adults, or
applying a certain kind of fertilizer to plants. In each example, any difference in the dependent
variable found between the groups is assumed to have been caused by the manipulation applied by
the researcher to one group.
At the end of the experiment, the researcher evaluates both the control group and the
treatment group in terms of the dependent variable. If the results of the analysis establish
difference between the groups, you, as the researcher, can conclude that the difference was caused
by the intervention. For example, if the treatment group taught using a particular innovative
teaching strategy indicated significantly higher scores than the control group, then you can say that
the teaching strategy is the cause of better performance.
Although experimental research design is the best method to use in evaluating cause and effect
relationships, researchers must still observe strict adherence to its rigorous procedures to derive a
valid conclusion. As often said and heard, "obey rules."
Experimental research can be grouped broadly into three categories: pre-experimental
design, true experimental design, and quasi-experimental design.
Pre-experimental design is considered the weakest among the three experimental research
designs. Most researchers do not recommend this design; however, this is still sometimes used in
educational research studies. This experimental design is divided into two: (1) the one group
pretest-posttest design and (2) the static group comparison.
There are instances when the use of two groups of respondents is not possible or not needed.
In this case, the one-group pretest-posttest research design is used. The one-group pretest-
posttest design is composed of three main steps: (1) administer a pretest to measure the dependent
variable; (2) apply the treatment or manipulation or intervention; and (3) administer a posttest to
measure again the dependent variable. Then the pretest and posttest scores are compared to
determine if there is a difference attributed to the application of the treatment. However, without
any control group to make a comparison possible, the results obtained from using the one-group
pretest-posttest design can be claimed as interpretable.
The second type is the static group comparison. This design uses two or more intact (static)
groups where only one of which is exposed to the treatment. This design, however, has no random
assignment of subjects to the treatment group and control group, and a pretest is not administered
before the experiment stage. The assumption of this design is that the groups being compared are
equivalent in all relevant aspects and that the difference between them is attributed to their
exposure to the treatment. Because of the possibility that there is a baseline difference among the
groups, a researcher who uses the static group comparison could not sufficiently conclude that the
difference is a result of the treatment.
Both true experimental and quasi-experimental research designs require the manipulation of
a treatment. The difference, however, is that random assignment of the treatment group
(experimental group) or control group is lacking in quasi-experiments.
True experimental research design, also called randomized design, is considered by many
to be the most accurate form of experimental research design. It primarily relies on statistical
analysis to support or reject a hypothesis. The true experimental research design can be
implemented with or without a pretest administered on at least two randomly assigned groups.
Typically, there are three factors that need to be satisfied for a research study to be
considered true experimental research. First, there should be a control group. This group consists
of subjects who are familiar to the experimental group. However, the experimental research rules do
not apply to them. Second, there should be a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher.
Last, the subjects are randomly assigned to the treatment group or the control group.
True experimental research design is classified into three: the posttest-only control group
design, the pretest-posttest control group design, and the Solomon four-group design. For the
following discussion, the notations R, X, and O will be used, where R indicates the random
assignment of subjects to the treatment group or control group, X is the treatment administered to
the treatment group, and O indicates the pretest or posttest observations about the dependent
variable. The subscripts for O are different to distinguish between pretest and posttest observations
of treatment and control groups.
In the posttest-only control group design, the subjects are randomly (R) assigned to either
the treatment group or the control group. Only the treatment group is given an intervention or a
treatment (1), which represents the independent variable or variables of interest. After the duration
of the observation or experimentation, both the control group and the treatment group are given a
posttest (O) with respect to the dependent variable or variables of interest. The results of which will
serve as bases in drawing the conclusion. The difference in the posttest scores between the two
groups measures the effect of the treatment. Figure 1.4 shows the posttest-only control group
design.
R X O1 (Treatment group)
R O2 (Control Group)

Figure 1.4. The posttest-only group design

In the pretest-posttest control group design, as shown in figure 1.7, the subjects are
randomly assigned to either the treatment group or the control group. Both groups are given a
pretest, but only the treatment group is treated or implemented with an intervention. After
thorough observation, a posttest is administered to both groups to measure the extent of change in
each group in terms of the dependent variable or variables.

R O1 X O2 (Treatment group)
R O3 O4 (Control Group)

Figure 1.5. The pretest-posttest group design

A combination of the pretest only and pretest-posttest control group designs characterizes
the Solomon four-group design. In this design, the subjects are divided into two treatment groups
and two control groups. One treatment group and one control group are administered a pretest,
while the other two groups are not given a pretest. After the implementation of the treatment, a
posttest is administered to all the four groups. The Solomon four group design is primarily intended
to test the potential effect of bias of the pretest observations on posttest observations that are
possible to occur in pretest-posttest control group design but not in posttest-only control group
design. Figure 1.8 shows this true experimental design.

R O1 X O2 (Treatment group)
R O3 O4 (Control Group; pretest-posttest control group)
R X O5 (Treatment Group)
R O6 (Control Group; posttest-only control group)
Figure 1.6. The Solomon four-group design

Although the true experimental research design is considered the most accurate form of
experimental research design, they are not exempted from the so-called threats to validity. These
threats represent various situations that are likely to happen during the experiment. When not
properly dealt with, these threats may affect the validity of the results and so, the conclusion.
Experimental research can gather a number of data that can help you make better decisions.
Because the implementation of a treatment is an essential feature of experimental research studies,
researchers must take time to plan and create an appropriate treatment design that includes the
careful selection of valid tasks.
The third classification of experimental research design is the quasi-experimental design.
This is similar to true experimental research design but lacks one key element the random
assignment of subjects. For example, all students in a particular class are used as the treatment
group and are exposed to a treatment, say, the use of a certain teaching strategy, while another
class of the same grade level is used as the control group.
The non-random assignment of subjects in quasi-experiments results in groups that are non-
equivalent. In the example just mentioned, one group may have better mastery than the other
group. This design is particularly applied to fields where random assignment is not needed or
irrelevant. Therefore, researchers, whenever possible, should avoid the use of the quasi-
experimental research design.
Although the quasi-experimental research design is less accurate than the true experimental
research design, its relevance and potential to uncover important information about an observed
phenomenon under some specific circumstances or conditions should not be undermined.
Some examples of true experimental research studies involve those that require the
administration of an examination to groups of students at the end of a semester after the
implementation of a particular academic program or a certain students' service, evaluating the
effects of a training program to the productivity of employees, evaluating the effectiveness of a
particular teaching strategy, assessing the effects of a diet management program to a group of obese
teenagers, determining the change in study habits of a group of students who were not exposed to
electronic gadgets or TV for a period of time, and assessing the effects of a solution with different
concentrations.

Variables in Quantitative Research and Their Uses

In planning to conduct a quantitative research study, you need to deal with numerous
decision-making activities. As you work through your quantitative research design, one important
consideration is to decide on your variables. A variable is a construct or an attribute that can
assume different values or scores.
Variables can be categorical; they can also be continuous. If researchers classify their
subjects into mutually exclusive groups, the attribute from which they based their classifications is
called a categorical variable. Educational attainment, senior high school track enrolled in, grade
level in junior high school, possible courses to take in college, religious affiliations, and position in a
student organization are some examples of categorical variables. There are categorical variables that
have only two mutually exclusive classes, such as male-female, pass-fail, public-private, and
citizen-alien. These are called dichotomous variables. On the other hand, some categorical
variables have more than two classes. Examples of which are religious affiliations, tracks in senior
high school, and courses offered in college.
When a variable or attribute has an infinite number of values within a given range, then it is
called a continuous variable. For example, as a tree grows from 35 to 36 inches, it passes through
several height measurements such as 35.2, 35.45, and so on. Age, height, average test scores in
quarterly examinations, monthly income, and length are other examples of attributes than can be
categorized as continuous variables.
Attributes or quantitative variables whose values are obtained by counting are called
discrete variables. These are expressed in terms of non-negative integers. The number of students
enrolled in the STEM track, the number of subjects in grade 11, the number of students who
garnered an award in a national competition, and the number of quantitative research studies
completed by senior high school students are some examples of discrete variables.
The most important classification of variables, however, is based on how they are used in the
context of the quantitative research study under consideration. Variables in quantitative research
are classified as independent variable and dependent variable. If you are to conduct a quantitative
research study, you will need to identify the variable that you need to measure or investigate,
known as the dependent variable, as well as the variable or variables that you need to manipulate
to cause an effect, known as the independent variable.
In quantitative research, the independent variables are assumed or hypothesized to be the
cause of a change in the dependent variables, which are commonly known as the outcome. In
experimental research, the treatment or intervention is known as the independent variable, and the
results or outcome is the dependent variable. For example, an experiment is conducted where one
class is exposed to online activities, while the other class is taught using textbooks in discussing
the kinds of variables in quantitative research and their uses. After some time, both classes are
given the same examination to measure their learning. In this case, the methods of instruction
(online activities versus textbooks) are the independent variable and the performances of the classes
in the examination are the dependent variable. The researcher is hypothesizing that the methods of
instruction applied to the classes influence the scores of the students in the examination.
Understanding the theoretical difference between dependent and independent variables is
relatively easy. To do this, you just ask yourself the question, "What depends on what?" Being able to
easily differentiate one from the other comes with practice. Practice makes perfect, as they usually
say.

Scales of Measurement of Variables

Equally important to distinguishing variables as independent or dependent is knowing their
scales of measurement. Scales of measurement refer to ways of defining and categorizing variables
or numbers, allowing researchers to identify the appropriateness of certain statistical analysis.
Knowing the scales of measurement of the variables involved in your quantitative research
study will help you identify the appropriate statistical tool to be used to analyze your data. This can
be likened to knowing what appropriate machine to use for a particular work to be done.
The four scales of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
1. Nominal are qualitative data with categories that cannot be quantified and meaningfully ordered.
Tracks in senior high school, type of school, and marital status are examples of variables that are
considered nominal. Numbers that are simply used as identifiers are also considered nominal. The
number of a basketball player at the back of his or her jersey and a student's cellphone number are
numbers that represent nominal scale of measurement.
2. Ordinal. Data under the ordinal scale of measurement can be ordered or ranked. For example, in
a competition, the contestants can be ranked from first, second, third, fourth, and so on. The level
of agreement of students about a particular school policy, where 1 is strongly disagree and 5 is
strongly agree, is also ordinal. Fundamentally, the ordinal scale of measurement does not represent
measurable quantity; it indicates rank ordering only.
3. Interval. The interval scale of measurement represents quantitative data that have equal units of
measurement and whose exact differences can be determined. There is no true concept of zero in an
interval scale; zero is considered an additional point of measurement. An example of an interval
scale is the Celsius scale to measure temperature made up of equal temperature units such that
the difference between 10°C and 20°C is equal to the difference between 30°C and 40°C. The
interval scale provides information about the order and the value between each quantitative data.
So, you can determine which one is bigger or smaller and by how much one number is higher or
lower than the other. Also, addition and subtraction are meaningful in the interval scale.
4. Ratio. The ratio scale of measurement is similar to the interval scale. The only difference is that
zero is meaningful. This means that for the ratio scale, the minimum value is zero. For example, a
height of zero means one does not exist. Other examples in the ratio scale are weight, age, and
duration. In addition, variables under the ratio scale can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and
divided.

Properties of the Scales of Measurement

Each of the scales of measurement satisfies one or more of the following properties of
measurement:
1. Identity. Each value has a unique meaning.
2. Magnitude. The values can be ordered.
3. Equal intervals. Along the scale, the values have equal units of measurement.
4. Absolute zero. The scale has a true zero point.

Lesson Highlights
 Research is a systematic investigation of an observed phenomenon to obtain valid facts, draw
conclusions, and establish principles.
 The two approaches in research are qualitative and quantitative.
 Quantitative research deals with numbers and anything that is measurable in a systematic
way of investigation of an observed phenomenon.
 Quantitative research is characterized by the following: large sample size, structured
research methods, highly reliable outcome, reusable outcome, close-ended questions,
numerical outcome, generalization of the outcome, and prior study.
 Although quantitative research has some advantages over qualitative research, it has also
some limitations.
 Quantitative research is employed by experts and researchers in various fields to make valid
decisions.
 A researcher must first determine whether the design of the quantitative research study is
descriptive or experimental before conducting such a study.
 Descriptive research design can be observation studies, correlation studies, or survey
research.
 There are broadly two types of survey research: cross-sectional survey and longitudinal
survey.
 Experimental research design can be grouped into three categories: pre-experimental design,
true experimental design, and quasi-experimental design.
 Pre-experimental designs include one-group pretest-posttest design and static group
comparison.
 True experimental research design is classified into three: the posttest-only control group
design, the pretest-posttest control group design, and the Solomon four-group design.
 In quantitative research, the researcher deals with variables such as categorical variables,
continuous variables, and discrete variables.
 Variables, according to their uses in quantitative research, are described as dependent
variables and independent variables.
 The four scales of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
 Each scale of measurement has one or more of the following properties of measurement:
identity, magnitude, equal interval, and absolute zero.

Source:

Albay, E. M. (2023). An Overview of Quantitative Research. In Essentials of Practical Research 2 (pp. 5–29).
Diwa Learning Systems Inc.