1

Part 1

NCM 111 RESEARCH 1 MIDTERM by XERXES G. MALAGA, RN, MN

Designing and Planning Phases

Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring you will effectively address the
research problem.

Furthermore, a research design constitutes the blueprint for the selection, measurement and analysis of
data.

Research designs are plans and the procedures for research that span the decisions from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis.

CRITERIA

1. worldview assumptions

2. procedures of inquiry (called strategies)

3. methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation

4. nature of the research problem or issue being addressed

5. the researchers’ personal experiences

6. the audiences for the study

Research Designs

1. Quantitative Design

2. Qualitative Design

3. Mixed Methods Design

Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research is a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and

performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. It collects information from existing
and potential respondents using sampling methods, and surveys, or questionnaires; the results of which
can be depicted in the form of numerical values (Bhat, 2020).

The results of quantitative research specify an explanation into what is and is not important, or
influencing, a particular population. Quantitative research also provides answers to questions about the
frequency of a phenomenon, or the magnitude to which the phenomenon affects the sample.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• QNR is “explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using
mathematically based methods (Aliaga and Gunderson, 2000).

1. It is OBJECTIVE.
 2
Part 1

QNR seeks accurate measurement and analysis of data using statistical, mathematical, or computational
techniques.

2. It is grounded on CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS.

The researchers know in advance what they are looking for. The research questions are well-defined for
which objective answers are sought.

3. The QNR uses STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS.

Standardized instruments guide data collection, thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of
data. Data are normally gathered using structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect
measurable characteristics of the population like age, socio-economic status, number of children, among
others.

4. The information collected to answer research questions are in the form of NUMERICAL DATA.

Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collection in order to show trends, relationships or
differences among variables.

5. QNR uses LARGE SAMPLE SIZES.

To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population distribution curve is preferred. This
requires a large sample size, depending on how the characteristics of the population vary.

Random sampling is recommended in determining the sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in
interpreting the results.

6. Results maybe be REPLICATED.

QN methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus strengthen and reinforcing
validity of findings eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusions.

7. Results may be used to predict FUTURE OUTCOMES.

By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of computers, if-then scenarios may be
formulated thus predicting future results. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than
discovery.

Types

1. DESCRIPTIVE (SURVEY)

main purpose is to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and
sometimes to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development.

Ex. What are the sleeping habits of nursing students at CSAB?

2. EXPOST FACTO ( CAUSAL COMPARATIVE)

This research derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already occurred in the past
and now compared to some dependent variables. It discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs.
 3
Part 1

Ex1: A researcher is interested in how weight influences stress-coping level of adults. Here the
respondents would be separated into different groups (underweight, normal, overweight) and their
stress-coping levels measured. ( a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups)

3. CORRELATIONAL.

It is conducted to find out the direction, associations and/or relationship between different variables or
groups of respondents under study.

3a. Bivariate Correlational Studies

It obtains score from two variables for each subject, and then uses them to calculate a correlation
coefficient. The term bivariate implies that the two variables are correlated (variables are selected
because they are believed to be related).

Ex: Children of wealthier (variable one), better educated (variable 2) parents earn higher salaries as
adults.

3b. Prediction Studies

It uses correlation coefficient to show how one variable (the predictor variable) predicts another (the
criterion variable).

Example: Which high school applicants should be admitted to college?

3c. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies

All variables in the study can contribute to the over-all prediction in an equation that adds together the
predictive power of each identified variable.

Example: Suppose the High School GPA is not the sole predictor of college GPA, what might be other
good predictors?

4. EXPERIMENTAL

An experiment tests an idea to determine whether it influences an outcome. Used when the researcher
wants to establish possible cause and effect between variables.

a)True experiments, the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions of the
experimental variable.

b)Quasi-experiments include assignment, but not random assignment of participants to groups.

Quantitative data collection methods

Quantitative data collection methods include the use of instruments.

An instrument is a device used to record or gather data on a particular concept.

An instrument may be a piece of equipment, structured interview, or paper-and-pencil test.

Quantitative data collection methods

 4
Part 1

Data-gathering instruments used in research studies include questionnaires, rating scales, checklists,
standardized tests, and biophysical measures.

Methods for collecting data may be based on a form of self-report that asks individuals to complete a
questionnaire, survey, or standardized test.

Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys are a popular method for collecting data to describe, compare, or explain knowledge, attitudes,
and behavior.

A survey is a series of questions posed to a group of subjects.

Questionnaires are structured self-administered surveys.

Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research : an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem based on a

complex , holistic picture, formed with words , reporting detailed views of informants & conducted in a
natural setting(Creswell, 1994)

Basic Qualitative Research Characteristics

1. Design is generally based on a social constructivism perspective.

2. Research problems become research questions based on prior research experience.

3. Sample sizes can be as small as one.

4. Data collection involves interview, observation, and/or archival (content) data.

5. Interpretation is based on a combination of researcher perspective and data collected.

When to use qualitative methods

1. Qualitative methods should be used when the aim is to:

2. Investigate complex phenomena that are hard to deconstruct quantitatively, perhaps as part of
a mixed methods study

3. Generate data to illustrate a problem and help others understand it

When to use qualitative methods

4. Gain insights into possible causality

5. Develop quantitative measurements processes or instruments

6. Study characteristics of unusual or marginalized populations

Qualitative Methods of Data Collection

 5
Part 1

1. People’s words and actions represent the data of qualitative inquiry and this requires methods
that allow the researcher to capture language and behavior. The key ways of capturing these
are:

2. Observation – both participant and direct

3. In-depth interviews

Qualitative Methods of Data Collection

4. Focus group discussion

5. The collection of relevant documents

6. Photographs and Video Tapes

TYPOLOGY OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

FOCUS PROB. BEST SUITED FOR DESIGN WRITTEN REPORT

*Focuses on the “lived *Attempts to understand
experience” of a small participants’ perspectives and
number of people. views of social realities Describing the essence
*Explores the meaning of Attempt to understand what a of the experience
Phenomenology specific experience is like by
people’s lives based on their
describing it as found in concrete
own perceptions. situations as it appears to people
living it.
Looks at cultural values,
beliefs, and behaviors –
A description and interpretation of Describing how a
culture includes any group of
a cultural or social group culture-sharing group
Ethnography people (usually out of the
works
mainstream of society) in
which people identify

Grounded Theory Developing a theory Grounding a theory in the view of Generating a theory
grounded from data on the the participants illustrated in a figure
field

Developing an in-depth Providing an in-depth Developing a detailed

description & analysis of understanding of a case or cases analysis of one or more
Case Study
multiple cases cases

The study of the life Developing a narrative

experiences of an individual about the stories of an
Narrative study Needing to tell the stories of
as told to the researcher or individual’s life
individual experiences
found in documents and
archival material.

COMPARISON OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 6
Part 1

A.

Assumptions Qualitative Quantitative

 Reality:  Reality:
Ontological  is subjective and multiple as  is ‘objective’, ‘out there’ and
What is the nature of seen by participants singular, apart from the
reality?  is constructed by the researcher
individuals involved in a  can be measured objectively using
research situation a questionnaire or an instrument
 Researcher interacts with that  Researcher is independent from that
Epistemological being researched being researched
What is the  Interaction may be in the form  Researchers attempt to control for
relationship of the of living with or observing bias, select a systematic sample, and
researcher to the informants over a prolonged be objective in assessing a situation
researched? period of time or actual
collaboration
 Value-laden & biased wherein  Value-free & unbiased, accomplished
Axiological the researcher “admits the through entirely omitting statements
What is the role of value-laden nature of the study about values from a written report,
values? and actively reports his values & using impersonal language &
biases, as well as the value reporting the facts – arguing closely
nature of the information from the evidence gathered in the
gathered from the field” study
 Informal  Formal
Rhetorical  Evolving decisions  Based on set definitions
What is the language of  Personal voice  Impersonal voice
research?  Accepted qualitative words:  Accepted quantitative words:
understanding, discover, Relationship, comparison, within-
meaning group
 Inductive process  Deductive process
Methodological  Mutual simultaneous shaping of  Cause and effect
factors  Static design-categories isolated
What is the process of  Emerging design-categories before study
research? identified during research  Context-free
process  Generalizations leading to
 Context-bound predictions and understanding
 Patterns, theories developed for  Accurate and reliable through validity
understanding & reliability
 Accurate & reliable through
verification
B.
 7
Part 1

Quantitative Qualitative
Purpose To study relationships; cause and effect To examine a phenomenon as it is, in rich
detail
Design Developed prior to study Flexible; evolves during study
Approach Deductive; tests theory Inductive; may generate theory
Tools Uses preselected instruments The researcher is primary data collection tool
Sample Uses large sample Uses small sample
Analysis Statistical analysis of numeric data Narrative description and interpretation

Mixed Methods Research Design

Mixed Research Design

A mixed method research design involves having both a quantitative design and qualitative design.

As a a method, it focuses on collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a
single study or series of studies.

Its central premise is that the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches, in combination, provides a
better understanding of research problems than either approach alone.

SITUATIONS WHEN MIXED METHOD RESEARCH DESIGNS ARE USED

1. To compare results from quantitative and qualitative research

2. To use qualitative research to help explain quantitative findings

3. To explore using qualitative research and then to generalize findings to a large population using
quantitative research

SITUATIONS WHEN MIXED METHOD RESEARCH DESIGNS ARE USED

4. To develop an instrument because none are available or useful

5. To augment an experiment with qualitative data

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Philosophical Worldviews

Although philosophical ideas remain largely hidden in research (Slife & Williams, 1995), they still
influence the practice of research and need to be identified.

Worldview is “a basic set of beliefs that guide action” (Guba, 1990, p. 17).

• paradigms (Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Mertens, 1998)

• epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty, 1998)

• broadly conceived research methodologies (Neuman, 2000)

Worldview is a general orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher holds.
 8
Part 1

These worldviews are shaped by the discipline area of the student, the beliefs of advisers and faculty in
a student’s area, and past research experiences.

The types of beliefs held by individual researchers will often lead to embracing a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods approach in their research (Creswell, 2008)

Four different worldviews are discussed:

1. postpositivism

2. constructivism

3. advocacy/participatory

4. pragmatism

Postpositivists hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably determine effects or

outcomes.

Thus, the problems studied by postpositivists reflect the need to identify and assess the causes that
influence outcomes, such as found in experiments.

It is also reductionistic in that the intent is to reduce the ideas into a small, discrete set of ideas to test,
such as the variables that comprise hypotheses and research questions.

Social constructivists hold assumptions that individuals seek understanding of the world in which they
live and work.

Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences—meanings directed toward certain objects
or things.

These meanings are varied and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the complexity of views
rather than narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas.
 9
Part 1

advocacy/participatory worldview holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and
a political agenda.

Thus, the research contains an action agenda for reform that may change the lives of the participants,
the institutions in which individuals work or live, and the

researcher’s life.

Pragmatism as a worldview arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent
conditions (as in postpositivism).

There is a concern with applications—what works— and solutions to problems (Patton, 1990).

Instead of focusing on methods, researchers emphasize the research problem and use all approaches
available to understand the problem (see Rossman & Wilson, 1985).

As a philosophical underpinning for mixed methods studies, Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998), Morgan
(2007), and Patton (1990) convey its importance for focusing attention on the research problem in social
science research and then using pluralistic approaches to derive knowledge about the problem.

The pragmatist researchers look to the what and how to research, based on the intended
consequences—where they want to go with it.

2. Strategies of Inquiry

Strategies of inquiry are types of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods designs or models that
provide specific direction for procedures in a research design.

Others have called them approaches to inquiry (Creswell, 2007) or research methodologies (Mertens,
1998).

Sequential mixed methods

● Sequential mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher seeks to elaborate on or
expand on the findings of one method with another method.
 10
Part 1

This may involve beginning with a qualitative interview for exploratory purposes and following up with a
quantitative, survey method with a large sample so that the researcher can generalize results to a
population.

Exploratory Sequential

Explanatory Sequential

Concurrent mixed methods

● Concurrent mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher converges or merges
quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem.

In this design, the investigator collects both forms of data at the same time and then integrates the
information in the interpretation of the overall results.

Transformative mixed methods

Transformative mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher uses a theoretical lens as
an overarching perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data.

Transformative mixed methods

 11
Part 1

This lens provides a framework for topics of interest, methods for collecting data, and outcomes or
changes anticipated by the study. Within this lens could be a data collection method that involves a
sequential or a concurrent approach.

Common Mixed Method Research Designs

Mixed –methods
Research Designs Explanatory sequential Exploratory sequential Convergent parallel
In what ways do the qualitative In what ways do the
data help explain the quantitative results generalize
quantitative results the qualitative findings?
to use qualitative approach to also referred to as instrument to best understand or
explain quantitative results development design. develop more complete
(significant, nonsignificant, to generalize qualitative understanding of the
outliers or surprising results) or findings to a larger sample. research problem by
to guide to form groups based • Instruments are not available obtaining different but
PURPOSE on quantitative results • The variables are not known • complementary data. –
There is no theory or model as Validation purpose
– Niobe Way, Helena Y. a guide
Stauber, Michael J. Nakkula and
Perry London (1994). • The qualitative phase is used Marsha N. Wittink,
Depression and substance use to help develop the Frances K. Barg, and
in two divergent high school quantitative study. Joseph J. Gallo.
cultures: A quantitative and – Instrument design (explore) Unwritten Rules of
qualitative analysis. Journal of – Grounded theory (generalize Talking to Doctors About
Youth and Adolescence, 23(3): qualitative results) Depression: Integrating
331-357 Qualitative and
Quantitative Methods.
Ann Fam Med 2006
4:302- 309;
doi:10.1370/afm.558 .
http://www.annfammed
.org/content/4/4/302.ful
l .pdf+html
1.Collect and analyze
quantitative data. 1.Collect and analyze 1. Collect both types of
2.Identify specific quantitative qualitative data. data concurrently
results that need additional 2.Develop quantitative study 2. Analyze two data sets
explanation. based on what you learn from separately
3.Design qualitative study based qualitative results. 3.Merge the results –
PROCEDURES on what learn from quantitative 3.Collect and analyze Interpret combined
results. quantitative data. results
4. Collect and analyze
qualitative data.
5.Interpret combined results.
Samples: different or same Samples: different or same Research questions:
group of people in both studies group of people in both studies create parallel questions
• The participants in the • The participants in the for the qual and quan
DESIGN qualitative study should be quantitative study are NOT studies.
those who participated in the same individuals who provided Samples: different or
quantitative study. – Sample qualitative data. same group of people in
sizes: equal or unequal quantitative and
 12
Part 1

• Qualitative study uses smaller Sample sizes: equal or unequal qualitative studies?
sample. • Quantitative study uses larger Sample sizes: equal or
sample. unequal
Decide what quantitative
results to follow up. • Data will be collected
• Unclear • Unexpected from one source or
• Significant/non-significant Decide what qualitative results different sources:
results to use. survey/interview or only
• Outliers or extreme cases • Useful quotes use survey.
• Codes > variables • Order of two types of
How to select participants • Themes > constructs data collections: survey
• Individuals who volunteer to first then focus group or
participate in interviews one-on-one interview
(weaker connection between
two phases). • Merged data analysis
• Systematic approach: based strategies – Side-by-side
on quantitative results and comparison (in a results
select participants best able to or discussion section or
fit in qualitative study (IRB a summary table).
issue). • Present quantitative
• From the start, inform or qualitative results
participants the possibility of • Followed by
second data collection. qualitative or
quantitative results
• Select qualitative sample – • Followed by comments
Participants who are describe how qual/quan
representative of different confirm or disconfirm
groups. quan/qual results.
Participants with extreme
scores. situation in which
Participants differed in their quantitative and
scores on significant predictors. qualitative results
contradict each other.

Research Methods
 13
Part 1

4. The Research Problem

A research problem is an issue or concern that needs to be addressed. Certain types of social research
problems call for specific approaches.

4. The Research Problem

For example, if the problem calls for

(a) the identification of factors that influence an outcome,

(b) the utility of an intervention, or

(c) understanding the best predictors of outcomes, then a quantitative approach is best.

(d) It is also the best approach to use to test a theory or explanation.

On the other hand, if a concept or phenomenon needs to be understood because little research has
been done on it, then it merits a qualitative approach.

Qualitative research is exploratory and is useful when the researcher does not know the important
variables to examine.

A mixed methods design is useful when either the quantitative or qualitative approach by itself is
inadequate to best understand a research problem or the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative
research can provide the best understanding.
 14
Part 1

5. Personal Experiences

Researchers’ own personal training and experiences also influence their choice of approach.

An individual trained in technical, scientific writing, statistics, and computer statistical programs and
familiar with quantitative journals in the library would most likely choose the quantitative design.

5. Personal Experiences

On the other hand, individuals who enjoy writing in a literary way or conducting personal interviews or
making up-close observations may gravitate to the qualitative approach.

The mixed methods researcher is an individual familiar with both quantitative and qualitative research.

6. Audience

Finally, researchers write for audiences that will accept their research.

These audiences may be journal editors, journal readers, graduate committees, conference attendees,
or colleagues in the field.

Students should consider the approaches typically supported and used by their advisers.

SUMMARY

In planning a research project, researchers need to identify whether they will employ a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods design.

This design is based on bringing together a worldview or assumptions about research, the specific
strategies of inquiry, and research methods.

Decisions about choice of a design are further influenced by the research problem or issue being
studied, the personal experiences of the researcher, and the audience for whom the researcher writes.

End of Subtopic