9.

CALORIMETRY

I. OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to distinguish the various units of heat.
2. To be able to describe specific heat and its cause,
3. To be able to explain how the specific heat of materials are obtained using
calorimetry.
4. To be able to compare and contrast the three common phases of matter and
relate latent heat to phase changes.

II. KEY CONCEPT

9.1. CALORIMETRY
Calorimetry is a science which involves measurements of quantity of heat
transferred between bodies.
Kilocalorie (kcal) is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water through one Celsius degree.
Calorie is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1 gram of
water through one Celsius degree.
1 kcal = 1000 cal.
British thermal unit is the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of
water with a mass of one standard pound through one Fahrenheit degree.
1 Btu= 252 cal.

9.2. SPECIFIC HEAT

Specific heat of substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of the substance one-degree, it is expressed in
cal kcal Btu
o
or , .
g. C kg. Co lb. F o

Q where:
C= Q- amount of heat, cal, kcal, Btu
m ∆t
m- mass of the substance, g, kg, lb
Δt- change in temperature, Co, Co, Fo
C- specific heat,
cal kcal Btu
, ,
g. Co kg. Co lb. F o
 Table 3. Specific Heat Capacities

TYPE OF SUBSTANCE cal kcal Btu

, ,
g. Co kg. Co lb. F o

Aluminum 0.220
Brass 0.094
Copper 0.093
Ethyl alcohol 0.600
Glass 0.200
Gold 0.030
Ice 0.500
Iron 0.113
Lead 0.031
Mercury 0.033
Silver 0.056
Soil (Average) 0.25
Steam 0.480
Steel 0.114
Turpentine 0.420
Zinc 0.092
Water 1.000
Wood (Average) 0.40

Sample Problem 9-1.

How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 200 g of mercury from 20 to 100
oC?

Solution.
Given:
Q
m = 200 g C=
m ∆t
ti =20oC Q = m c ∆t
tf = 100oC
cal cal
cHg = 0.033 g.Co Q = m c ∆t = 200 g (0.033 g.Co )(100o C − 20o C)
Q = 528 calories
Sample Problem 9-2.
How much heat is required to:
a) raise the temperature of 10-lb brass from 30oC to 50oC?
b) raise the temperature of 0.80-kg of alcohol from 15oC to its boiling point,
78.2oC?
Solution.
Btu
(a) Given: Q = m c ∆t = 10 lb (0.094 )(122o F − 86o F)
lb.Fo
m = 10 lb. Q = 33.84 Btu
9
ti = 30oC = 5 (30) + 32 = 86o F
9
tf = 50oC = 5 (50) + 32 = 122o F
Btu
cB = 0.094 lb.Fo

kcal
(b) m = 0.80 kg Q = m c ∆t = 0.80 kg (0.600 )(78.2o C − 15o C)
kg.Co
ti = 15oC Q = 30.34 kcal
tf = 78,2oC
kcal
cA = 0.600 kg.Co

9.3. METHOD OF MIXTURES

When we find out coffee too hot to drink, we can cool it by adding some ice. The
ice melts as it absorbs some of the heat and its temperature is raised to somewhere
between the initial temperature of the hot coffee and the ice. Whenever two substances
are mixed, heat is transferred from the warmer substance to the cooler one until both
reach a common temperature (thermal equilibrium).
The heat given off by the hotter body is equal to the heat absorbed by the cooler
one.
Qgiven off = Qabsorbed
Qlost = Qgained
𝑚𝐿 c ∆ 𝑡 = 𝑚𝐺 c ∆ 𝑡

Sample problem 9-3.

A handful of copper shot is heated to 90oC and then dropped into 80 g of water at 10oC.
The final temperature of the mixture is 18oC. What was the mass of the shot?
Solution. The change in temperature of the shot is computed by subtracting the
equilibrium temperature, tmix from the initial of the shot ts. On the other hand, the change
in temperature of the water is computed by subtracting the initial temperature of the water
tw from the equilibrium temperature.
Given;
tS=90Oc mW = 80 g tmix=18oC
mS = ? tW = 10oC
cal cal
Ccu = 0.093g.Co CW = 1.0 g.Co
 Heat lost by shot = Heat gained by water
ms Ccu (t s − t mix ) = mw Cw (t 𝑚𝑖𝑥 − t W )
cal cal
ms (0.093 g.Co )(90𝑜 C − 18𝑜 C) = (80 g)(1.0 g.Co )(18𝑜 C − 100 C)
cal
6.696 ms = 640 cal.
g

ms = 95.58 grams
Sample Problem 9-4.
Suppose that 200 g of copper at 300oC is dropped into 310 g of water at 15oC contained
in a 310 g copper calorimeter cup. Compute the equilibrium temperature.
Solution. The heat lost by the copper must equal the heat gained by water plus the heat
gained by calorimeter cup.
Given:
mcu = 200 g mW = 310 g mc =310 g tmix =?
o
tcu =300 C o
tW = 15 C o
tc = 15 C
cal cal
ccu = 0.093g.Co cW =1.0 g.Co

Heat lost by copper = Heat gained by water + Heat gaine by calorimeter cup

mcu Ccu (t s − t mix ) = mw Cw (t mix − t W ) + mc Ccu (t mix − t c )

cal cal
(200 g)(0.093 g.Co )(300o C − t mix ) = (310 g) (1.0 g.Co ) (t mix − 15o C) +
cal
(310 g)(0.093 g.Co )(t mix − 15o C)

calo ∁ cal cal calo ∁ cal calo ∁

5580 o − 18.6 o t mix = 310 o t mix − 4650 o + 28.83 o t mix − 432.45 o
C C C C C C
cal cal cal calo ∁ calo ∁ calo ∁
−18.6 t mix − 310 t mix − 28.83 t mix = −4650 + −432.45 − 5580
Co Co Co Co Co Co
cal calo ∁
357.43 t mix = −10,662.45
Co Co
t mix = 29.83o C
9.4. CHANGE OF STATE OR PHASE
Matter normally exists in three phases: solid, liquid, and gases. The phase that a
substance is in depends on its internal energy (as indicated by its temperature) and the
pressure on it.
In the solid phase, molecules are held together by attractive force, or bonds.
Adding heat causes increased motion about the molecular equilibrium positions. If
enough heat is added to provide sufficient energy to break the molecular bonds, the solid
undergoes a phase change and becomes a liquid. The temperature at which this occurs
is called the melting point. The temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid is called
the freezing point. In general, these temperatures are the same, but they can differ
slightly.
Ice, table salt and most metals are crystalline solids. That is, they have orderly
molecular and atomic arrangements. Other substances such as glass are non-crystalline
or amorphous. Instead of melting at a particular temperature, these substances melt over
a temperature range.
In the liquid phase, molecules of a substance are relatively free to move and a liquid
assumes the shape of a container. In certain liquids, there may be some ordered
structure, giving rise to so called liquid crystals; such are used in LCD’s (Liquid Crystal
Displays) of calculators or clocks. Adding heat increase the motion of the molecules of a
liquid and when they have enough energy to become separated by large distances
(compared to their diameters), the liquid changes to the gaseous phase, or vapor phase.
This change may occur slowly by the process of evaporation or rapidly at a particular
temperature called the boiling point. The temperature at which a gas condenses and
becomes a liquid is the condensation point.
Some solids such as dry ice (solid carbon dioxide), moth balls, and certain air
fresheners, change directly from solid to the gaseous phase. This process is called
sublimation. Like the rate of evaporation, the rate of sublimation increases with
temperature. A phase change from a gas to a solid is called deposition. Frost, for
example, is solidified water vapor deposited directly on grass, car windows and other
objects.

9.5. LATENT HEAT

In general, temperature increases when heat energy is transferred to a substance.

However, when added (or removed) heat causes only a phase change, the temperature
of the substance does not change. For example, if heat is added to a quantity of ice at -
10oC the temperature of the ice increases until it reaches its melting point at 0oC. At this
point, the addition of more heat does not increase the temperature but causes the ice to
melt, or phase change. Once the ice has melted, adding more heat will cause the
temperature of water to rise. A similar situation occurs during the liquid-gas phase change
at the boiling point. Adding more heat to boiling water causes more evaporation, not a
temperature increase.

During the phase change, the heat energy goes into the work of breaking and
separating molecules, rather than increasing the temperature. The heat involved in a
phase change is called latent heat.

Latent heat of fusion (Lf) – is the amount of heat which must be added to a unit of mass
of the substance to change it from solid to liquid at melting point.
Btu cal kcal
Lf ice = 144 = 80 = 80
lb g kg

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv) – is the amount of heat which must be added to a unit
mass of the substance at boiling point to change it from liquid to vapor.
Btu cal kcal
Lv water at boiling point = 970 = 540 = 540
lb g kg

For a change in temperature, the amount of heat required is the product of three
factors, mass of the substance, specific heat, and change in temperature.

Q = m c ∆t

For a change of phase, the amount of heat needed is the product of two factors,
mass of the substance and latent heat.

Q =m L

Sample problem 9-5.

How much heat is required to change 2 kg of ice at –10oC to steam at 100oC?
Solution. Ice starts to melt at 0oC or 32oF.

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

mi = 2 kg mW = 2 kg
mW = 2 kg mW = 2 kg
ti = -10oC mi = 2 kg 100oC
0oC 100oC
0oC

Let Q1- the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of ice to its melting point.
kcal
Q1 = mi Ci ∆t = (2 kg ) (0.50 ) [0o C − (−10o C)]
kg. Co
Q1 = 10 kcal
Q2- the amount of heat needed to melt ice at 0oC.
 kcal
Q2 = mi Lf = (2 kg ) (80 )
kg
Q2 = 160 kcal

Q3- the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature to its boiling point.
kcal
Q3 = mW CW ∆t = (2 kg ) (1.0 ) [100o C − 0o C]
kg. Co
Q3 = 200 kcal

Q4- the amount of heat needed to vaporize water.

kcal
Q4 = mW Lv = (2 kg ) (540 )
kg
Q4 = 1080 kcal
The total heat needed is
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 = 10 + 160 + 200 + 1080
QT = 1450 kcal

Sample problem 9-6.:

What quantity of heat is required to change 20-lb of ice at 12oF to steam at 232oF?
Solution.
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Q5

mi = 20 lb mW = 20 lb
mW = 20 lb mW = 20 lb
ti = 12oF mi = 20 lb 212oF ms = 20 lb
32oF 212oF
32oF 232oF

Let Q1- the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of ice to its melting point.
Btu
Q1 = mi Ci ∆t = (20 lb ) (0.50 ) [32o F − 12o F]
lb. F o
Q1 = 200 Btu
Q2- the amount of heat needed to melt ice at 32oF.
Btul
Q2 = mi Lf = (20 lb ) (144 )
lb
Q2 = 2880 Btu

Q3- the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature to its boiling point.
Btu
Q3 = mW CW ∆t = (20 lb ) (1.0 ) [212o F − 32o F]
lb. F o
Q3 = 3600 Btu

Q4- the amount of heat needed to vaporize water.

Btu
Q4 = mW Lv = (20 lb ) (970 )
𝑙𝑏
 Q4 = 19400 Btu
Q5- the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of steam to 232 0F.
Btu
Q5 = mS CS ∆t = (20 lb ) (0.48 ) [232o F − 212o F]
lb.Fo
Q5 = 192 Btu

The total heat needed is

QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 + Q5 = 200 + 2880 + 3600 + 19400 + 192
QT = 26272 Btu
 10. HEAT TRANSFER

I. OBJECTIVE
1. To be able to (a) describe the three methods of heat transfer and (b) give practical
and environmental examples of each method.

II. KEY CONCEPT:

Since heat is defined as energy in transit, how the transfer takes place is important.
Heat moves from one place (from higher temperature region to a lower temperature
region) by three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation
.
10-1 CONDUCTION
Conduction is the process in which heat energy is transferred by the adjacent
molecular collisions through a material medium (thermal conductivity).
Through this type of heat transfer, the kinetic energy of the rapidly moving molecules
passes to the slow moving molecules and due to successive collisions, heat flows through
the body of a given matter. This type of heat transfer is the poorest because its molecules
are far apart resulting in less interaction between fast moving to slow moving molecules.
The most common application of the principle of conduction is probably cooking.

L L
t’ t
t’ t Q
Q H=
H= T
T
A

Some general observations concerning conduction of heat:

1. The quantity of heat transferred per unit time is directly proportional to temperature
difference (t’ – t) between two faces.
2. The quantity of heat transferred per unit time is directly proportional to the area of slab.
3. The quantity of heat transferred per unit of time is inversely proportional to the thickness
L of the slab.
Q-amount of heat, kcal, Btu
Q k A ∆t A-area of the slab or rod, m2, ft2
H= =
T L t-change in temperature=(t’ – t), Co, F o
k- thermal conductivity
where: -the ability of the medium to conduct heat.
H-rate of heat flow by T- time, seconds, hour
conduction, kcal/s, Btu/h
L-thickness of the slab, m, inches
-length of the rod.
 Table 4. Thermal Conductivities (k)

Substance Btu. in kcal

ft 2 . h. F o m. s. Co
Aluminum 14.51 5 x 10-2

Brass 750 2.6 x 10-2

Copper 2660 9.2 x 10-2

Silver 2870 9.9 x 10-2

Steel 320 1.1 x 10-2

Asbestos 4 1.4 x 10-4

Brick 5 1.7 x 10-4

Concrete 12 4.1 x 10-4

Corkboard 0.3 1 x 10-5

Glass 7.3 2.5 x 10-4

Air 0.16 5.3 x 10-6

Water 4.15 1.4 x 10-4

Sample Problem10-1.
The outside wall of a brick barbecue pit is 3 inches thick. The inside surface is at 300 oF
and the outside surface is 85oF. How much heat is lost in 1 hour through an area of 1 ft2?
Solution.
Given:
L = 3 inches
t’ = 300oF
t = 85oF
T = 1 hour
A = 1 ft2
Btu.in
k = 5 ft2 .h.Fo
Required: Q
Q k A ∆t
H= =
T L
Btu. in 2 0 0
k T A ∆t 5 2
ft . h. F o (1 h)(1 ft )(300 F − 85 F)
Q= =
L 3 in.

Q = 358.33 Btu
Sample Problem 10-2.
The copper rod having a cross section of 5 cm2 and a length of 50 cm, has one end kept
in contact with boiling water and the other end in contact with ice. Assuming that all the
heat enters at one is transferred by conduction to the other end. Find the amount of ice
melted in ½ hr.
Solution.
Given: 1 m2
A = 5 cm2 x = 5 x 10−4 m2
10000 cm2

t’ = 100oC t = 0oC
1m
L = 50 cm x 100 cm = 0.5 m
Q
H=
T
1 3600 𝑠
Required: mi , T = ℎ𝑟 x = 1800 𝑠
2 1h

Solve for Q:

kcal
k T A ∆t 9.2 x 10−2 m. s. Co (1800 s)(5 x 10−4 m2 )(1000 C − 00 C)
Q= =
L 0.5 𝑚

Q = 16.56 kcal

For mi:

Q = mi Lf

Q 16.56 kcal
mi = = = 0.207 kcal
Lf kcal
80
kg

Sample Problem 10-3.

The wall of a freezing plant is composed of 10 cm of corkboard inside, 14 cm of solid
concrete. If the temperature of the inner wall of the corkboard is –20oC and that of the
outer wall is 24oC, (a) find the corkboard concrete interface (b) calculate the heat flow in
kilocalories per square meter per second.
 t’=24oC
t=-20oC

Q
H= ti
T

10 cm 14 cm

Solution. When two materials of different thermal conductivities and similar cross section
are connected the rate at which heat is conducted through each material must be
constant. For steady flow, the rate of heat through the concrete is equal to the rate of heat
flow through corkboard. Let ti be the temperature at concrete-corkboard interface.

Rate of heat flow through the concrete = Rate of heat flow through the corkboard
HC = HCB

k C A C ∆t k CB ACB ∆t
=
LC LCB
AC = ACB

kcal kcal
(4.1 x 10−4 m. s. Co ) (24o C − t i ) (1 x 10−5 m. s. Co ) [t i − (−200 C)
=
0,14 m 0.10 m

kcalo C kcal kcal kcalo C

9.84 x 10−3 m. s. Co − 4.1 x 10−4 m. s. Co t i 1 x 10−5 m. s. Co t i + 2 x 10−4 m. s. Co
=
0,14 m 0.10 m

kcalo C kcal kcal kcalo C

0.10 [ 9.84 x 10−3 − 4.1 x 10−4
t ] = 0.14 [1 x 10 −5
t + 2 x 10 −4
]
s. Co . s. Co i s. Co i s. Co

kcalo C kcal kcal kcalo C

9.84 x 10−4 − 4.1 x 10 −5
t = 1.4 x 10−6
t + 2.8 x 10 −5
s. Co s. Co i s. Co i s. Co

−5
kcal −6
kcal −5
kcalo C −4
kcalo C
−4.1 x 10 t − 1.4 x 10 t = 2.8 x 10 − 9.84 x 10
s. Co i s. Co i s. Co s. Co

kcal kcalo C
−4.24 x 10−5 t = −9.56 x 10 −4
s. Co i s. Co

t i = 22.55𝑜 𝐶
b) The heat flow per unit area per unit time can now be found from

kcal
k C A C ∆t (4.1 x 10−4 m. s. Co ) (24o C − t i )
HC = =
LC 0,14 m

kcal
(4.1 x 10−4 m. s. Co ) (24o C − 22.55o C )
HC =
0,14 m

kcal
HC = 4.25 x 10−3
m2 . s.

or

kcal
(1 x 10−5 m. s. Co ) [t i − (−200 C)
HCB =
0.10 m

kcal
(1 x 10−5 ) [22.5𝑜 C − (−200 C)
HCB = m. s. Co
0.10 m
kcal
HCB = 4.25 x 10−3
m2 . s.

10-2. CONVECTION
Convection is the transmission of heat in liquids and gases. Currents of the liquids
or gas are set up as the warmer portion rises and the colder part descends to take its
place. During the process of heat transfer, a volume of hot fluid (gas or liquid) moves from
one region to another, carrying the internal energy within it. The current is referred to as
convection currents.

ts

tf tf
A
Convection current is a liquid or a gas that absorbs energy at one place and then moves
to another place where it releases heat to a cooler portion of the fluid.
The rate H at which heat is transferred by convection is proportional to the area A
to the difference in temperature Δt between the wall and the fluid.

Q
H= = h A t
T

where:
H- rate of heat flow by convection
Q- amount of heat
T- time
A- area
t- change in temperature
h- convection coefficient

Table 5. Convection coefficients

Geometry kcal
h,
m2 .s.Co

Vertical Plate (4.24 𝑥 10−4 ) 4√∆𝑡

Horizontal Plate (facing up) (5.95 𝑥 10−4 ) 4√∆𝑡
Horizontal Plate (facing down) (3.14 𝑥 10−4 ) 4√∆𝑡

4 ∆
Pipe diameter, d (1.0 𝑥 10−3 ) √ 𝑑𝑡

Sample Problem 10-4.

A flat vertical wall 6m2 in area is maintained at a constant temperature of 116 oC and
surrounding air on both sides is at 35oC. How much heat is lost from the wall to both
sides in 1 hour by natural convection
Solution. First compute for the convection coefficient (h) for a vertical wall.
Given:

t’=116
o
C h = (4.24 𝑥 10−4 ) 4√∆𝑡
4
t=35oC t=35oC = (4.24 𝑥 10−4 ) √116 − 35
kcal
= 1.272 𝑥 10−3
m2 .s.Co

T=1 h =3600 s

A=6m2
The quantity of heat transferred from each wall can be found by solving for Q,

Q
H= = h A ∆𝑡
T
Q = h A T ∆t
kcal
Q = (1.272 x 10−3 2 o ) (6 m2 )(3600 s)(116o C − 35o C)
m .s.C
Q = 2225.5 kcal
Since there are two walls, the total heat transferred,
Q = 2225.5 kcal (2)
Q = 4451 kcal

Sample Problem 10-5.

A vertical steam pipe has an outside diameter of 8 cm and a height of 5 meters. The
outside temperature of the pipe is 94oC and the room temperature is 23oC. How much
heat is released to the air by convection in 1 hour?
Solution. Compute for convection coefficient(h) for pipe.
Given:
1𝑚
d=8cm d=8 cm x = 0.08 m
100 𝑐𝑚

4 ∆
t’=94oC

ℎ = (1.0 𝑥 10−3 ) √ 𝑑𝑡
t=23oC
4 (94−23)
h=5 m
ℎ = (1.0 𝑥 10−3 ) √ 0.08
T=1 h=3600 s
kcal
ℎ = 5.46 𝑥 10−3
m2 .s.Co

Area of a pipe:
𝐴 = 𝜋 d ℎ = 𝜋 ( 0.08 𝑚)(5 𝑚) = 1.26 m2
The quantity of heat released to the air by convection,
Q = h A T ∆t
kcal
Q = (5.46 𝑥 10−3 2 o ) (1.26 m2 )(3600 s)(94o C − 23o C)
m .s.C
Q = 1758.4 kcal

10-3. RADIATION
Radiation is the transmission of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves
originating at the atomic level. Electromagnetic waves exist either in the form of light,
radio, x-rays and gamma rays. The electromagnetic waves travel at a given velocity, the
same as the measured speed of light (3 x 108 m/s) and require no medium for their
passage. Blackbody is said to be a perfect absorber of radiation, and accordingly it is the
best radiator.
Radiation differs from conduction and convection is that radiation requires no
material medium for the transmission of the heat energy.
For example: The heat from the sun reaches the earth by means of radiation.
 11. CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
I. OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to (a) summarize the basic features of a battery and (b) explain how
a battery produces a direct current in a circuit, (c) define electric current.
2. To be able to (a) define electrical resistance and explain what is meant by an
ohmic resistor, summarize the factors that determine the resistance and (c) calculate the
effect these factors in simple situations
3. To be able to (a) define electrical power, (b) calculate the power delivery of simple
electric circuits, and (c) explain joule heating and its significance.

II. KEY CONCEPT:

11.1 BATTERY AND DIRECT CURRENT
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. The Italian
scientist Allesandro Volta is credited with the constructing one of the first practical
batteries. Basically, a battery consists of two electrodes in a electrolyte; a potential
difference develops across the electrodes as result of chemical action.
The electrode that has a number of excess electrons is named the cathode, and
designated the (-) negative terminal of the battery, the other electrode, although in reality
still having an excess negative charge, has a smaller excess than the cathode, and thus
is designated the (+) terminal. It is called the anode. A color code that assigns red to the
anode and black to the cathode.
Because of the difference in charge of the battery terminals. A potential difference
exists between them. The anode having less negative charge is at higher potential than
the cathode. The potential difference across the terminals when it is not connected to a
circuit is called electromotive force (emf). The emf is the maximum potential difference
between the battery terminals. When a battery is connected to a circuit and charges
flows, the voltage across the battery is slightly less than the emf because of internal
resistance. The opening voltage (V) of a battery is called the terminal voltage.
The internal resistance (r) of the battery is the resistance or opposition to charge results
from the resistance of the materials from which the battery is made. Internal resistances
are typically small, and the terminal voltage of a battery is usually only slightly
less than its emf. However, when a battery supplies a large current to a circuit, the
terminal voltage V may drop appreciably below the maximum emf value.
 R

E r

As long as the internal chemical action maintains a potential difference across the
terminals, current is supplied to a circuit. The battery is said to deliver current to a circuit.
Alternatively, we say that the circuit (or its components) draws current from the battery.
Because electrons can flow only in one direction in such a circuit, from negative (-)
terminal (cathode) to the positive (+) to the positive (+) terminal (anode), this is called
direct current (dc).
Electric current (I) in a wire is defined as the net amount of charge (q) that passes a
cross sectional area of the wire per unit time, that is

𝑞
I=
𝑡
where:
q- magnitude of a charge, coulomb
t-time, seconds
coulomb
I- current, = Ampere
sec
The combination of units is called Ampere(A), in honor of French physicist Andre Ampere
(1775-1836) an early investigator of electrical and magnetic phenomena.

Sample Problem 11-1.

A cloud of 2.5 x 1019 electrons moved past a given point every 2 seconds. How much is
the intensity of the electron flow?
Solution.
Given:
1 colomb
q = 2.5 x 1019 e x 6.25 x 1018 e = 4 coulombs
t= 2 s

q 4 coulombs
I= = = 2 Amperes
t 2s
11-2. RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW
The fact that a wire carrying current can become hot, it is evident that the work done
be the applied force in producing the current must be accomplished some opposition or
resistance (R).
Resistance (R) of a wire or other object is a measure of the potential difference (V)
that must be impressed across the current of one ampere to flow through it. The unit of
resistance is ohm (Ω).
Ohm’s law is not a fundamental law in the sense that Newton’s law of gravitation, or
the first and second law of thermodynamics are. There is no law that states that materials
must have a constant resistance. It is an extremely useful generalization that applies to a
wide range of materials, particularly metals, unless otherwise specify, assume the
resistors are ohmic (a resistor that has constant resistance)
Ohm’s law states,” The current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit.”

E
I=
R
where:
E- potential difference, Volt (V)
R- resistance, Ω
I- current, V/Ω or Ampere (A)
Sample Problem 11-2.
What is the potential difference in an electric circuit with a current of 15 A and a resistance
of 4Ω?
Solution.
Given:
I = 15 A
R=4Ω
Required: E
E = I R = (15 A) (4)
E = 60 V

Sample Problem 11-3:

How much current will an electric heater draw from a 120 V line if the of the heater (when
hot) is 26.7 Ω?
Solution.
Given:
E = 120 V
R = 26.7 Ω
Required: I

E 120 𝑉
I= = = 4.5 𝐴
R 26.7 Ω
Sample Problem 11-4.
A load of 10 Ω was connected to a 12-V battery. The current drawn was 1.18 A. What is
the internal resistance of the battery?
Solution.
Given:
R = 10 Ω
E = 12 V
I = 1.18 A
Required: r (internal resistance of the battery)

E
I=
r +R
I (r + R) = E
I r + IR = E

E − IR 12 − (1.18 A)( 10 Ω)
r= =
I (1.18 A)

r = 0.17 Ω