Modeling and Analysis of Microgrid Energy Management System with

Control of Standalone PV/ Wind System:

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Currently, renewable energy is becoming an essential part of life. However, most of the people in
developing countries are living without access to electricity. Especially, Ethiopia is one of these
developing countries, which have no sufficient power supply. The fact is that the demand for
energy is growing day by day. Urbanization and industrialization have created a huge demand for
energy or electricity. Today, the global energy industry has entered a new era called "smart
energy", which uses efficient, reliable, more sustainable, continuous and safe energy
production/transmission/distribution system. The microgrid is a partial component of the load and
the power, it operates in two modes in the mode connected to the network and disconnected mode
or in the off-grid mode with the traditional centralized network (microgrid), and works in an
autonomous. It is integrated with distributed energy sources (DER), such as renewable energy,
solar energy storage systems or batteries.
Microgrids, smart grids and smart homes are the main technological importance in the field of
smart energy today and in the future. Among these microgrid concepts, the energy management
system (EMS) is explained in the following sections of this paper. Now, at this time, mainly in
developed and developing countries, microgrids are being applied and used in university
campuses, residential areas, industrial parks, farms and military camps. This research focuses on
an off-grid microgrid energy management system, that can provide reliable and high-quality
energy for all communities in the information center and technology building. Due to the
increasing demand for energy and the increase in global greenhouse gas emissions and air
pollution, the microgrid system has been questioned. Microgrid is a small power system composed
of many distributed power generation equipment, which can meet the basic foundation of local
demand, reduce customer power outage costs, system losses, and improve the level of renewable
energy. Also, the significant environmental changes are considered in the design of energy
production and use of photovoltaic (PV) systems. However, energy is directly dependent on the
environment, for example, due to changes in sunlight and temperature, the radiation in the
photovoltaic system will change. The standalone photovoltaic system consists of a photovoltaic
system with MPPT, a bidirectional DC-DC converter, a controller, a battery, and an inverter. Due
to the increase of power sources in the power system, microgrids have received more attention. In
addition, it also utilizes renewable energy by optimizing the total cost of energy and stabilizing
energy. Generally, the energy management of microgrids is more efficient, saving energy by
eliminating energy surplus and insufficiency. The photovoltaic system is a solid semiconductor
that depends mainly on the technology, which converts the fraction of the incident solar radiation
(photons) from the DC electricity with empty emission of carbon. The photovoltaic system can
provide electrical energy to an electrical grid that supplies electric power to a particular device and
connected to an electrical network or a system outside the network. There are two types of
batteries: primary batteries or dry batteries and secondary batteries or rechargeable batteries.
Primary batteries are stored and provide electricity, but they cannot be recharged. But secondary
batteries can store and transport electrical energy, and can further charge and select solar
photovoltaic systems. In addition, the battery of the solar cell system has many advantages, such
as energy storage capacity, voltage, current stabilization and autonomy. It stores electric power
and then accumulates to supply power to the electrical charge according to the necessary
requirements. Charge controller is the basic requirement of photovoltaic system. The wires and
cables come from solar panels and batteries, and all loads pass through the charge controller. The
function of the charge controller is to prevent the battery from charging, control how the
photovoltaic panel charges the battery, send information about the change of the charge controller,
protect the battery from being discharged, and disconnect the load when the battery voltage is too
low. Also, due to changes in temperature and irradiance, the photovoltaic modules will also
change. This means that when the amount of solar radiation changes, the temperature of the
photovoltaic energy will change, the output of the photovoltaic voltage, and current will also
change. Therefore, to control this change, the MPPT control will extract the maximum power from
the photovoltaic module, according to the operating mode of the photovoltaic module.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Ethiopia has abundant and reliable renewable energy resources. Today, energy demand is
increasing day by day and global greenhouse gas emissions are constantly increasing; Due to the
power transmission infrastructure, power distribution system power fluctuations, power quality
disturbances and severe power outages, the power system is facing increasing challenges.
Therefore, power fluctuations can cause significant changes in voltage and frequency, which can
make the system unstable. This unstable power system is leads to insufficient power access,
especially which is more common in the Haramaya University ICT center, and they are using the
diesel or fuel generators, which is expensive. Instead of diesel or fuel, the use of photovoltaic solar
energy is particularly important. Almost the communities do not have sufficient access to energy
and it is difficult to achieve continuity of service. Therefore, to solve these problems, a standalone
microgrid system is adopted to alleviate (reduce) power fluctuations, improve power quality, and
bring reliability and higher efficiency to the system. This problem is more common in the
Haramaya University information center technology building and can be overcome by reducing
the total cost of energy and meeting the needs of the community. Therefore, it can be solved by
adopting microgrid energy management system and standalone photovoltaic system control.
1.3. Objectives
1.3.1. General Objective
The main objective of this thesis is to develop and analysis the microgrid energy management
system using maximum power point tracker, fuzzy and fuzzy-PID controller.
1.3.2. Specific Objectives
The specific objectives are to:
 Determine the power and energy demand of ICT center building Haramaya University,
Ethiopia.
 Estimate and select the size of the PV panel, battery, MPPT controller, inverter and wind
energy potential
 Model and analysis of microgrid energy management system using MATLAB/Simulink
software
 Develop a control system using fuzzy-PID controller
 Optimize the microgrid energy management of the system using HOMER PRO software

1.4. Scope of the Study

The scope of this thesis work tried to evaluate renewable energy issues and challenges in access
to electricity of ICT- center building Haramaya University, Eastern Ethiopia, and also to modeling
and analysis of the Microgrid energy management and control of standalone PV system for the
selected area based on their energy demand.

1.5. Significance of the Study

Due to the application of modeling and analysis of energy management and control in microgrids,
the results of the work of this thesis are useful for the ICT centers by providing uninterrupted and
high-efficiency energy, as well as for users get more reliable, power balanced, and responding to
demand by applying standalone photovoltaic system. Also, the work in this thesis will help other
areas with similar insufficient electric access.

1.6. Limitations of the Study

In this thesis work, the simulation of system is limited to MATLAB/Simulink, and HOMER PRO
software. Also, it is focused only on simulation rather than actual implementation, because it
requires additional time, and cost to implement.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Theoretical Background of Microgrid Energy
Microgrid is a small power system close to consumers. The microgrid system is usually described
as a medium and low voltage distribution network containing several generations of power
sources, controllable loads, and storage devices or batteries. It especially plays a very important
role in the use of renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic arrays. After years of
development, the microgrid concept and its technology have fully exploited, its benefits by
providing optimized integration of renewable energy, saving energy costs and improving
reliability. Similarly, microgrid applications have evolved into commercial and industrial systems
with reliable power. The microgrid application is the embodiment of the smart grid concept. The
smart grid concept describes the integration of technologies, equipment and systems that provide
and use digital information and control to optimize energy efficiency, communication, reliability,
security and protection. Additionally, the microgrid provides flexibility and increased reliability
for power system protection and control. Microgrids are used to meet the energy needs of
universities, hospitals, factories, data centers, military bases, or entire communities. The following
Figure 2.1 shows the structure of the microgrid.

Figure 2.1. Structure of microgrid

2.1.1 Types of Microgrid
i. Institutional microgrid: The campus environment or institutional microgrid consists of several
buildings; they are electrically connected through the campus network. In addition, this type of
microgrid is fully interconnected with public service networks and exists in the near era, with
various loads.
ii. Remote "off-grid" microgrid: The remote or off-grid microgrid is an inherent area, far from
any transmission, so it has nothing to do with the utility network.
iii. Commercial and industrial microgrids: This type of microgrid is more developed in Asia
Pacific and North America. But in the work of this thesis, an independent or off-grid microgrid
system is proposed.
2.1.2. Microgrid Operation Mode
The microgrid can operate in two modes, which are defined as follows.
i. Standalone Mode: It is suitable for situations where the network is far away, the upstream
network is faulty, or some maintenance operations are being performed.
ii. Grid-connected Mode: In this mode, the microgrid system is connected to the upstream
network or public network. The microgrid can be partially powered or supplied from the main
utility grid (depending on electricity or power exchange). But in this paper, an autonomous mode
is proposed.
2.1.3. Control of Microgrid
The important unit that controls the operation of the microgrid is the microgrid management
system, which operates independently or autonomously in the system, and connected to the
network, applies bidirectional power exchange and supports the components of the microgrid
system. The microgrid energy management system is divided into three controls, which
comprehensively manage the operation of the microgrid and maintain the balance between power
generation and users. Such as primary control, secondary control and tertiary control, respectively,
are introduced as follows:
i. Primary Control: The main control works within a range of multiple times or the fastest
response time. The main control functions include off-grid detection, equalization control,
converter output control, and voltage regulation.
ii. Secondary Control: It is the core layer for reliable and economical operation of the microgrid
system. The secondary control functions as a power management and power generation control
system. The power management system then minimizes the operating cost of the microgrid and
improves its reliability. It also adjusts the energy flow of the microgrid system considering the
state of charge of the energy storage system or the battery to ensure its normal operation and save
the life cycle of the battery.

iii. Tertiary Control: It is the highest control and maintains the intelligence of the entire system
or the entire microgrid system. It involves the energy market and organizes energy producers from
an economic point of view considering the balance between consumers and energy generation.
Figure 2.2 below is the microgrid management system.
 Figure 2.2. Microgrid energy management systems

Advantages and disadvantages of using microgrid

Advantages of microgrid are:
 More efficient
 More flexible
 Best environmentally friendly
 More modular
 Less vulnerable
 Easier to control.
However, with the advantages of microgrids, there are also some difficulties to deal with, such as
high distributed energy load, high installation or investment costs, these difficulties can be
encouraged by customers and the government.

2.1.4. Microgrid Components

i. Background of Photovoltaic System
The photovoltaic system is an attractive renewable energy source for distributed power generation
due to its quiet operation and relatively small size. As a result, photovoltaic energy has increased
significantly across the world. Photovoltaic array generates energy, when exposed to sunlight.
However, multiple interface components are required to convert, control, distribute, conduct, and
store the energy obtained by the photovoltaic array. The structures of PV are:
a. PV array: It is used to describe a group of modules in a single system. When the power
generated by the module is not enough to meet certain applications, the modules can be connected
in parallel, in series or meet the required power rating. Photovoltaic arrays consist of multiple
modules and modules made up of cells. It is a complete power generation unit, containing any
number of PV panels and modules.
b. PV cell: The photovoltaic cell is covered with a protective layer and becomes a photovoltaic
module, which is the basic assembly block of the photovoltaic system. When light hits the surface
of a solar cell, the solar cell accumulates semiconductors, so electrons are released and collected
from the metal connected to the cell.
c. PV module: Cell combinations are called photovoltaic modules or called photovoltaic panels.
Most of the time cells are connected in series to increase the voltage rating of the photovoltaic
module or the panel. The electric power generated by the cell is very small.
Therefore, many cells are connected in series to increase the power rating. Figure 2.3 shows the
photovoltaic structure of photovoltaic cells, modules and array.

Figure 2.3. Structure of PV cell, module, and array

ii. Types of Solar Photovoltaic Cells
Photovoltaic cells are manufactured in different ways using different materials. The material used
for the structure of solar panels is silicon with semiconductor properties. The types of photovoltaic
cells that dominate the world market fall into three categories:
 Monocrystalline silicon cell
 Polycrystalline silicon cell
 Thin film
a. Monocrystalline silicon photovoltaic cell: Monocrystalline silicon cells have high efficiency
and strong heat resistance. However, their manufacturing process is low and labor intensive,
making them more expensive than polycrystalline or thin films.
b. Polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic cell: Polycrystalline photovoltaic cells contain many small
crystal grains instead of a single similar crystal structure. It is cheaper than monocrystalline cells,
but has lower efficiency. Approximately 70% of the world's photovoltaic production is dominated
by the world market.
c. Thin film: Nevertheless, crystalline photovoltaic cells still dominate the market, and these cells
are also made of thin films. This makes them more durable and more flexible. The result is very
thin and flexible, and it uses less than 1% of the silicon required for a crystalline cell. Due to the
reduction of raw materials and lower energy manufacturing processes, the production cost of
amorphous silicon cells is very low. Since the order of silicon atoms is smaller than that of crystals,
the efficiency is greatly reduced.

Figure 2.4. Types of solar photovoltaic cells

Table 2.1. Multi-criteria for types of photovoltaic cells

Types of cells Efficiency rate Advantage Disadvantage

Monocrystalline cell 20% Highly efficient, Durable Most expensive
Polycrystalline cell 15% Less expensive, improving Slightly lower efficiency not as
efficiency durable
Thin film 7-10% Low cost, easily Produced Shorter warranties, shorter
(Amorphous cell) lifespan

iii. Working Principles of Solar Photovoltaic

Conversion of the light comes from into electricity, or which generates voltage or current is called
the photovoltaic effect. When the semiconductor material in the photovoltaic cell is doped, a
photovoltaic effect PN structure is formed. Positive or p-type silicon can give up electrons and
gain holes, while n-type silicon accepts electrons.
When cells are affected by sunlight, photons from the light excite some electrons in the
semiconductor to form negative-positive pairs or electron holes, and then form an electric field.
This formed field causes positively charged particles to move in different direction. Free electrons
tend to pass through the n-side rather than the p-side, because electrons move to the n-side, forming
holes. Then the hole moves to the side or in the opposite direction to the electron. Through the
movement of electrons, an electric current is formed in the cell. This process is called the way
photovoltaic energy works in solar cells. Figure 2.5 below shows the working principle of
photovoltaic solar energy.

Figure 2.5. How photovoltaic solar works

2.1.5. Electrical Characteristics of Photovoltaic Panel
Most PV modules are classified using standard test conditions (STC). Standard test conditions are
defined as a set of laboratory test conditions that are similar to the conditions under which
photovoltaic panels can be used.
Standard test conditions have the following factors:
Irradiance: It is the power or intensity of sunlight, described in watts per square meter falling on
a flat surface. The measurement standard is expressed in 1000 watts per square meter.
Cell temperature: It will be different from the ambient air temperature. The standard test
condition defines the battery test temperature as 25 ° C.
Advantages and disadvantages of photovoltaic modules:
Advantages:
 The photovoltaic system is silent and visually discreet
 The energy produced by solar cells is silent and clean.
 Photovoltaic solar energy is a locally available renewable energy source.
 The photovoltaic system can be built in any size according to the energy demand.
Disadvantages:
 Photovoltaic solar energy is a variable energy source, due to temperature and irradiance.
 In addition, some toxic chemicals such as arsenic and cadmium are used in the photovoltaic
production process.
 Photovoltaic panels are poorly maintained, easily damaged, and fragile.

2.1.6. Factors that Affect Reliability and Performance of PV Cell

i. Solar cell conversion efficiency ()
The efficiency of photovoltaic solar cells is the relationship between the maximum output power
produced and the incident or input power. Some output parameters will affect the efficiency of
photovoltaic solar cells, which are defined as follows.

× ×
= (2.1)
Pin
where: VOC is open circuit voltage, ISC is short circuit current,P is the incident light power on the device,
and FF is the fill factor.

ii. Short circuit current

The short-circuit current is the current encountered, when the positive and negative electrodes of
the cell are short-circuited; in addition, the voltage between the negative and positive terminals is
zero, which corresponds to zero load resistance. It depends on the spectrum of incident light and
the density of incident photon flux.
iii. Open circuit voltage
It is the maximum voltage, when no current flows through the external circuit. Under open circuit
voltage, the terminals of the photovoltaic solar cell are open or disconnected from the load.
iv. Fill factor
Fill factor is one of the important parameters to identify the efficiency of photovoltaic solar
modules. In order to provide maximum efficiency, the fill factor should be the largest and close to
unity on the current and voltage curves of the solar PV module. However, the value of the FF gives
a concept of the quality of the photovoltaic array, the closer to unity, the greater the power that the
array can provide. It is the relationship between theoretical power and maximum power, expressed
mathematically as follows. The IV curve of the solar cell variable fill factor is shown in Figure
2.6.

FF≡ (2.2)

Figure 2.6. I-V Curve with a varying fill factor of solar cell

2.1.7. Maximum Power Point Tracker

The maximum power point tracker is used to extract the maximum power from photovoltaic
modules or panels under different irradiance and temperatures. The point where the photovoltaic
module produces the maximum power is called the maximum power point. The output
characteristics of photovoltaic arrays are affected by changes in temperature and irradiance. When
temperature and irradiance change, photovoltaic modules may not work at the maximum power
point. Therefore, in order to overcome this problem, this paper chooses the P and O methods. It is
a maximum power point tracking technology, which can extract maximum power from
photovoltaic modules at any time and provide solar energy efficiency. The induced power output
in a photovoltaic module depends on the temperature and irradiance of the solar cell. The
photovoltaic module has a single operating point that can provide maximum energy to the load.
This point is called the maximum power point, and it varies nonlinearly with cell temperature and
solar irradiance, as shown in Figure 2.7.
 Figure 2.7. Maximum power points of I -V and P -V curves

2.1.8. Perturb and Observe Technique

This technique is the simplest method. The time complexity of perturbation and observation
methods is much lower. It will not stop at the maximum power point, but will continue to perturb
in both directions. Once this happens, the algorithm is very close to MPP, and appropriate error
limits can be set, or it can use a wait function, which will eventually increase the time complexity
of the method. The principle of the perturbation and observation algorithm is that with a small
increase in the working voltage of the photovoltaic panel, it is perturbed. If the power change
generated by the power supply is positive, it should go in the direction of MPP, and then continue
to perturb in the same direction. If the power change is negative, it will move away from the
direction of the MPP, and the provided perturbation sign must be changed. In this method, the first
condition to check is that the current power is the same as the previous reading. If the power does
not change, it should run at the inflection point of the PV curve without changing the operating
voltage. The second conditional statement compares the power of the previous value with the
current value. The voltage is then compared with the previous value, and the direction of the
maximum power point can be determined from these samples. The duty cycle is perturbed in the
direction of power increase. This method continues its working voltage from the photovoltaic
module until the maximum power is obtained. The flow chart of the perturbation and observation
method is shown in Figure 2.8 below.
 Figure 2.8. The flow chart of perturb and observe method

2.1.9. DC to DC Converters
A DC to DC converter is a power electronic circuit that converts DC voltage from one level to
another. There are many conversion methods, such as linear, electronic, magnetic, switch mode,
and capacitance. Among them, the circuit described in this paper is a switch-mode DC to DC
converter. This is an electronic device used, whenever there is a need to change DC power from
one voltage level to another. They basically just change the input power at various impedance
levels. There are various converters that can be used to change the voltage level to another level.
Some of them are discussed below.
i. The Buck converter
A buck converter is used in a circuit that reduces the voltage level of the output voltage according
to its requirements. The operation of a buck converter starts with an open switch, which means
that no current flows anywhere in the circuit. When the switch is closed, the current flows through
the inductor, which is slow at first, but gradually accumulates over time. When the switch is closed,
the inductor draws current through the diode, which means that the voltage at the output of the
inductor is lower than the first one.
ii. The Boost Converter
A boost converter is a power converter whose output DC voltage is greater than its input DC
voltage. This converter has the same components as the buck converter, but produces an output
voltage greater than the source voltage.
iii. Buck-boost converter

Another basic switch-mode converter is the buck-boost converter. The output of this buck-boost
converter will be lower or higher than the input voltage.
2.1.10. Energy Storage System
Energy storage systems are key components used in microgrids that rely on renewable energy
sources. It will provide voltage stability and smooth fluctuations that occur in renewable energy
power generation.
The energy storage system is a backup system that integrates with the photovoltaic array through
a bidirectional converter to provide reliability and energy stability by charging during off-peak
load and discharge during peak load conditions. The energy generated by renewable energy has
certain fluctuations. Energy storage systems allow energy to be used, when there is not enough
power to generate energy. The efficiency of the energy storage system will affect the performance
of the system, so it is necessary to conduct deep study on energy storage. There are different types
of energy storage systems, such as batteries, fuel cells, flywheels, compressed air, and super
capacitors. Among them, the battery is selected and discussed.
2.1.11. Battery
A battery is an electrochemical device that can directly convert the chemical energy contained in
its active material into electrical energy, and vice versa. Batteries are mainly used as storage
elements, because they store energy through an electrochemical process and have a fast response
during both discharging and charging. In addition, compared with other energy storage devices
such as super capacitors, fuel cells, compressed air systems, and flywheels, batteries have higher
energy density. In addition, they can provide flexible power management to improve the power
quality of the microgrid power generation system. Generally, batteries can be divided into two
categories: primary batteries and secondary batteries.
i. Primary batteries: These batteries are not rechargeable and cannot be charged, once expelled
and discarded. They are cheap, lightweight, and high energy density, and are used primarily in
portable electronic devices.
ii. Secondary batteries: This battery can store and transport electrical energy, which means that
it can be charged and recharged multiple times. It can be charged by passing it in the opposite
direction of the discharge current. They are more expensive than primary cells and are used in
applications that involve some discharge and charge cycles, such as solar photovoltaic systems.
2.1.12. Specifying Batteries
When specifying suitable batteries for microgrid power management systems and standalone
photovoltaic systems, the following factors need to be considered.
i. Temperature correction: Most batteries are sensitive to extreme temperatures, and cold
batteries cannot provide as much power as hot batteries.
ii. Depth of discharge: Compared to the total charge capacity, the percentage of the battery
capacity (Ah) drawn from the battery is called the depth of discharge.
iii. Rated battery capacity: Represents the maximum energy the battery can produce in a single
discharge under specified discharge rate and temperature conditions.
iv. State of charge (SOC): The state of charge is the remaining capacity of the battery at any time.
It is equal to 1 minus the Depth of Discharge (DOD) given as a percentage.
v. Battery life cycles: The life span of any type of battery is difficult to determine, because it
depends on many factors, such as depth of discharge, charge and discharge rate, operating
temperature, and number of cycles.
vi. Days of autonomy: It refers to the number of days that the battery system continuously releases
power under a given load without being charged by the photovoltaic system.

2.1.13. DC to DC Bidirectional Converter

A bidirectional converter is a device used to reduce or increase the voltage level, with the ability
to flow power in the reverse or forward direction. The role of the bidirectional converter is to
regulate the DC power flow from the bus voltage in both directions. When the solar power
generation system is used to generate electricity, the output will fluctuate, due to changes in
environmental conditions. Due to the large fluctuations in production, the power system must
always be connected to energy storage devices such as batteries. The battery stores excess energy
during periods of low load demand and provides backup in the event of a system failure. Therefore,
a bidirectional converter is required to allow power to flow in both the forward and reverse
directions.

2.1.14. Inverter
It is a device that converts direct current into alternating current. As we all know, photovoltaic
panels generate direct current and standalone photovoltaic systems have alternating current loads,
so an inverter must be required to convert DC into AC power.
2.1.15. Charge Controllers
The charge controller is used to manage the current to and from the battery in the microgrid system.
They are used to protect the battery and manage the DC bus voltage. In a microgrid independent
photovoltaic system, the charge controller will control the bidirectional converter by reducing the
photovoltaic output voltage to reach the level required by the battery. When the photovoltaic output
drops to zero, the charge controller will activate the bidirectional converter The charge controller
is usually a current and/or voltage regulator to prevent the battery from overcharging. It regulates
the current and voltage from the photovoltaic panel and delivered to the battery. The main
application of the charge controller is to provide the battery with the highest possible state of
charge. In addition, it can also protect the battery from overcharging and disconnect the load to
prevent over-discharge. If there is no charge control, regardless of whether the battery needs to be
charged, the current from the photovoltaic module will flow to the battery in proportion to the
irradiance. If the battery is fully charged, improper charging will bring the risk of battery voltage
rising to an extremely high level, resulting in internal heating of the battery, strong gas generation,
accelerated network corrosion and electrolyte loss, so that the charge controller can provide health
and increase battery life.
2.1.16. PID Controller
The PID controller is used to obtain better system dynamic constraints and reduce errors. For the
work of this paper, the PID controller is combined with the fuzzy logic controller, which finds the
error value and calculates the output value according to the error characteristic. There is a detailed
description at the end ofchapter three. The control variable will operate the bidirectional converter
to control the energy flow between the battery and the microgrid to stabilize the autonomous
photovoltaic voltage. PID controller contains three elements, such as P, I and D.
i. Proportional term: It makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current error
value. It can be adjusted by multiplying the error by Kp, which is known as proportionalgain.
ii. Derivative term: The derivative of the process error is founded by determining the slope
of the error over time and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain value.
iii. Integral term: Integral is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration
of the error.

2.1.17. Energy Management System

Energy management systems play a very important role in managing and sending loads from
renewable energy sources to microgrid systems. An efficient energy management system can not
only save sustainable energy, but also minimize costs. The energy management system is essential
for the stable operation of the microgrid, providing a high-quality power supply and flexible
operation for loads and consumers. The main objective of energy management is to improve the
efficiency of the microgrid system and to use the energy given in the most prioritized way. In
addition, the energy management system of the microgrid maintains the state of charge of the
battery within a certain range, controls the charge and discharge of the battery, avoids over
discharge/overcharge, and controls the frequent conversion of charge and discharge by the means
of limiting the output power comes from the solar energy.
2.1.18. Energy Management Strategy
As we all know, solar power generation and load demand constantly change over time. Combining
photovoltaic power sources to meet demand requires some reliability of the backup system and
system switching between sources to adapt to changing needs. Therefore, the energy management
strategy aims to meet the load demand and provide efficient solar energy. Therefore, in addition
to photovoltaic energy sources, other energy sources such as batteries and power generation are
also used. In addition, the DC voltage of the microgrid system remains unchanged. The EMS
strategy can be used for autonomous systems with batteries. The microgrid energy management
standalone PV system flowchart is shown in Figure 2.9 and then, the process is described in three
cases which are:
Case i: When the power generation (PG) and load demand (PL) are equal. In this case, the
generated power by photovoltaic modules is equal to the total load of the ICT center, so the load
will be supplied by the power generation without any disturbance. In the first case, the battery
energy storage is not used, because there is no deficit or damped energy.
Case ii: When load demand is less than PV-generated power. In this condition, the excess power
is transferred to the battery with consideration of the state of charge of the battery.
Case iii: When the load demand is greater than generated power from the PV modules. In this
case, if the SOC of the battery is greater than the minimum value, the battery can meet the charging
demand. In addition, if the battery SOC is lower than the minimum value, the system will not be
able to meet the load demand, and there will be insufficient power. For energy storage, the SOC
is between 30% and 85%.
 Figure 2.9. Flowchart of microgrid energy management system

2.1.19. Battery Management Systems

The Battery Management System (BMS) monitors the health of the battery by balancing the
battery during charging or discharging, and uses key information by measuring current and
voltage. BMS can estimate the state of charge of a battery using measured values and information
such as battery life and the number of charge or discharge cycles. BMS can also protect the battery
from overcharge, undercharge, under voltage, overvoltage and overcurrent.

2.2 Wind Energy System

Winds are produced by uneven solar heating of the earth’s land and sea surfaces. Thus, they are a
form of “solar” energy. On average, the ratio of total wind power to incident solar power is on the
order of two present, reflecting a balance between input and dissipation by turbulence and drag on
the surface. Wind is the movement of air caused by the irregular heating of the Earth's surface. It
happens at all scales, from local breezes created by heating of land surfaces that lasts some minutes,
to global winds caused from solar heating of the Earth. Wind power is the transformation of wind
energy into more utile forms, typically electricity using wind turbines.
2.2.1 Types of Wind Turbines
A wind turbine is a machine that converts the kinetic energy from the wind into mechanical energy.
If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a pump or grinding stones, the
machine is usually called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the
machine is called a wind generator. There are a number of different wind turbine types available.
The horizontal axis turbine, HAWT is by far the most common type of turbine. They come in two
different types: the upwind, which face the wind (tower behind rotor) and the downwind
arrangement that works away from the wind (tower in front). Another kind of turbine is the vertical
axis, VAWT arrangement that uses drag and lift as the driving forces; the horizontal also uses drag
and lift, but in other proportions. The advantages with upwind turbines are that the tower does not
act as an obstacle for the wind hitting the rotor. Despite this, the flow behind the passing blade is
affected by the tower and causes a slight drop in power. When the blade passes the tower it also
decreases the drag on the construction which can cause an on/off bending process causing fatigue
stress. This has of course been taking into account when designing the turbine. The upwind design
needs a control system that helps the nacelle turn straight to the wind. In downwind turbines, the
tower shades a rotor blade each time it passes by and causes greater power losses compared to the
upwind design. An advantage with downwind turbines is that the nacelle is self-adjusting and is
not in need of a control system. One drawback with this is the problem with untwisting the cable
inside when the nacelle has turned same direction repeatedly. The VAWT´s are not as commercial
and economically competitive as the HAWT´s. Some of the VAWT types suffer from low
efficiency due to design difficulties as well as the problem with operation close to the ground.
Parts of the vertical turbines will therefore receive low quality winds causing power losses. To
keep the construction upright it also needs to be supported with guy cables attached to the ground.
The vertical turbine is not in need of yaw control, which of course is an advantage and the wind
always hits the turbine tangentially. The modern wind turbine is a sophisticated piece of machinery
with aerodynamically designed rotor and efficient power generation, transmission and regulation
components. The size of these turbines ranges from a few Watts (Small Wind Turbines) to several
Million Watts (Large Wind Turbines). The modern trend in the wind industry is to go for bigger
units of several MW capacities in places where the wind is favorable, as the system scaling up can
reduce the unit cost of wind-generated electricity. Most of today's commercial machines are
horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) with three bladed rotors.
 Figure 2.10: Type of wind turbines.

2.2.2. Wind Turbine Components

The most common turbine type is the horizontal axis wind turbine. A cut-view (Figure 2.11) helps
the reader to get familiar with the components of a wind turbine.
 Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
 Hub: Hub is the connection point for the rotor blades and the low speed shaft.
 Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the
rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1200 to 1500
rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box
is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive"
generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes specially for
small scale wind turbines.
 Figure 2.11: Cut-View Wind Turbine
 Generator: The generator is connected to the high-speed shaft and is the component of the
system that converts the rotational energy of the shaft into an electrical output.
 Tower of wind power generation: The tower is used to support the nacelle and rotor
blades and typically made of rolled, tubular steel, and built and shipped in sections because
of its size and weight. Common tubular towers incorporate a ladder within the hollow
structure to provide maintenance access. Small-scale towers range in height from 24-35m
and its weight depends on the material from where it is manufactured.
 Nacelle: The rotor attaches to the nacelle, which sits at top of the tower and includes the
gear box, low and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. A cover protects the
components inside the nacelle. Some nacelles are large enough for a technician to stand
inside while working rotor in emergencies.
 Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 3.5 to 7.2 meters
per sec (m/s) and shuts off the machine at about 30 m/s.
 High-speed shaft: Drives the generator.
 Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 RPM.
 Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in winds
that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
  Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
 Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases
with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more
electricity.
 Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor
facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw
drive; the wind blows the rotor down wind.
 Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.
 Electronic equipment: Such as controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment and
interconnection equipment.

2.2.3 Working Principles of Wind Turbines

The blade, using aerodynamic lift, capture energy from wind in order to turn the shaft. In small
wind turbines the shaft, usually drives the generator directly. The generator converts the
mechanical energy into electricity. The shaft power causes coils to spin past alternate poles of
magnets, allowing an electric current to flow. If a permanent magnet device is being used the
opposite occur: current flow as magnets spin past coil windings. Most small wind turbines use a
permanent magnet alternator. Large wind turbines usually use either induction generator or a
Synchronous generator. In addition, in large wind turbines the shaft connected to the generator via
a gearbox those steps up the rotational speed or the generator.

Figure 2.12: wind energy conversion system diagram

2.2.4 Wind Energy Distribution & Extraction by HAWT
 Distribution of wind speed
The distribution of wind is expressed by Weibull distribution over a certain period of time at a
particular site. The Weibull probability density function is given by equation 2.17.

f( ) = exp − (2.17)

Where, u = the wind speed,

k = a constant known as shape factor, as the value of k increases the curve will have a
sharper peak
c = a scale parameter in m/s; the larger the scale parameter, the more spread out the
distribution.
The area under the curve is always unity. The power density can in this case be expressed by
equation 2.18.
= ∑ (2.18)

Where, Vj is the median velocity in class j and fj is the frequency of occurrence in the same class.
For k = 2 the Weibull PDF is commonly known as the Rayleigh density function in which case
equation 2.17 may be rewritten as in equation 2.19.
2
fu= exp − (2.19)

 Wind Energy Extraction by HAWT

The energy of wind is extracted by using an appropriate wind turbine. The wind energy is tapped
by the wind turbine which converts the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical shaft energy.
The rotational energy is converted into electrical energy through the transmission system. The
transmission system consists of the rotor shaft with bearings, brake(s), an optional gearbox, as
well as a generator and optional clutches. The energy available in the wind can be expressed
using equation 2.20.

Pw= (2.20)

Where, ρ =Density of air (kg/m3)

A = the swept area (m2)
Pw = power in the wind (W)
v =instantaneous wind velocity (m/s)

Energy conversion from free-flowing fluid streams is limited because full energy extraction
implies a decrease of fluid velocity (decrease of kinetic energy of the stream), down to zero
which is impossible. Some fluid may not pass through the turbine and may simply flow around it
(bypass it). This limitation is expressed in terms of Betz limit defined by the power coefficient
Cpas given by equation 2.21.

Cp= (2.21)

The power coefficient, Cp, is a function of the axial induction factor. The optimum of this
function (which is a maximum value for Cp) is 0.5926 (=16/27). Thus the electrical power output
from the wind turbine can be expressed by equation 2.22

Pwout= tCp (2.22)

Where, Pwout= output power of wind turbine

t =Overall efficiency of the transmission system/power train
Cp = the power coefficient

The power coefficient and efficiency of wind turbines vary greatly from the manufactures to the
manufacturers. As a result, the power output of wind turbines varies from turbine to turbine and
is given by power curve, which plots the output power of a turbine against wind speed (see
Figure 2.13).

Figure 2.13: General power curve of wind turbine

The wind speed at which a wind turbine starts generating electrical power is called the cut-in speed.
The rated wind speed is the wind speed at which the turbine operates at its maximum efficiency of
energy conversion. Rated power is the power output of the wind speed which is equal to, or above,
the rated speed. The cut-out speed is the wind speed at which the turbine may shut down to protect
the rotor and drive train machinery from damage, or high wind stalling characteristics.
2.2.5 Wind Turbines Power Control Mechanism
All wind turbines are designed with some sort of power control. There are different ways to control,
aerodynamic forces on the turbine rotor and thus to limit the power in very high wind speeds in
order to avoid damage to the turbine. There are three commonly used types of power control in the
industry.
 Stall Control: The simplest, most robust and cheapest control method is the stall control
(also called passive control), where the blades are bolted onto the hub at a fixed angle. The fixed-
blade pitch is chosen so that the turbine reaches its maximum or rated power at the desired wind
speed. The design of the rotor aerodynamic causes the rotor to stall (lose power) when the wind
speed exceeds a certain level which limits the aerodynamic power on the blades.

 Pitch Control: Another type of control is pitch control, where the blades can be turned out
or into the wind as the power output becomes too high or too low, respectively. Generally, the
advantages of this type of control are good power control, increased energy capture, assisted
startup and emergency stop. The pitch change system has to act rapidly. From an electrical point
of view, good power control means that at high wind speeds the mean value of the power output
is kept close to the rated power of the generator. The extra complexity arising from the pitch
mechanism and the higher power fluctuations at high wind speeds can be mentioned as the
demerits of this control scheme.

 Active stall regulation: The third possible control strategy is the active stall control, in
which the stall of the blade is actively controlled by pitching the blades. At low wind speeds, the
blades are pitched similar to a pitch-controlled wind turbine, in order to achieve maximum
efficiency. At high wind speeds, the blades go into a deeper stall by being pitched slightly in the
direction opposite to that of a pitch-controlled turbine. The active stall wind turbine achieves a
smoother limited power, without high power fluctuations as in the case of pitch-controlled wind
turbines. This control type has the advantage of being able to compensate variation in air density
and inherits the advantages of both pitch and stall control mechanisms.

2.2.6 Wind Speed Measurement

The wind speed is measured with an instrument called an anemometer. These instruments come in
several types. The most common type is a cup anemometer which has three or four cups attached
to a rotating shaft. When the wind hits the anemometer, the cups and the shaft rotate. The angular
speed of the spinning shaft is calibrated in terms of the linear speed of the wind. Normally, the
anemometer is fitted with a wind vane to detect the wind direction. A data logger collects wind
speed and wind direction data from the anemometer and wind vane respectively. It is very
important that the measuring equipment is set high enough to avoid turbulence created by trees,
buildings or other obstructions. The readings would be most useful if they have been taken at hub
height where the wind turbine is going to be installed. If the measurement of wind speed was not
made at the wind turbine hub height (in this case it is 10 m) it is important to adjust the measured
wind speed to the hub height. This can be done using either the logarithmic law, which assumes
that the wind speed is proportional to the logarithm of the height above ground, or the power law,
which assumes that the wind speed varies exponentially with height. Using the logarithmic law,
the wind speed at a certain height above ground level can be given as follows.

V(z)*ln =V( )*ln (2.23)

Where, Zr = Reference height (m)

Z = Height where wind speed is to be determined (m)
Zo = Measure of surface roughness (0.1 to 0.25 for crop land)
V (z) = Wind speed at the height of Z m (m/s)
V (Zr) = Wind speed at the reference height (m/s)
Using power law, the wind speed at a certain height above ground level can be given as follows
ℎ
= ( ) (2.24)
ℎ
Where: V1 is wind speed measured at the reference height h1 (m/s),
V2 is wind speed estimated at height h2 (m/s), and
a is the ground surface friction coefficient.
Table 2-1: Friction coefficient a of various terrains
Terrain Type Friction coefficient ᵅ
Lake, ocean, and smooth, hard ground 0.1
Foot – high grass on level ground 0.15
Tall crops, hedges, and shrubs 0.2
Wooded country with many trees 0.25
Small town with some trees and shrubs 0.3
City area with tall buildings 0.4

2.2.7 Factor affecting wind electricity production

The wind turbine electricity production can be depending on the following factors, namely wind
speed, air density and area swept by the rotor blades. From the figure 2.13 clearly understand, that
the above mention factor influencing the electricity production of the wind turbine.
 Wind speed
The wind speed is divided into four category based on the operation of wind turbine.
Start-up Speed: - This is the speed at which the rotor and blade assembly begins to rotate.
Cut-in Speed: - Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate
usable power. This wind speed is typically between 7mph and 10mphfor most turbines.
Rated Speed: - The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will
generate its designated rated power. Rated speed for most machines is in the range of 25 to 35
mph. At wind speeds between cut-in and rated, the power output from a wind turbine increases as
the wind increases. The output of most machines levels off above the rated speed. Most
manufacturers provide graphs, called "power curves," showing how their wind turbine output
varies with the wind speed.
Cut-out Speed: -At very high wind speeds, typically between 45 and 80 mph, most wind turbines
cease power generation and shut down. The wind speed at which shuts down occurs is called the
cut-out speed, or sometimes the furling speed. Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature which
protects the wind turbine from damage.
 Air density
The denser the air, the more energy received by the turbine. Air density varies with elevation and
temperature. Air is less dense at higher elevations than at sea level, and warm air is less dense than
cold air. All else being equal, turbines will produce more power at lower elevations and in locations
with cooler average temperatures. Air density has a significant effect on wind turbine performance.
The power available in the wind is directly proportional to air density. As air density increases the
available power also increases. Air density is a function of air pressure and temperature. It
increases when air pressure increases or the temperature decreases. Both temperature and pressure
decrease with increasing elevation. Consequently, changes in elevation produce a profound effect
on the generated power as a result changing in the air density.
 The Perfect Gas Law
The air density may be estimated from the perfect gas law.
P*V=n* ∗ (2.25)

Where, P is the pressure [Pa]

V is the volume considered [m3]
n is the number of moles
Rair is the specific gas constant for dry air (287.05 J/ (kg*K))
T is the temperature [K]

If the density, ρair, is defined from the number of molecules in a certain volume, n/V=ρ, then the
density may now be expressed from the perfect gas law as:
 Air Density = (2.26)

Where, Rair = molecular weight of air (J/kg*K) and is given by: Rair = R/M air = 287.05J/kg*K
R= universal gas constant (J/kg*K) = 8.31432 J/kg*K
Mair=molar mass of air (kg/mol) = 28.9644*10-3kg/mol (assumed constant up to
approximately 86km altitude)
P = atmospheric pressure (Pa)
T = temperature (K)
 Swept area of the turbine
The larger the swept area (the size of the area through which the rotor spins), the more power the
turbine can capture from the wind. Since swept area is , where D = diameter of the rotor, a
small increase in blade length results in a larger increase in the power available to the turbine.
Figure 2.12: Wind turbine model
The below equation is used to calculate the power production from the wind turbine.

Power(watts)= (2.27)

Where ρ=air density (kg/m3)

A=swept area of the wind turbine rotor (m2)
V=wind speed (m/s)
We can also calculate power from the wind turbines using:

∗ (2.28)

Where: PT=Power extracted by wind turbine (watts)

Cp= Coefficient of performance
ρ =Air density (kg/m3), 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level, less in higher altitudes
A=swept area of the wind turbine rotor (m2)
Table 2-2: International standard atmosphere, mean sea level conditions
Pressure Po =101325N/m2 =1013.25hPa
Density = 1.225 ⁄
Temperature To=288.15
Speed of sound =340.294 ⁄
 Acceleration of gravity Go = 9.80665 m/sec2

2.2.8 Temperature modelling

Figure 2.14: International standard atmosphere temperature variation

Temperature decreases with altitude at a constant rate of -6.5℃/1000m(-1.98℃/1000ft) up to the
tropopause. The standard tropopause altitude is 11 000m (36089ft). Therefore, the air which is
considered as a perfect gas in the ISA model presents the following Characteristics within the
troposphere.

T= − 6.5 (2.29)

T= − 1.98 (2.30)

2.2.9 Pressure modelling

To calculate the standard pressure p at a given altitude, the temperature is assumed standard, and
the air is assumed as a perfect gas. The relationship between the pressure at a troposphere
altitude and sea level pressure can be obtained by:
.
P= 1 − 0.0065 (2.31)

where To is temperature in Kelvin, and h is height in meters. Or

P= (1 − 2.5577 ∗ 10 ∗ ℎ) .
(2.32)
2.3.7. Overall Microgrid Energy Management System and Control Standalone PV System
Generally, a microgrid is a power distribution system that includes distributed power, loads, energy
storage devices, controllable loads, bidirectional converters, inverter, and control algorithms of the
system is operated in a standalone or off-grid mode in this thesis work. The power generation is
connected to the DC bus, the AC electrical load is taken out of the DC power supply through the
DC to AC converter, and then the AC power is supplied to the AC load through the inverter. The
microgrid power management system involves organizing power generation, charging, and storage
of power or batteries to meet operational objectives such as cost, availability, and customer needs.
Figure 2.10 below shows the entire microgrid power system.

Figure 2.10. Block diagram of microgrid energy management of standalone PV system

In this paper, the EMS of the microgrid has a photovoltaic system powered by solar energy. It has
a MPPT, which can extract the maximum power and improve efficiency through observation and
perturbation methods. The DC-DC or boost converter controls the photovoltaic power according
to its MPPT to increase the power generation of the microgrid system. Photovoltaic power directly
supplied to DC power, and then converts the DC power to AC power through an inverter. In
addition, the battery also stores energy and integrates with the photovoltaic array via a two-way
converter. Also, to manage and control the microgrid energy management system, using fuzzy and
fuzzy-PID controller are applied.

2.4. Related Work

Many researchers around the world have conducted research on the energy management and
control system of the microgrid, especially some researchers in Ethiopia. Many authors have been
studied based on renewable energy resources and the results have been published.

In [23], the modeling and simulation of DC microgrid. It was proposed that DC microgrid
technology is based on renewable energy and system components such as photovoltaic panels,
wind, maximum power point tracking, charge controllers and inverters. The author of this article
takes the energy management and control of the DC microgrid system as an objective, and uses
MATLAB / Simulink to establish a simulation model of the DC microgrid system, which is used
for the electrification of small towns, and demonstrates the viability of the DC microgrid. Also,
energy management control to improve the loading and unloading operations of the microgrid
discussed. The DC microgrid uses a logic-based PI controller. In [24], proposed the energy
management of a DC microgrid with hybrid energy sources. The proposed work is to effectively
and reliably manage the energy requirements of the system. The author's goal is to use a microgrid
with unconventional energy sources such as solar energy to increase its productivity. In addition,
the author uses diesel generators in the system. However, the use of diesel generators is not
economical. In [25], The modeling, design and analysis of independent photovoltaic DC microgrid
systems are proposed. The proposed components of the system are solar photovoltaic systems,
converters, incremental conductance, maximum power point tracking, bidirectional converters,
batteries and DC to AC inverters. An intelligent control method using fuzzy logic control is
proposed for MPPT control. The stability and analysis of DC microgrid system adopts step-up
converter and bi-directional converter. It is recommended to use a standalone PV system with a
DC microgrid to power both DC and AC loads. However, it is better to use fuzzy-PID controller
rather than fuzzy-MPPT controller, in order to stabilize the system. Also, according to in [26], the
modeling, design and analysis of independent photovoltaic DC microgrid systems are discussed.
The author's motivation is growing concern about global warming, rising natural gas prices, and
oil energy pollution. In [27], the control algorithm of the solar energy village micro-grid system is
proposed. Based on the battery monitoring of the village solar microgrid system in Missouri, the
author studied grid-connected mode and standalone mode. The solar village microgrid system
design uses MATLAB/Simulink and the energy management algorithm is completed. In addition,
the load control algorithm also plays a very important role in the system control algorithm.
However, due to the lack of electricity in public services, the grid connection is very difficult to
use. According to in [28], the author studied the power management system controller of an
isolated microgrid system located in a remote area of Papumpare in north eastern India to achieve
power access. The author recommends using the system controller method developed in
MATLAB/Simulink and integrating with HOMER PRO. The result obtained is to manage the
energy flow from the power source to the load in a cost-effective and reliable way. The author did
not include a bidirectional converter to stabilize the system. In [29], a fuzzy logic control of a
standalone system for photovoltaic energy conversion and renewable energy innovation is
proposed. This study uses the maximum power point tracking function to maximize the power,
adjust the charging power and control the battery operation. The improved fuzzy logic controller
is used to adjust the battery operation method. The regulation of charging voltage is realized by PI
controller. However, in order to further stabilize the system, a fuzzy-PID controller is better. The
author in [30], proposed a control and energy management strategy of standalone DC microgrid
cluster using PV and battery storage for rural application. In this study, the operation of the DC
microgrid and the behavior of the system at different operating conditions were evaluated under
different conditions of the solar radiation and temperature changes for specific periods. The
maximum power point trucking incremental conductance (MPPT-IC) algorithm was applied to
maximize the efficiency and regulate the output voltage of the PV system to the desired DC bus
voltage. The difficulty in this paper is the incremental conductance algorithm is reaching slowly
the maximum power point for rapid change of irradiance. The system makes a lot of time to get
the maximum power which leads to disturbance of power. To overcome this problem, using
perturb and observe algorithm is reached first the maximum point rapidly than incremental
conductance algorithm. In [31], proposed the design, analysis and sizing of the PV/diesel/battery
standalone hybrid power system using HOMER. The purpose of this proposed work is to simulate
and optimize hybrid solar/diesel engine/residential energy storage. The components used in this
article are photovoltaic solar energy, batteries, converters, diesel generators and inverters. In
addition, the author also demonstrated the use of HOMER software to reduce Total Net Present
Cost (TNPC), Cost of Energy (COE), unsatisfied power load, and other cost parameters. The
author demonstrated that the use of available solar energy resources can optimize dispatch and
meet the energy demand curve. The difficulty of this work is that the use of diesel generators is
costly and uneconomical. In addition, it will produce more smoke. Instead of using diesel
generators, it is better to maximize the use of solar panels and choose the battery with the best
capacity and efficiency. In [32], a bidirectional DC to DC converter for solar battery backup
applications is proposed. In this proposed work, a photovoltaic solar system with energy storage
is realized with the help of a bidirectional converter. By using a PI controller, the output load is
controlled. However fuzzy-PID is best controller than PI controller. In [33], proposed the design
of a standalone photovoltaic system for a typical household around Dessie city Ethiopia. The
components used were PV array, charge controller, inverter, and battery storage. The size of the
PV panel, inverter, battery, and cable is selected. Cost analysis of the system in US dollar’s/kWh
also calculated. But, the work of this author did not carry out the issue of modeling and no
controller parts are applied. In [34], proposed the design and optimization of the standalone
photovoltaic system based on MPPT-FLC controller for electric bikes charging station. This author
focuses on modeling, sizing, control, and simulation of PV off-grid system for Maadi region,
Cairo, Egypt. The goal of the proposed PV system was to reduce the grid energy consumption and
properly use renewable energy. HOMER software was applied for sizing and optimizing the PV
system. Maximum power point tracking technique, based on the perturb and observe and fuzzy
logic controller were applied for the controller. MATLAB/Simulink software was used for the
modeling ofthe system. But compared with FLC and P and O controllers, Fuzzy-PID has better
and faster response and steady-state output. Generally, some papers are reviewed, which is related
to this thesis work. Also, for each of papers reviewed, its limitations were tried to discussed. The
drawbacks of this reviewed papers were: the use of diesel generators is not economical,
bidirectional converter is not included, some modeling and controller parts are not applied, and the
system are unstable, the incremental conductance algorithm is reaching slowly the maximum
power point for rapid change of irradiance, which makes a lot of time to get the maximum power,
and leads to disturbance of power. However, this thesis work is tried to solve the limitation of
papers reviewed. The stable power system is provided, instead of using diesel generators, the solar
panels and battery is selected which have best efficiency. Also, instead of using incremental
conductance, the perturb and observe algorithm is selected, which is reached first at the maximum
point rapidly than incremental conductance algorithm.
The study [20] presents the result of techno-economic analysis of hybrid system comprising
of solar and wind energy for powering a specific remote mobile base transceiver (BTS) in
Kaduna state, Nigeria. But the optimal system configurations obtained through simulation
in HOMER. Two best optimal system configurations namely PV-Diesel-Battery and PVwind-
diesel-battery system are compared with the conventional stand-alone diesel generator
(DG) system. Finding indicated that PV array (10KW)-DG (5.5KW)-Battery (64 units
Trojan L16P) is the most economically viable option with the total net present cost of
$69,811 and per unit cost of electricity of $0.409. The simulations indicate that a hybrid
system option, compared to a diesel only system, is feasible for each of the three villages.

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Research Context
Currently, microgrids are used mainly in developing countries, especially Ethiopia, are used in
industrial parks, universities and residential areas. The microgrid standalone PV-based system is
recognized which is reliable and particularly important for the community. In this thesis work the
study is to apply in Haramaya University ICT center building which is in Ambo city and 515km
far away from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

3.2. Research Method

The study was conducted by reviewing different kinds of literature related to the microgrid energy
management system and control of the standalone photovoltaic system. In the work of this thesis,
the microgrid obtains the generation of energy from photovoltaic systems and energy storage. The
PV source is also classified into different components and the communities are getting enough
electricity according to their demands. Appropriate equipment was selected by considering their
demand with the best efficiency. Microgrid energy management and control of standalone PV
systems have been based on solar renewable energy resources. The modeling, analysis,
optimization, and mathematically based microgrid have been done based on data collected from
the selected area and others like NASA. Finally, the simulation results and conclusions are
analyzed.

3.3. Methods of Data Collection

The data used in this thesis work were collected from the NASA and Haramaya University ICT
center building. Based on the demand, for ICT center building the required power has been
estimated and appropriate materials were selected. Based on the collected data, the modeling and
analysis of microgrid energy management and control of PV systems were done.

3.4. Methods of Data Analysis

Modeling and mathematical analysis are carried out by using different equipment for simulation
in MATLAB. In addition, optimization is done by using HOMER PRO software to improve
microgrid efficiency and minimize costs. Generally, the research of this paper includes modeling
and analysis of the energy management system of the microgrid, and the control of the standalone
photovoltaic system through the fuzzy-PID controller.

3.5. Solar Resource Data of Selected Site

Haramaya is one of the Oromia region’s cities in Ethiopia which is located 515 km from Addis
Ababa; Haramaya university ICT center building is found in Haramaya city and found at latitude
9025’22’’N and longitude 4202’6’’E that is taken from NASA. The following Table 3.1 shows
Haramaya University’s ICT center building daily average solar insolation.

Table 3.1. Monthly averaged radiation (kWh/m2 /day)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Kwh/m2/day 5.76 5.89 6.18 5.7 5.77 5.65 5.15 5.21 5.62 5.94 6.10 5.85

It can be seen from Table 3.1; the minimum radiation is 5.15kWh/m 2 /day in July and the maximum
average radiation is 6.18kWh/m2 /day is gained in March. Haramaya University areas are getting
enough sun and it is suitable for microgrid standalone PV-based energy generation systems. The
site location for the Haramaya University ICT center building is found from NASA and it is shown
in Figure 3.1 below.
Figure 3.1. Haramaya University, Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia, source (Google map)

3.6. Energy Demand and Load Estimation

Different kinds of loads are taken from the selected area in the ICT center building such as
refrigerators, copiers, projectors TV sets, servers, network switches, and air conditioners. They are
shown in the following Table 3.2.

Table 3.2. ICT center load demand and estimation

Loads Quantity Rating(W) Adjusted Hrs./day Energy(kwh/day)

Power(W)
Lighting 122 15 1830 8 14.64
Air-conditioner 8 1900 15200 2 30.4
Refrigerator 8 100 800 2 1.6
Printer 4 340 1360 1 1.36
Copier 4 300 1200 0.5 0.6
Desktop 140 80 11200 8 89.6
LCD Projector 2 280 560 2 1.12
Servers and Cooling 2 500 1000 24 24
Network Switches 4 370 1480 24 35.52
TV set 1 150 150 1 0.15
Total Loads Total Watt= Total Energy=
34.78kw≈35kw 198.99 ≈ 200kwh

Table 3.2 above describes all the appliances, their energy consumption and the number of
operations. In addition, the total energy consumption of the electrical service of the ICT center
building is described. The energy capacity of the total load is 200kWh.

3.7. Sizing of Standalone PV Systems and Procedures

The first step in starting to adjust the size of a standalone photovoltaic system is to determine the
load consumption to be served. Therefore, the load estimation is based on the information taken
from the ICT center building of Haramaya University. To determine the size of a standalone solar
photovoltaic system, the first points to be estimated are:

 Building load estimation

 Sizing of the photovoltaic array and specification
 Sizing of the battery
 Sizing of the inverter
 Sizing of the battery charge controller
 Sizing of system cable
 Economic analysis

The following constant parameters are taken for sizing the photovoltaic system.

Table 3.3. Constant parameters used in photovoltaic array sizing.

No. Description Values

1 Battery efficiency 0.8<x<0.85
2 Temperature losses 0.9
3 Wire losses 0.9
4 Inverter efficiency 0.9
5 Depth of charge 0.85
6 Output efficiency 0.765
7 Combined efficiency 0.68

3.7.1. Sizing of the PV Array

Before sizing the PV array, the average energy demand in Watt hour per day is obtained by
estimating all appliances and the number of hours, they are used each day. The steps to adjust the
size are as follows:

Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used:

Add the Watt-hours required for all appliances to get total watt-hours per day.

Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules:

Divide the total watt-hours required by the combined efficiency and the PV modules per day by
the average solar radiation to get the total maximum power. Then the total peak power is divided
by the DC voltage of the selected system to get the total PV current. Finally, the number of modules
connected in parallel and in series can be determined by the following formula:

Where: Ipv is total PV current

Ns is number of series modules

Np is number of parallel modules

Nt is total number of modules

3.7.2. PV Array Sizing

Load demand estimation of ICT center building (Ed) = 200kWh/day.

The lowest average daily insolation is taken, (G min) = 4240Wh/m2/d

Epv = (3.5)

, ⁄
=
.

= 294,118wh⁄day

The lowest average daily insolation is taken, (G min) = 4240Wh/m 2 /d.

Step 1: PV array sizing

where: Ppv is the total power of PV array in watts

Epv is the total energy required from the PV array

Gmin is the minimum solar radiation of a month that occurred in a year.

Therefore, using Equation (3.6)

,
Ppv= ∗ 1000

=69368W

Step 2: By using Equation 3.1, total PV current is calculated as follows:

Ipv= = 174A

Therefore, the PV module for design purposes (CSS-MSP-250W is selected.

Step 3: Number of PV modules in Parallel is found using Equation (3.3).

Np= = 22.33 ≈ 25
.

Step 4: Number of series modules is found using Equation (3.2).

Ns= = 12.98 ≈ 13
.

Step 5: Total number of modules using Equation (3.4):

N = N ∗ N = 25 ∗ 13 = 325 modules

3.7.3. Total Area of Solar Panels Design

In the photovoltaic system design process, the size of the area covered by the solar module is very
necessary, therefore, considering the length and width of the photovoltaic module:

L = 1640mm, W = 990mm

Area of single module is A = L × W (3.7)

Total area of solar panel is = (L×N p) × (W×Ns) (3.8)

3.7.4. Battery Sizing
Step 1: Energy consumption of battery:

∗
Eb = (3.9)
∗ ∗

Step 2: Battery Ampere hour capacity:

E 615,148.02
C = = = 1538Ah
V 400

Select the battery, which is any kind, 12V nominal and 200Ah rating from the specification of
deep cycle battery.

Step 3: Battery required for parallel:

C
B =
Ah

Step 4: Battery required for Series

V
B =
V

Step 5: The total number of batteries required= B ×B = 8 ∗ 34 = 272 batteries

3.7.5. Charge Controller Sizing

The size of the charge controller depends on the maximum charge current of the photovoltaic array
and the rated current of the charge controller.

Current controller rating = 1.25 ×Isc ×Np (3.11)

where: 1.25 is the safety factor for sizing PV systems

Isc is the short circuit current of the PV module

Np is the number of solar modules connected in parallel.

Therefore, the current controller rating = 1.25 × 8.49 × 25 = 265.31A

Therefore, based on values of current controller rating, 12V, 60Ah MPPT based solar charge
controller have been chosen from specifications.

Number of Charge Controllers= (3.12)

265.31A
= = 4.4 ≈ 5
60A

3.7.6. Inverter Sizing

To determine the size of the inverter, it must be able to handle the expected maximum power of
the AC load. Therefore, 25-30% greater than the total AC rated power should be considered. The
rated power of the inverter becomes 32950 + (0.26 × 32950) = 41517 W, so the selected inverter
is CSI-10KTL1P-GI-FL, and the inverter is 11.5 KW × 4, which can operate at the continuous
nominal power required by the photovoltaic system.

3.7.7. Cable Sizing

Low voltage batteries, solar panels, cables and loads require particular wire sizes. It must be the
correct size, otherwise if it is too small it can be dangerous and cause heating, fires and wasted
energy. The following steps are followed to determine the cable size

Table 3.4. Values of parameters used for cable sizing

Description Value
Length of Cable 12m
Conductivity of Copper 58*10-6s/m
Resistivity of Copper 1.72*10-8Type equation here.

The maximum current of the charge controller is defined as 125% times the rated short-circuit
current ( from PV specification.

Imax = 1.25 × 8.49 × 25 = 265.31A

Generally, the cross-sectional area of the cable is given by the following formula

∗∗
A= (3.13)
∗
where: is the resistivity of copper wire
A is the cross-sectional area
Vd is the maximum allowable voltage drops
l is the length of the cable
I is the maximum current that can be carried by the cable or the conductor.
∗ ∗ .
A= = 8.66mm
∗ ∗ . ∗

Therefore, 10 mm2 is chosen from cable standard.

The maximum charge controller to load current = = = 87.5

To calculate the cable size between load and charge controller, the given voltage losses are 5%,
length 10m, and 90A.
∗ ∗
A= = 1.55mm
∗ ∗ . ∗

Thus, the chosen area is 2.5mm2 from cable standard.

The cross-sectional area of cable, between the charge controller and battery, the voltage losses, is
0.02, length 10m and 160A.
To determine the cable size between load and inverter, it assumed that the length of the cable for
powering the load from the inverter is 10m and the voltage drop is 0.04. So, the maximum current
is given by:
In the case of a three-phase inverter, the maximum current given by:

I = (3.15)
√ ∗

In the case of a single-phase inverter, the maximum current given by:

I = (3.16)

3.8. Economic Analysis

The net present cost, and cost of energy are the most important evaluation tool for the economic
behavior of renewable energy systems. It provides all system component's costs, capital cost,
replacement cost, operation, and maintenance cost. The initial capital cost of the system is the cost
required to purchase all the components of the system, such as photovoltaic panels, batteries,
charge controllers, converters, inverters, wind, biomass and installation (including wiring, etc.).
Operation and maintenance costs are also annual recurring expenses for system management,
construction management, and regular maintenance. To continue to function and provide efficient
system performance, certain system components must be replaced regularly in accordance with
their type and operating conditions.
Cost estimation of the microgrid standalone PV system is discussed as following with
specifications.
 The capital cost of the system (initial cost) is high.
 Maintenance costs are very low.
 There are no fuel costs.
 Replacement costs are low.

Replacement cost= (3.17)

where: A1 is the initial cost of the battery, inverter, charge controller, and converter.
n is a lifetime in years
i is a inflation rate of 4%
d is a discount rate of 8%
Table 3.5. Cost of microgrid component
No. Component Capital Replacement O&M Lifetime
Cost($) Cost($) Cost($/years) (years)
1 PV panel 162,500$ 76392 3130 20
2 Converter 3907$ 2679 100 10
3 Battery 21760$ 25150 420 10
4 Inverter 21392$ 10057 100 20
5 Charge Controller 1475$ 1011.32 - 10
6 Wind Turbine 18000.00$ 12509.00 200 15

where the PV panel initial cost is 2$/W × 325 × 250W = 162,500$

Inverter cost is 21392$, and
charge controller is 295$ × 5 = 1475$, and
for battery is 80$ × 272 = 21760$
Using Equation (3.17) the following replacement costs are calculated as:
.
Replacement cost of PV panel = 162500$ = 76392$
.
 .
Replacement cost of converter= 3907$ = 2679$
.

.
Replacement cost of inverter= 21392$ =10057$
.

.
Replacement cost of charge controller= 1475$ =1011.32$
.

The annual operation and maintenance costs of photovoltaic panels can be calculated based on the
initial capital cost, considering the discount rate and the inflation rate as follows:

O & M=2%PV× × (3.18)

.
.
O & M=0.02× 162500$ × × .
. = 3130
.
.

The battery’s operation and maintenance are calculated as O and M cost of PV panel. Battery life
is estimated at 10 years, so it should be replaced twice during the life of the system. The cost of
battery replacement is calculated for the first time after 10 years, and the cost for the second
replacement after 20 years is calculated as follows.

= (3.19)

.
= 21760$ = 14920$
.

.
= 21760$ = 10230$
.

Battery replacement cost =Brep1 +Brep2 = 14920$ + 10230$ = 25150$

where: Brep1 and Brep2 are replacement times after 10 and 20 years respectively.
Using from above Table 3.5, the total replacement cost, O and M cost were calculated as
following: The total replacement cost is the total replacement cost of converter, charge
controller, inverter, battery, PV panel and calculated as follows:
Total replacement cost = 76392$ + 2679$ + 25150$ + 10057$ + 1011.32$ = 115289.32$
The total O and M cost is the total cost of O and M of PV panel, Battery, Inverter, and Converter.
Total O and M cost = 3130$ + 420$ +100$ + 100$ = 3750$
For installation cost 1 0% of PV panel initial cost is taken which is = 0.1 × 162500$ = 16250$
The net present cost of the microgrid system is calculated by adding all the costs of PV
components, batteries, total replacement costs, controller inverters, installation, operation and
maintenance costs.
Net present cost = PVc +Cc+Bc+Invc +Chc+Instc+Total repc+ O & M (3.20)
Using Equation (3.20) the NPC is calculated as:
NPC = 162,500$ + 3907$ + 21760$ + 21392$ + 1475$ + 16250$ + 115289.32$+ 3750$ =
346,323.32$
where: PVc is capital cost of photovoltaic panel, C c is converter cost,Bc is battery cost,
chc is charge controller cost, and Instc is installation cost.
In addition, it is also important to calculate the total annual cost of the system $/year. The total
annualized cost $/year of the microgrid system in terms of the currently the dollars can be evaluated
using the following Equation (3.21). Total annualized cost [$/year] can be calculated as the
following.
Total annualized cost [$/year];
×( )
C , = NPC ( )
(3.21)

×( )
CRF= ( )

where: CRF is the capital recovery factor.

Using Equation (3.21), the total annualized cost calculated as:
. ×( . )
CRF= ( . )
= 0.073582

Cann,tot = 346,323.32$ ×0. 073582 = 25,484$

Levelized cost of energy:

The HOMER PRO software defines the levelized cost of energy as the average cost/kWh of useful
electricity generated by the microgrid system. The cost of energy can be found from the total
annual cost and the annual energy produced by the photovoltaic system and shown in Equation
(3.22).

COE= ,
(3.22)
×

,
COE= = 0.349/ ℎ
× /
Here, the cost of the proposed for this standalone microgrid energy system is higher than the cost
set by the Ethiopian electric utility company. However, this may be an acceptable alternative,
because of its efficiency, reliability, and other areas where power is not available.

3.9. Modeling of Microgrid Energy Management Control Standalone

PV/Wind System
3.9.1 Photovoltaic Model
Photovoltaic modules include many photovoltaic cells connected in series and in parallel to
provide high output voltage and increase photovoltaic current respectively. The direct current of
photovoltaic energy generated by the photovoltaic array depends on temperature and solar
irradiance. The PV model with a single diode circuit, series resistance, and parallel are the most
commonly used in PV modeling and to predict energy production in photovoltaic cells. The
following PV model used a different method to calculate the parameter of the system. The
parameters of the selected PV array (CSS-MSP-250W) are given in Table 3.4 which is important
to model the PV array.

Figure 3.2. Equivalent circuit of PV model using single diode along with series and parallel
resistances.
The mathematical model of a PV cell can be described in the following equations. From an
equivalent circuit diagram Figure, 3.2 using Kirchhoff’s current law is applied.
V
I=I −I − (3.23)
R
+
= ( −1 (3.24)
× ×
+
= (3.25)

By applying Equations (3.24), (3.25) into (3.23) the equivalent circuit is found.
 I=I −I exp(q −1 − (3.26)
× ×

From Equation (3.26), also light generated current Ipv and Io are found as:

= + ( − (3.27)

∆
I = ∆
(2.28)
×

PV module model consists of modules connected in series (Ns) and parallel (Np).
Therefore, Equation (3.26) is replaced by the following Equation (3.29):
I = ((NpIpv – NpIo) [exp[(V+IRs*(Ns)/(Np))/(aVtNs)]-1])) (3.29)

where: Rs is the series resistance (Ω)

Rp is the shunt resistance (Ω)
a is the diode ideality factor
K is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 ×10-23) JK-1
q is the electronic charge (1.602 ×10-19)
Ns is the number of cells connected in series
Np is the number of cells connected in parallel
Iscn is the short-circuit current at the nominal condition
T is module operating temperature in Kelvin
Ipv is the light generated current of the photovoltaic cell
Id is the diode saturation current
Vd is the voltage across the diode
G is the actual irradiance in W/m2
G n is the irradiance at the nominal condition
Vocn is the open circuit voltage at the nominal condition
Vtn is the voltage thermal at the nominal condition
∆T is deviation from the nominal temperature in Kelvin.
Table 3.6. Electrical characteristics for photovoltaic array specification.
Description Value
Peak Power (Pmax ) 250W
The voltage at Pmax (Vmp) 30.8V
Current at Pmax (Imp) 7.79A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc ) 37.4V
Short-circuit current (Isc) 8.49A
Power tolerance ±3%
Series fuse rating (A) 15
Parallel resistance of PV model 43.15
Series resistance of PV model 0.847
Cell efficiency 17.24%
Current Temperature Coefficient ( ) 0.03%/℃
Voltage Temperature Coefficient ( ) -0.32%/℃
Power Temperature Coefficient ( ) -0.42%/℃

The parameter of the PV model mathematical equation is calculating as the following.

= (3.30)

= (3.31)

×
= (3.32)

. .
R = =0.847 Ω
.
( . ×. .
R = = 43.15 Ω
. .

A PV array is modeled based on the mathematical Equation of the solar system using
MATLAB/Simulink blocks. The necessary parameters used in PV array modeling such as
V ,I ,N ,N ,K ,T and G are taken from the specification of the PV array.
 Figure 3.3. Subsystem simulink of light generated current

Figure 3.4. Subsystem simulink of saturation current

Figure 3.5. Subsystem of simulink diagram of the photovoltaic current

 Figure 3.6. The Simulink diagram of photovoltaic module
Under various temperatures and irradiances, the relationship between the current and power of
photovoltaic modules can be found. The fixed temperature is 25°C with the change of irradiance,
the characteristic curves I-V and P-V are drawn with G = 400W/m2, 600W/m2, 800W/m2 and
1000W/m2, respectively. The curve is not linear and depends on temperature and solar radiation.
As the irradiance increases, the current increases more than the voltage, and the maximum power
point also increases, as shown in Figure 3.7.
3.9.2. Modeling of Boost Converter
There are three main types of DC to DC converters: Boost converter, buck converter, and buck-
boost converter. The mathematical equations for the parameter of boost, buck, and buck-boost
converter were determined using the following Equations:

= or D= 1 − ()

= ()

=− ()
( )× ×
= ()

×
= ()
× ×

∆ ( )
Where: = , and R=

In this thesis, the reference DC link voltage is 400V, the DC link voltage ripple is taken as 1% of
DC link voltage, so 1% of 400V is 4V and the switching frequency is 10 kHz and 5% deviation
from the nominal output voltage to get the duty cycle. The boost converter circuit is shown in
Figure 3.9. Main parameters such as inductance, capacitance, diode and resistance are designed.
Diodes are used to protect the photovoltaic array from negative currents. The capacitor is placed
here to limit high frequency harmonics.

= =0.94V
 ( . × . × .
= = 4.5 H
×

400 × 0.05
= = 1.12
1.89 × 10000 × 0.94

3.9.3. DC to AC Converter (Inverters) Modeling

The DC-AC converter is used to convert the DC output voltage of the photovoltaic array into AC
voltage. It consists of a resistor and four power switch blocks. Pulse width modulation (PWM) is
used for inverter modeling to obtain a suitable switching trigger signal to control the amplitude
and frequency of the output voltage. Capacitors are used to filter noise on the DC bus link.
3.9.4. Battery Modeling
Due to the fluctuating characteristics of the photovoltaic array, the battery is the basic element of
the independent microgrid photovoltaic system. A simple modeling equivalent circuit of a
rechargeable battery is shown in Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11. Simple equivalent circuit of rechargeable battery modeling.

Applying the KVL law, the voltage in battery storage can be obtained as follows.
= − (3.38)
= (3.39)

It is necessary to use a control energy storage to provide its lifespan. So, the state of charge is a
basic parameter used in battery charging and discharging. SOC is the criterion for determining the
charging or discharging of the battery, and it is shown in Equation 3.39.

= × 100% (3.40)
where: Pbat is battery power delivered to the load
Rbat is the internal resistance of the battery bank
Ibat is battery current to the load
Qc is remain capacity of the battery (Ah)
Qr is rated capacity of the battery (Ah)
The battery or energy storage is modeled as a non-linear voltage source, the output voltage of
which depends on the state of charge, and the current, voltage and internal resistance also depend
on the state of charge.
3.9.5. Bidirectional DC to DC Converter Modeling
A system includes a battery with a bidirectional DC-DC converter that is used to interconnect
battery power to the DC system. The main function of the bidirectional DC-DC converter is to
control the power and voltage requirements of the DC link and to control the amount and direction
of the power supplied to/from the battery.

Figure 3.12. Circuit diagram of the bidirectional DC to DC converter.

The bidirectional DC-DC converter should convert photovoltaic energy into stable and reliable
electrical energy required for battery charging. In the case of the "buck" mode, the bidirectional
DC-DC converter is used to reduce the output voltage of the system. The bidirectional DC-DC
converter has two modes of operation:
Mode i: When the DC link voltage is higher than the reference value, the bidirectional DC-DC
converter operates in buck mode. In this operating mode, the converter controls the current to
charge the battery.
Mode ii: When the DC link voltage is lower than the reference value, the bidirectional DC-DC
converter operates in boost mode. In this mode, the photovoltaic system sends its energy to the
battery and vice versa. The bidirectional DC to DC converter (buck-boost) consists of two main
switches (S1, S2) with a capacitor and an inductor. The switch is responsible for managing the
buck and boost modes. The duty cycle of the bidirectional buck-boost converter can be obtained
by the following formula (3.41).

= (3.41)
+

= = 0.51
.

The output current of the converter is I = (1-D ) (3.42)

= (1 − 0.51) = 82.6A
.

where D =D1=D2
Taking into account the worst-case safety of the converter, the current ripple rate is 200%.
The critical value of inductance (L) becomes:

L = ×D (3.43)

1
369.8
= 1000 × 0.51 = 1.14
200 × 86
L = 1.5 ×Lc = 1.71 H

= (3.44)

0.51
= = 29
0.05 × 10000 × 0.35

Furthermore, the transfer function of the bidirectional converter is shown in the following equation
(3.45).

= ( − 1)
( )
(3.45)
( ) ( )

Note that during charging and discharging, the output voltage ripple is set to 5%. The DC voltage
system is controlled by managing the duty cycle through the bi-directional converter. It also
keeps up as a steady voltage at the required side for both buck and boost modes.
 Figure 3.13. Modeling of battery with bi-directional DC to DC converter.
This microgrid system uses IGBT/diode as the switching device in the circuit [57]. The main
function of the bi-directional converter is to keep the system voltage at a certain reference value
during charging or discharging.
The bidirectional converter contains two choppers (IGBT) connected to the circuit. They work in
a complementary way, when one IGBT is on, the other IGBT is off [58]. This converter
configuration can provide positive or negative current to the battery charging or discharging
battery, respectively; however, the voltage level is positive.

Figure 3.14. Overall modeling of microgrid energy management system

3.4 Wind Resource assessment in Ethiopia
Ethiopia has exploitable reserve of 100 GW wind energy with an average speed of 3.5 – 5.5 m/s,
flowing for 6 hours/day. There are two basic zones with homogenous periodicity separated by the
rift valley. In the first of these, covering most of the highland plateaus, there are two well-defined
wind speed maximal occurring, respectively, between March and May and between September
and November. In the second zone, covering most of the Ogaden and the eastern lowlands, average
wind velocity reaches maximum values between May and August [7,38]
The government of Ethiopia with the collaboration of Chinese government prepared solar and
wind master plan for the whole country, which can be very useful to identify the gross amount and
distribution condition of wind and solar energy resources, construction conditions, cost and other
limiting factors of wind and solar power generation projects. (Ministry of Water and Energy June
22, 2013). Based on the analysis of this master plan.
 Ethiopia has 1,350GW Potential installed capacity of wind energy.
 Ethiopia has annual total solar energy reserve of 2.199 million TWh/annum.
Table 3-5: List of wind farm constructed
No. Farm name Installed capacity (MW) Average Energy
(Gwh/year)
1 Ashegoda 120 450
2 Adama II 153 479
Total 273 929

Table 3-8: Wind farm sites selected in Ethiopia

Wind Farm Site Selected in Ethiopia
No. Name of site Capacity Area Grading in Domicile
F1 Nazret wind farm 300 254 100 Oromia
F2 Mek'ele South wind farm 100 77 85 Tigray
F3 Sheno wind farm 100 56 88 Oromia
F4 Ch'ach'a wind farm 100 56 86 Amhara
F5 Phase I wind farm in Iteya 100 66 96 Oromia
F6 Sulalta wind farm 100 60 92 Oromia
F7 Gondar West wind farm 50 50 82 Amhara
F8 Imdibir wind farm 50 47 90 SNNP
F9 Dire Dawa wind farm 50 40 91 Dire Dawa
F10 Dilla East wind farm 300 286 96 SNNP
F11 Mek'ele North wind farm 200 185 85 Tigray
F12 Debre Markos East wind farm 200 143 87 Amhara
F13 Soddo wind farm 200 160 84 SNNP
F14 Sendafa North wind farm 100 70 88 Oromia
F15 Sendafa South wind farm 100 70 88 Oromia
F16 Gondar North wind farm 100 65 80 Amhara
 F17 Phase II wind farm inIteya 100 70 95 Oromia
F18 Bu'i East wind farm 100 80 83 SNNP
F19 Aysha wind farm 100 60 83 Somalia
F20 Phase I wind farm in Bolo 100 60 90 Oromia
F21 Diche Oto wind farm 50 100 78 Afar
F22 Bahir Dar wind farm 50 80 82 Amhara
F23 Assela wind farm 50 71 93 Oromia
F24 Jacho wind farm 600 330 73 SNNP
F25 Phase II wind farm in Bolo 500 300 90 Oromia
F26 Hula wind farm 300 220 64 Oromia
F27 Dilla West wind farm 300 230 96 SNNP
F28 Dangla wind farm 200 170 67 Amhara
F29 Debre Markos West wind farm 200 150 87 Oromia
F30 Ambo wind farm 200 130 72 Oromia
F31 Babile wind farm 200 130 56 Oromia
F32 Dabat wind farm 100 61 56 Amhara
F33 Phase I wind farm in Weldiya 100 43 70 Amhara

3.4.1 Wind Potential Assessment in the Study Area

The resource assessment for the wind potential is done by taking the data’s only from NASA. This
is because of the absence of full data regarding wind speed in the National Metrological Service
Agency of Ethiopia. Therefore, the annual average wind speed for the study located area which
have different climatic condition at a height of 10m & 50m. This value is used as an input to the
wind resource in modeling the hybrid system. Monthly mean wind speed resources of the site are
obtained from NASA surface meteorology and solar energy database. NASA has estimated the
rotor speed at rated power is 15.83rpm, the annual average wind speed of the locations is 5.52 m/s
at an anemometer height of 10 m & 50m, in the average temperature 25.95℃. Generally, it shows
the wind speed data of the site is not that much satisfactory for power generation since it has a very
small cut-in wind speed. So, wind speed extracted from NASA is simply taken to assess wind
energy potential of the selected site (resource assessment). This data can be extrapolated to the
designated wind turbine height of 50 m. The lowest wind speed profile is indicated in the months
of October, November and December whereas, June, July, August and September are the windiest
months. As wind turbine height increase length from ground the wind speed also increase and
hence, power production also rises. The wind speed at any height above ground level can be
interpolated either in exponential function or logarithmic function forms. In this paper the
logarithmic function used that the logarithmic profile (or log law) assumes that the wind speed is
proportional to the logarithm of the height above ground. The following equation therefore gives
the ratio of the wind speed at hub height to the wind speed at anemometer height:
h
V ln
z
= (3.1)
V h
ln
z
Where: Zo: Surface roughness length factor [m]; Surface roughness length describes the roughness
of the surroundings terrain in this case few trees, having a value of 0.01.
h1: Reference height above ground level [m],
h2: Hub height [m].

3.4.2. Wind energy resource

To model a system comprising one or more wind turbines, the wind resource data indicating the
wind speeds the turbines would experience in a typical year has been provided. The user can
provide measured hourly wind speed data if available. Otherwise, HOMER Pro. can generate
synthetic hourly data from 12 monthly average wind speeds and four additional statistical
Parameters: The Weibull shape factor, the autocorrelation factor, the diurnal pattern strength, and
the hour of peak wind speed. The Weibull shape factor is a measure of the distribution of wind
speeds over the year. The autocorrelation factor is a measure of how strongly the wind speed in
one hour tends to depend on the wind speed in the preceding hour. For complex topography the
autocorrelation factor is (0.70 - 0.80) while for a uniform topography the range is higher, (0.90 -
0.97). A typical range for the autocorrelation factor is 0.8 – 0.95. An average value of 0.85 is used
here because the selected area is of averagely uniform topography. The diurnal pattern strength is
a measure of how strongly the wind speed tends to depend on the time of day. Typical values for
diurnal pattern strength range from 0 to 0.4. A value of 0.25 has been selected for calculations.
The hour of peak wind speed is the hour of the day that tends, on average, to be the windiest
throughout the year. The typical range for the time of peak wind speed is 14:00-16:00. This data
can be extrapolated to the designated wind turbine height of 50 m. Monthly average wind speed
data for 22 years are shown in tables 4.2,4.3 & 4.4 while summarized by HOMER Pro in figure
4.4 the monthly wind speed variation of the site at 50 m heights where the average wind speed
found to be 5.52 m/s. The lowest wind speed profile is indicated in the months of October,
November, December and April Whereas, June, July, August and September are the windiest
months.

Figure 4.3: Height and wind speed relation

As wind turbine height increase length from ground the wind speed also increase and hence, power
production also rises.
3.4.3 Wind Turbine Size and Cost
Depending on the wind speed sources the turbine has to generate large amounts of energy to
contribute significant renewable fraction and this can be performed using single large wind turbine
or a number of smaller turbines. Quantities of turbines, service time, hub height, cost of the
component, type of electricity generated, cut-in wind speed is the restrictive values to select wind
turbine. The wind turbine used in this project is Power having the model Generic with a rated
capacity of 10 kW in combination of rectifier system to provides DC power. The initial cost of one
unit in the current market price is considered as $18000.00. Replacement and annual operational
maintenance costs were assumed as $12,509.00 and $200/year, respectively. O&M cost of wind
turbine was proposed about 2% of its initial capital cost. Replacement cost of the wind turbine
considered in this case is about 69.5% of capital cost after 15year service life. In order to find an
optimal size, three different wind turbine options were analyzed: 0, 1, 2, &3 turbines. The
operational lifetime of a turbine is considered as 15 years and Hub height is 50m. Wind turbines
should be easy to install particularly in remote telecom sites on the tower height.
Table 4-6: Wind Turbine specifications
Description Specification
Rated output power Generic 10kw
Rotor diameter 6m
Cut-in wind speed 2.5m/s
Working wind speed 3-35m/s
Survival wind speed 50m/s
Blade material Carbon reinforced fiber glass
capital cost $18,000.00
life time 15 years

3.4.4 Diesel Generator Size and Cost

The cost of diesel generators available in the market varies, but the DG used in the particular Ethio-
telecom BTS site is Deutz air cooled DG with rated output power of 16 kW and 20 kVA with the
initial capital cost of $1025.00/kw and the fuel consumption at full load is less than 4 litters.
Replacement and operational costs were assumed $820/kW and $0.80/h, respectively. The
operating lifetime was also considered 20 years. currently, per liter price of diesel in Ethiopia is
around $0.8. In this study sizes of existing sites DGs were 16kw, I considered Auto size Genset
for the simulation. The minimum load ratio was set at 30%.
Table 4-8: Diesel Generator specifications
3.9. Controller for Microgrid Energy Management of the Standalone PV
system.
3.9.1. Maximum Power Point Tracking Using Perturb and Observe Algorithm Controller
for PV Management System
The basic MPPT structure used by the photovoltaic system perturbation and observation controller
has two inputs, namely voltage and current, and the output is duty cycle. In this paper, the
microgrid power system is controlled by a fuzzy, and fuzzy-PID controller, which is described as
follows:
3.9.2. Fuzzy Logic Controller
Fuzzy logic control can detect sudden changes and heuristic variables, which is very good for
microgrid power control and management systems. FLC is fast, robust, and follows input changes.
It does not require prior knowledge of the system and uses simple mathematics. Fuzzy logic
controllers are suitable for photovoltaic systems that are characterized by non-linearity, input
variations. To define a fuzzy set, both the members of the set (values) and the degree of
membership are needed. Fuzzy logic operations are used to relate fuzzy sets. The fuzzy logic
controller is characterized by membership functions and fuzzy rules. Fuzzy input and output
variables are represented by membership functions (MF). Also in fuzzy rules, the Mamdani fuzzy
is the most used fuzzy membership rule set in this thesis work.
3.9.3. Fuzzy Logic Based Battery Management System
The battery management system adjusts the power flow in the microgrid system to meet the load
demand. In this paper, a functional battery is used as an energy storage device. In addition, in order
to obtain the required SOC, the fuzzy logic controller is designed to charge or dischage mode. The
inputs of the fuzzy logic controller are ∆P and ∆SOC, and the output variable is current.
 Figure 3.15. Fuzzy logic controller block diagram
The input and output variables used in the fuzzy logic controller are determined. In the work of
this thesis, the fuzzy logic controller has a dual input variable and a single output system. The
parameters and rules are described in the control algorithm. The basis of the FLC rule is based on
the difference in power and the change of the state of charge, and the control output is the current.
The change in power and the change in state of charge are calculated using the following formula:
Δ = − (3.46)

ΔSOC = − (3.47)

The control is applied by controlling the power and current input of the battery. The power, state
of charge, and output are categorized into different regions which are negative, positive, and zero
regions. Also, each region has sub-regions such as Negative Small (NS), Negative Big, (NB),
Positive Big (PB), Zero (Z), and Positive Small (PS). Each input variable has members function
of fuzzy set and it obtains 25 possible rules. These rules are described in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7. Rule base for fuzzy logic controller for battery management system.

ΔP
Current NB NS Z PS PB
NB PB PB PB PB PB
NS PB PB PS PS PB
ΔSOC Z Z Z Z PS PB
PS NS NS NS NS PB
PB NB NB NB NB PB

Table 3.7 shows the fuzzy logic control rules of the microgrid battery management system. For
example, when the power input variable is NB and the change in state of charge is NB, the output
current is PB. If the power is negative, the power generation system does not provide enough
power to meet the load demand and the fuzzy logic controller is forced to discharge the battery to
meet the load demand. If the state of charge is greater than the current state of charge, the change
in the state of charge is negative and the battery should operate in discharge mode. The input
variables, change of state of charge, change of power and control of current output of FLC are
shown in Figure 3.16 to 3.18.
3.9.4. Fuzzy-PID Controller
The combination of these two controller structures is one of the best ways to control the output
voltage of the system. In this thesis work, the fuzzy- PID controller is used to control the overall
microgrid system and the charge and discharge operation of the battery. Using a fuzzy-PID
controller utilizes both the operation of the fuzzy controller and the simplicity of the PID
controllers at the same time. Figure 3.19 shows the fuzzy-PID controller.

Figure 3.19. Block diagram of Fuzzy-PID controller [76].

3.9.5. Fuzzy-PID Controller for DC-link Voltage Controller
The input and output variables used in the fuzzy-PID controller are determined. In this thesis work,
the fuzzy-PID controller has double input variables and a single output system. The fuzzy-PID
controller takes the error and change in error as input and then the fuzzy logic rule forces to modify
the parameters of Kp, Ki, & Kd are tuned online automatically. The parameters and rule base are
described in the control algorithm. The rule base of the fuzzy-PID controller is based on the error
(e) and change in error signal (∆e (n), and gain. The error is the difference between the DC link
output voltage and a reference voltage, and also the change in error is the difference between the
current error and the old error. The error e(n) and change in error ∆e(n) is calculated from the
following Equations:
( )= − (3.48)

Δe(n) = ( ) − ( − 1) (3.49)
The e (n), ∆e (n), and output are categorized into different regions which are negative, positive,
and zero regions. Each input variable has members function of fuzzy set, and it obtains 25 possible
rules. These rules are described in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8. Rule base for fuzzy logic controller for DC link voltage
Output Change in error
NB NS Z PS PB
PB Z P P P P
PS N Z P P P
Z N N Z P P
NS N N N Z P
NB N N N N Z

Where the parameters used in the rule are NB, NS, PS, PB, and Z are negative big, negative small,
positive small, positive big, and zero respectively. Also, N, Z, and P are chosen for output which
represents negative, zero, and positive respectively. In fuzzy-PID controller system, the applied
rules are: i. When the output voltage is much higher than the reference voltage, the controller must
be very high, so that the DC link voltage approaches the value of the reference voltage. ii. A small
change of controller value is needed as the DC link of voltage is approaching the reference voltage.
iii. The controller must remain constant, when the output voltage of the system is near the reference
voltage. iv. The controller needs to be changed slightly to prevent the DC link voltage from
deviating from the system reference voltage. The input variables, error, change in error, and output
controller of the fuzzy-PID controller are shown in Figures 3.20
Fuzzy interface designer for DC link voltage controller.

Figure 3.20. Input membership function error

 4. WORK PLAN

Table 4. Research Work Plan

s/no Activities 2022 2023

may Jun jul aug sep oct nov de jan feb mar
s

1 Problem Identification X

2 Review Literatures X

3 Preparing the Proposal X

4 Proposal Defense X

5 Analysis data collection X

6 investigating,simulating, X
and interpreting the data

7 Submit the first draftto X

the Advisors

8 Collecting Data X

9 Submit the Final Thesis X

10 Final defense of the Thesis X

 5. BUDGET BREAKDOWN

Table 5.1. Personal Expense

No of Total
No. Purpose No. of Days Rate
Person Expense
1 Data Collector 10 4 150 6000
2 Software Assistance 9 3 200 5400
3 Labour 8 5 117.5 4700
4 Supervision fee 3000
Sub-total ETB 19100
Table5.2. Perdiem Expense
Number of Number of Total
No. Item Rate
person Days Cost
1 Researcher 1 25 200 5000.00
Sub-total 5000.00

Table 5.3. Stationary Cost

Unit price
No. Items Unit Quantity Total Cost
(birr)
1 Binding No 15 400 400
Photocopy and
2 No 15 500 500
Printing
Total 900.00

Table 5.4. Budget Summary

No. Description Total birr

1 Personal Expense 19100
2 Perdiem Expense 5000
3 Stationary Expenses 900
Total 25000
Budget Source: Gola Oda WE Offic

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