07-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Sources (1)
The resources of natural gas can be broadly categorized into three distinct groups:
Non-Associated gas These are reservoirs that contain almost entirely natural gas at
reservoir conditions. They are generally found at greater depths. Non-associated
gas is directly controllable by the producer; one just turns the valves. The gas flows
up the well under its own energy, through the wellhead control valves, and along
the flow line to the treatment plant.
Associated gas Associated gas found in association with oil in a reservoir, either
dissolved in the oil or as a cap above the oil. Crude oil cannot be produced without
producing some of its associated gas, which comes out of solution as the pressure
is reduced on the way to and on the surface. Properly designed crude oil well
completions and good reservoir management are used to minimize the production
of associated gas so as to retain the maximum energy in the reservoir and thus
increase ultimate crude oil recovery. Crude oil in the reservoir with minimal or no
dissolved associated gas is rare and as dead crude oil is often difficult to produce as
there is little energy to drive it. Associated gas is always rich in NGLs (2-20% C2, 1-
15% C3, 1-10% C4)
Dr. Tamer Samir © 91

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Sources (2)
Unconventional gas Some types of unconventional gas resources include:
“Coal-bed Methane (CBM)”which is natural gas that has been formed along with
the geological processes that formed coal. unlike conventional natural gas
reservoirs, where gas is trapped in the pore or void spaces of a rock, such as
sandstone, methane formed and trapped in coal is actually adsorbed onto the coal
grain surfaces or micropores and held in place by reservoir pressure. Since coal has
a very large internal surface area of over 1 billion square feet per ton of coal, it can
hold on average three times as much gas in place as the same volume of a
conventional sandstone reservoir at equal depth and pressure

“Gas Hydrates” in which gases are trapped inside "cages" of hydrogen bonded
water molecules. Gas hydrates should be avoided in pipelines since they adhere to
the pipe wall and thereby plug the pipeline

Dr. Tamer Samir © 92

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 07-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Phase Behavior (1)
Bubble Point Curve: The curve that Cricondenbar
separates the liquid phase from the two- Bubble Point Line
phase region. This means that at a given
temperature, when pressure decreases

Pressure
Pcc
Pc Critical Point
and below the bubble point curve, gas will
Liquid
be emitted from the liquid phase to the
Cricondentherm
two-phase region.
• Dew Point Curve: The curve that Two-Phase Region Vapor
separates the pure gas phase from the
two-phase region. It is the connected Dew Point Line

points of pressure and temperature at

which the first liquid droplet is formed out
of the gas phase. Tc Tcc

• Critical Point (Tc & Pc): The point on the Temperature

phase envelope where the bubble point
curve meets the dew point curve. The
pressure and temperature at the critical
point are called critical pressure and
temperature, respectively. Dr. Tamer Samir © 93

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Phase Behavior (2)
Cricondenbar
• Cricondentherm (Tcc): The highest
temperature at which liquid and vapor Bubble Point Line

can coexist. That means the mixture

Pressure

Pcc
will be gas irrespective of pressure Pc Critical Point
when the temperature is larger than Liquid
cricondentherm. Cricondentherm
• Cricondenbar (Pcc): The highest
Two-Phase Region Vapor
pressure at which a liquid and vapor
can coexist. Dew Point Line

Tc Tcc

Temperature

Dr. Tamer Samir © 94

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Phase Behavior
B
- Retrograde Phenomenon (1)

B
100% Liquid

Pressure
Liquid
% Liquid

Vapor
Two-Phase Region

0% Liquid
A

A T1
Pressure
Temperature
For T1<Tc , the isothermal compression A-B will result in an monotonic increase of the liquid
fraction. At point A, we are in an ALL VAPOR condition (0 % liquid) and we are starting to cross
over into the two-phase region. As we compress from point A to B, more and more liquid is
formed until the entire system has been condensed (point B). We went all the way from 0 %
liquid to 100 % liquid, as we expected, by compressing the vapor.
Dr. Tamer Samir © 95

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Phase Behavior - Retrograde Phenomenon (2)
D
Pressure

0% Liquid
Liquid
% Liquid

Vapor
Two-Phase Region 0% Liquid
C

C Pressure D T2
Temperature
For Tc<T2<Tcc, the isothermal compression C-D has a different behavior. Point C is in an ALL VAPOR
condition (0 % liquid). By increasing pressure, the system enters the two-phase region. Thus, some
liquid has to drop out. However, the final point, point D, our final condition (dew point) requires to
have 0 % liquid in the system again. This is telling us that, as we are entering the two-phase region,
we will start to produce some liquid; but, there will be a point (of maximum liquid yield) where that
liquid will start to vaporize. In other words, even though we are compressing the system, liquid will
vaporize and not condense. This is contrary to expectations and that is why we call this a retrograde
96
(contrary to expectation) condensation behavior. Dr. Tamer Samir ©

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Phase Behavior - Retrograde Phenomenon (3)

Similar behavior is to be expected

within the region Pc < P < Pcc. In this

Pressure
case, we talk about retrograde
vaporization since we will be Liquid
moving from a 100 % liquid to
another 100 % liquid condition
Vapor
(both on the bubble point curve) in
an isobaric heating (Do it Two-Phase Region

yourself!).

Temperature

Dr. Tamer Samir © 97

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Quality
The energy content of natural gas is variable and depends on its accumulations, which are
influenced by the amount and types of energy gases they contain: the more noncombustible
gases in a natural gas, the lower the calorific value. In addition, the volume mass of energy
gases that are present in a natural gas accumulation also influences the calorific value of
natural gas. The more carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon gas, the higher its calorific value.

Properties Value
Relative Molar Mass 17-20
Hydrogen/Carbon atomic Ratio 3-4
Relative Density (15 oC, relative to air) 0.52-0.81
Autoignition Temperature, oC 540-560
Vapor Flammability Limits, volume % 4-16
Lower Heating/Calorific Value, MJ/kg 38-50
Theoretical (Adiabatic) Flame Temperature (with stoichiometric
1960
air/fuel ratio), oC Dr. Tamer Samir © 98

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Transportation (1)
Gas, as a result of the storage difficulties, needs to be transported immediately to its
destination and treatment. There are a number of options for transporting natural gas
energy from fields to market. These include:
 Pipelines:
Pipelines are a very convenient method of transport but are not flexible as the gas will
leave the source and arrive at its (one) destination. If the pipeline has to be shut down, the
production and receiving facilities and refinery often also have to be shut down because
gas cannot be readily stored, except perhaps by increasing the pipeline pressure by some
percentage.
 If political stability can be guaranteed, pipelines may be able to provide a long-term
solution for transportation.
Pipelines transportation is function of the route itself. Natural obstacles (mountains, sea,
…, etc) raise the cost of installation dramatically. Generally, Pipelines through easy routes
will not be economic above 7,000-10,000 km. For rough routes, the threshold is about
2500-4000 km.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 99

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Transportation (2)
 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG):
Liquefied natural gas technology has been proven to be effective since the mid-
1970s. LNG is the liquid form of natural gas (cooled to approximately −162◦C with a
volume approximately 1/637 that of gas at room temperature). Now about 27-32% of
natural gas transport is done as LNG
Facilities for liquefying natural gas requires a huge fixed cost installation (roughly 1.5
to 2.5 billions US$) . They require:
- Complex machinery with moving parts
- Special refrigerated ships for transporting the liquefied natural gas to market.
- Large cryogenic tanks are needed to store the LNG before shipment.
- At the consumer end, Large cryogenic tanks are needed for storing the received
LNG. In addition, an infrastructure for vaporizing LNG is needed, which is also
expensive.
 LNG is economic only for large gas field with large confirmed reserves. In addition,
confirmed contracts with consumer-end countries is essential before building LNG
plants
 The costs of building a LNG plant have lowered since the mid-1980s because of
greatly improved thermodynamic efficiencies, making LNG a major gas export method
worldwide. Dr. Tamer Samir © 100
Modern LNG ships can transport about 3 BCF per cargo

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Transportation (3)
 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG):
Gas can be transported in containers at high pressures, typically 1800 psig for a rich
gas to roughly 3600 psig for a lean gas (mainly methane). Gas at these pressures is
termed compressed natural gas and the CNG contains about 200 m3 NG at standard
conditions per m3 of CNG.
Compressed natural gas technology provides an effective way for shorter-distance
transport of gas. The technology is aimed at monetizing offshore reserves, which
cannot be produced because of the unavailability of a pipeline or because the LNG
option is very costly.
 CNG is used in some countries for vehicular transport as an alternative to
conventional fuels (gasoline or diesel).
An alternative approach using transport ships carrying straight long, large-diameter
pipes or smaller diameters helical pipes in an insulated cold storage cargo package.
Some CNG transport ships can carry up to 2 Bcf per ship
 Results show that for distances up to 4000 km, natural gas can be transported as
CNG at prices ranging from $0.93 to $2.23 per MMBTU compared to LNG, which can
cost anywhere from $1.5 to $2.5 per MMBTU depending on the actual distance.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 101

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Transportation (5)
 Gas to Liquids (GTL):
In GTL transport processes, the natural gas is converted to a liquid, such as syncrude
oil, methanol, or ammonia and is transported as such.
 In the first step, NG is mixed with steam and converted to syngas. The syngas is then
converted into a liquid syncrude oil (can be adjusted to form mainly gasoline, naphta,
diesel, or heavy fractions) using a Fischer-Tropsch process in the presence of a catalyst.
Another way is to convert syngas to methanol or ammonia, which are a precursor for
many other chemicals such as urea, dimethyl ether (which is also used as a
transportation fuel, LPG substitute, or power generation fuel), as well as a chemical
feedstock.
 The GTL route needs a huge infrastructure with high capital cost. However, a
synthetic fuel manufactured from natural gas through GTL, in a large scale plant when
natural gas is relatively inexpensive (below 3 US$/MCF (~3 US$/MMBTU)), is expected
to be competitive with oil down to approximately $20 per barrel

Dr. Tamer Samir © 102

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Transportation (4)
 Gas to Solids (GTS) (In the Experimental Stage) :
Gas can be transported as a solid, with the solid being gas hydrate. Natural gas
hydrate is the product of mixing natural gas with liquid water to form a stable water
crystalline ice-like substance. GTS involves three stages: production, transportation,
and regasification.
 Dry hydrate pellets yield about 160 m3 of gas at standard conditions from 1 m3 of
hydrate compared to the 637 m3 per 1 m3 of LNG and 200 m3 per 1 m3 of CNG.
For gas transport, natural gas hydrates can be formed deliberately by mixing natural
gas and water at 80 to 100 bar and 2 to 10◦C. If the slurry is refrigerated to around
−15◦C, it decomposes very slowly at atmospheric pressure so that the hydrate can be
transported by ship to market in simple containers insulated to near-adiabatic
conditions. This way is easier to produce, safer, and less expensive to store compared
to the CNG (high pressure ca. 3000 psig) LNG (low temperatures of −162◦C). However,
there is a volume penalty for hydrates (and hence transport cost) compared to LNG or
CNG. Why?

Dr. Tamer Samir © 103

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Natural Gas Fundamentals
Natural Gas Transportation (4)
 Gas to Power (GTP):
 By simply, electricity generation at or near the reservoir source and transportation
by cables to the destinations
 However, because installing high-power lines appears to be almost as expensive as
pipelines, that gas to power could be viewed as defeating the purpose of an alternative
less expensive solution for transporting gas.

 Gas to Commodity (GTC):

 Commodities such as aluminum, glass, bricks, cement, and iron bars all require large
quantities of energy in their making. In the gas-to-commodity concept, the gas is
converted to thermal or electrical power, which is then used in the production of the
commodity, which is then sold on the open market. It is the energy from the gas, heat
via electricity or direct combustion, and not the components of the gas-to-liquids
concept that is used.
 However, the cost of a GTC plant usually is very high and raw materials for
conversion to commodities, e.g., bauxite, silica sand, and limestone, may be difficult to
import to sites with reliability.
Dr. Tamer Samir © 104