MATH2003: Subgroups and Generators

Subgroups and Generators
MATH2003: Subgroups and Generators
Subgroups Cyclic groups
Subgroups
Denition 3.1
Let H be a non-empty subset of the group G . If H is a group, with the multiplication inherited from G , then we say that H is a subgroup of G . We write H G. If H G yet H = G , we write H < G and call H a proper subgroup of G .
Remark 3.2
1. Associativity for the multiplication for H is automatic, since associativity already holds in G . 2. The identity element of G must actually be in H and serve as the identity in H. 3. Similarly, inverses in H are simply the inverses in G .
Example 3.1
1. {1} G for any G and we call {1} the trivial subgroup of G . 2. For any group G , G G . 3. (Z, +) < (Q, +) < (R, +) < (C, +). 4. (Q , ) < (R , ) < (C , ). 5. (2Z, +) < (Z, +). More generally, (nZ, +) < (Z, +), where nZ = {nx | x Z}. 6. D6 < D12 . 7. D2n Sn . 8. An < Sn . 9. Sn < Sn+1 . 10. V = {1, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)} < S4 . V is the symmetry group of the rectangle, also called Klein-4-group. Actually V < A4 . 11. {[0]6 , [2]6 , [4]6 } < Z6 .
Theorem 3.3
A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup if and only if the following two conditions hold: (S1) a, b H implies ab H. (S2) For all a H, a1 H.
Example 3.2
1. Let GLn (C) denote the group of all invertible complex n n-matrices. Then H = {A GLn (C) | det(a) = 1} GLn (C). H = SLn (C), the special linear group. 2. Let G = D8 = {1, , 2 , 3 , , , 2 , 3 } be the dihedral group of order 8. Then H = {1, , 2 , 3 } < G .
The following is an example of a subgroup that we will see frequently.
Theorem 3.4
Let G be a group and a G . Then H = {an | n Z} is a subgroup of G . In fact it is an abelian group: hk = kh for all h, k H. H is the smallest subgroup containing a, i.e. every subgroup containing a also contains H.
Denition 3.5
Let G be a group and a G . 1. The group H of Theorem 3.11 is the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted H= a . 2. An element a G generates G , or is a generator for G , if a = G . 3. A group G is called cyclic if there is an element a G generating G . Note: The generator is generally not unique.
Example 3.3
Consider S5 . Then the element (12)(345) has order 6 in this group. If you calculate the rst 6 powers you get, (12)(345), (354), (12), (345), (12)(354), Id. From then on the powers repeat and it is easy to check that (12)(345) = {(12)(345), (354), (12), (345), (12)(354), Id.} Note that we also have (12)(345) = (12)(354) , demonstrating that the generator is not unique.
In fact, the behaviour above is typical for elements of nite order. Recall the following fact about the orders of elements:
Lemma 3.6
Let a G have order k. Then an = 1 if and only if n = qk for some q Z. That is, if and only if k divides n.
Proposition 3.7
1. Let a G be an element of order k. Then a = {1, a, . . . , ak1 } and a is a subgroup of order k. 2. If H G is a cyclic subgroup of order k, then H = a for some element of order k.
The main examples of cyclic groups are the following:
Example 3.4
Given any n, the group Zn is a cyclic group. The congruence class containing 1 is always a generator of Zn . However, there are other generators. In fact, these are precisely those congruence classes containing integers co-prime to n. For example, Z10 is generated by [1]. However, it is also generated by [3], [7] and [9]. Z10 is not generated by [4] since the cyclic subgroup generated by this element consists of: {[4], [8], [2], [6], [0]}, and this is not the whole of Z10 .
Let G be a group and a G . The points to remember are the following: The cyclic subgroup generated by a is the subgroup consisting of all powers of a. This is denoted a and a is called a generator for this subgroup. G itself is called cyclic if G = a for some a. This means that every element of G can be written as a power, an of a. In any case, generators are not unique. That is, we can get a = b even though a = b. Cyclic groups are abelian. Elements of order k generate subgroups of order k Subgroups of order k are generated by elements of order k.
Some more examples:
Example 3.5
1. (Z, +) =< 1 >=< 1 >=< 2 > . This is a cyclic group. 2. V = {1, a, b, c | a2 = b 2 = c 2 = 1, ab = c} is not cyclic, even though it is abelian. 3. D2n is also not cyclic, but can be generated by two elements, and , i.e. every element can be expressed as a product of powers of these two elements. We can generalise being generated by a single element to the property of being generated by a set of elements.
Denition 3.8
Let G be a group, and let X G . Then we write G = X if every element of G can be obtained by taking products and inverses of elements of X . Equivalently, the smallest subgroup of G containing X is G itself. If X = G , we say G is generated by X and that X is a generating set for G . If there is a nite set X generating G , we say G is nitely generated.
Example 3.6
We already know that any permutation can be written as a product of transpositions. Another way to say this is that Sn is generated by the set of all transpositions.
Example 3.7
S4 is generated by {(12), (23), (34)}. Note that there are exactly 6 transpositions in S4 and each of the remaining 3 of these can be written as products of the elements above. (13) (24) (14) = = = (23)(12)(23) (34)(23)(34) (24)(12)(24) (34)(23)(34)(12)(34)(23)(34)
Hence, the smallest subgroup containing {(12), (23), (34)} contains all the transpositions, and so must be equal to S4 . In other words, {(12), (23), (34)} generates S4 .
Example 3.8
1. D2n is generated by and . 2. The Klein-4-group V = {1, a, b, c | a2 = b 2 = c 2 = 1, ab = c} is generated by a and b (or b and c, or a and c.) 3. (Q, +) is not nitely generated. 4. An is generated by all the 3-cycles.
Cyclic Groups Our nal aim here is to classify cyclic groups. We need to start with a denition of when two groups are the same:
Denition 3.9
Let (G , ) and (H, ) be two groups. An isomorphism from G to H is a bijection : G H. such that for all a, b G : (a b) = (a) (b). We say H and G are isomorphic, H G. = Isomorphic groups have the same order, but groups of the same order need not be isomorphic!!
Example 3.9
Let G = D8 = {1, , 2 , 3 , , , 2 , 3 } Then 1. {1, } = Z2 . = 2. {1, , 2 , 3 } = Z4 . =
Proposition 3.10
Let G and H be two isomorphic groups, i.e. there exists : G H. Then = 1. (1G ) = 1H 2. Let g G have order k. Then (g ) also has order k.
Theorem 3.11 (Classication of cyclic groups)

A cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Zn . An innite cyclic group is isomorphic to Z.
Theorem 3.11 tells us what dierent cyclic groups exist. We can also say everything there is to say about their subgroup structure.
Proposition 3.12
A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Theorem 3.13
Let Zn be the cyclic group of order n. Then the order of any subgroup of Zn is a divisor of n. Moreover, for each divisor of n there is exactly one subgroup of that order. More precisely, if n = qd, then Zn has a subgroup isomorphic to Zd which is generated by [q]n .
In fact, we can draw a picture of the collection of subgroups inside a group. Since we understand cyclic groups completely, it is easy in this case. Concretely, you write down a list of all the subgroups of a given group G . If H, K G , we then draw a line upwards from H to K if H K and there are no subgroups in between. In fact, this picture is a lattice, called the Subgroup Lattice. The lattice property just means that any two elements have a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound. The greatest lower bound is due to the following.
Proposition 3.14
Let H and K be subgroups of G . Then H K is a subgroup of G .
Example 3.10
Lets determine the subgroups of Z24 . First list all the divisors of 24. These are, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24. So we get subgroups of Z24 isomorphic to Zd for each d listed above. However, generators for each of the subgroups (in the orders listed above) would be [0], [12], [8], [6], [4], [3], [2], [1].
Example 3.11
Lets continue with Z24 and draw the subgroup lattice.
ppp ppp p ppp

Z8 = [3]
Z24 = [1]
ppp ppp p ppp
Z12 = [2]
Z4 = [6]
6 NNN NNN NNN N
Z = [4]
NNN NNN NNN N ppp ppp p ppp

Z3 = [8]
Z2 = [12]
Z1 = [0]

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Subgroups and Generators