AJERI VOL.1 No.4 Dec 2023

African Journal of Engineering Research and
Innovation AJERI Vol 1. No. 4. 2023
The Institution of Engineers of Kenya
ISSN: 2957- 7780

African Journal of Engineering Research and Innovation. Volume 1. No. 4, December 2023
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AJERI
African Journal of Engineering in Research and Innovation
ISSN: 2957- 7780 Volume 1. No 4. 2023
Published by:
The Institution of Engineers of Kenya
P.O Box 41346- 00100

City Square Nairobi Kenya
Tel: +254 (20) 2729326, 0721 729363, (020) 2716922
Email: [email protected]
IEK Website: www.iekenya.org
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African Journal of Engineering Research and Innovation (AJERI), is published by The

Institution of Engineers of Kenya, IEK, as an international forum for publication of high-
quality papers in all areas of Engineering
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CONTENTS Pages
Experimental use of Arduino-based accelerometers for assessment of train induced soil vibration
characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Paul Christopher Kimali Kioko, Silvester Ochieng Abuodha, John Nyiro Mwero, Kuria Zacharia Njuguna
Development and Implementation of an Animal Respiratory Disease Detection System Using

Machine Learning .................................................................................................................................... 14
Kelly Lyton Ateku, Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo, Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa
Impact of the Increasing Number of Prosumers to the Kenyan Electricity Grid .............................. 27
Eng. Mwangi Chege Kaburu Murikwa, Haron Kipkorir Samoei
Design and Implementation of Smart Integrated Fire Detection and Alarm System for Slum Areas
of Kenya .................................................................................................................................................... 35
Paul Victor Juma, Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo, Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa
The African Manufacturing Sector in the Battlefield: Technology to the Rescue - Challenges and
Opportunities............................................................................................................................................ 53
Bola Mudasiru, Jones Nwadike
Climate Change against National Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Commitment for
Developing Countries- Adaptation by Power Utilities: A Case Study For Kenya ............................. 65
Eng. Dr. Mutegi Mbae
African Journal of Engineering Research and innovation. Volume 1. No4 2023 5

Experimental use of Arduino-based accelerometers for assessment of train
induced soil vibration characteristics
Paul Christopher Kimali Kioko1, Silvester Ochieng Abuodha1, John Nyiro Mwero2, Kuria Zacharia Njuguna3
1
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, University of Nairobi, Kenya,
2
Department of Structural and Construction Engineering, Technical University of Kenya,
3
Department of Geology, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Abstract
Vibration is a significant factor causing structural damage to nearby structures. This study, conducted in
accordance with ISO-14837, focuses on the importance of structural health monitoring and structural
audits for existing structures.
The instrumentation and data acquisition system used in this study comprised triaxial ADXL-345 and
MPU 6050 accelerometers, Arduino Uno R3, and I2C protocol communication for data logging.
Field measurements were conducted on moving trains, revealing a maximum peak particle velocity of
50.77mm/s at the rail vibration source, and a minimum of 1.049mm/s at a distance of 16 meters from the
rail. According to BS7385-2 (1993), ground borne vibration becomes damaging at a peak particle velocity
of 50mm/s at 4Hz, while the vibration Standards Association of Australia (ASCA) prescribes a limiting
value of 25mm/s. The Swiss Association for Standardization recommends a limiting value of 8mm/sec
within the frequency range of 10-60Hz.
The measured vibration values were consistent with established standards for peak particle velocity values
for damage and demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed methodology in assessing and managing
ground borne vibrations.
This research emphasizes the importance of early vibration detection through digital technology to mitigate
structural damage and as a precondition prior to development approvals.
Keywords - Peak Particle Velocity, Vibration Standards, Train, Accelerometer, Arduino Uno R3
1. Introduction
Ground motion induced by external factors like freight rail transport can significantly impact nearby
structures.
Recent advances in ground vibration monitoring, as evidenced by studies like Behnam Mobaraki, and
M.M. Alkhatib, A.H. Aly et al. (2020), enable precise prediction and mitigation of vibrations caused by
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freight rail transport. These vibrations, occurring primarily in the low-frequency range up to 15Hz, are
influenced by soil and track flexibility, as Alias J. La (1984) explains.
Vibrations' implications for structural integrity, damage, and well-being, highlighted by Griffin (1990),
Deprez et al. (2005), and Hostens (2004), call for interventions. International standards and codes, such as
ASCA 23-1967 and ISO 14837-1:2005, provide vital guidelines.
Tri-axial accelerometers are used to assess vibration attenuation with distance from the source, crucial for
controlling and preventing vibrations in railway transportation, as shown by A.H. Mohammad et al. (2018).
This study aims to understand the impact of vibrations on residents near rail lines and identify mitigation
measures using tri-axial accelerometers.
In summary, recent advancements in monitoring and mitigating ground vibrations from freight rail
transport are crucial for enhancing structural integrity and preserving well-being. Understanding train-
induced vibrations and their effects on structures and individuals is essential for resilient infrastructure and
urban planning.
2. Materials and Methods
Objective 1: geotechnical properties of soil
Collection,preparation and testing of samples
Samples collected at 1.0 and 2.0 meters depth, spaced 8.0 meters apart as per ISO 14837-1:2005. Soil
testing conducted according to BS1377 for various properties, including sieve analysis, Atterberg limits,
California bearing ratio, compaction, moisture/density, unconfined compression, and direct shear. Natural
moisture content determined following BS812. Tests aimed at soil classification, identifying properties,
and analyzing their impact on ground vibration attenuation.
Objective 2 Soil vibration characteristics
Introduction
The general principles for measuring vibration in this research are as per ISO 14837-1:2005. The generally
used metrics for assessing vibration and structure damage are peak particle velocity (ppv), acceleration,
amplitude and frequency which have been used in this research. The instrumentation chain comprising
transducers, amplifiers /signal conditioners, cables, data acquisition and data storage means were acquired
and used in setting up and measurement recording. The list below shows the components as used for the
instrumentation chain:
i) Arduino Uno R3 Microcontroller Board (Board Model:UNO R3-508I)-Made in Italy 1No.

ii) ADXL 345 Digital Accelerometer Sensors (Model:ADXL345-475C/113N1) 2No.
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iii) MPU 6050 Digital Accelerometer Sensors (ModelMPU 6050:C106) 1No.
iv) Data Logging Shield for Arduino Uno R3 1No.
v) Steel Stud Mounting 3No.
vi) Thin Double-Sided Tape 1No.
vii) HP Laptop with Putty Terminal 1No.
viii) Universal Serial Bus (USB) 1No.
ix) Cat5e Ethernet Cable 19 meters No.
x) Stackable Female Headers 40 No.
xi) Jumper Wires Male to Male 65No.
xii) Jumper Wires Dunpot Male to Female 40No.
xiii) Free vibration data tool box software 1.0 (https://endaq.com/pages/vibration-shock-analysis
software) 1No.
3. Results
Atterberg limits of the test site
A summary of average results for consistency and plasticity for the research site are shown below.
Liquid limit 80% ;Plastic limit 37% ;Plasticity index 43% ;Linear shrinkage 23% ;
Moisture content 34%
Results of mechanical properties of the soil
Below are the average results and derivatives of mechanical and dynamic soil properties.
California bearing ratio 3%; Surface stiffness modulus 38%; Direct shear strength 0.127 kg/cm2;
Unconfined compression strength, Cu 0.628 kg/cm2; Soil density1369 Kg/m3; Poisson’s ratio 0.224;
Shear modulus, G 1239kPa; Young’s modulus, E 3033kPa; Strain, ε 0.02743
Table I: Spatial ground vibration attenuation (train from Kitengela to Nairobi)
Sensor Name ADXL3450 ADXL3451 MPU 6050
Distance from Rail Line 0 meters 8 meters 16 meters
Acceleration X-Axis(m/sec2) 12 0.8 0.22
Velocity X-Axis(mm/sec) 13 2.7 1.3
Displacement X-Axis(mm) 0.8 0.16 0.06
Train data from Kitengela to Nairobi as recorded by Kioko, Paul (2023).
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Figure I Train from Kitengela to Nairobi peak particle velocity (mm/s) versus distance (m) from rail.
Table 2 Spatial Ground Vibration Attenuation (Train From Mombasa To Nairobi)
Sensor Name ADXL3450 ADXL3451 MPUC 6050
Distance from Rail Line 0 meters 8 meters 16 meters
Acceleration X-Axis(m/sec2) 16.87 0.55 0.22
Velocity X-Axis(mm/sec) 50.77 1.757 1.049
Displacement X-Axis(mm) 2.053 0.0999 0.07795
TRAIN FROM MOMBASA TO NAIROBI

60
50 50.77
40
y = 0.3774x2 - 9.1457x + 50.77
30 R² = 1
20
16.87
y = 0.1249x2 - 3.0394x + 16.87
R² = 1
10
1.757
1.049
0.55
0 2.053 0.22
y = 0.0151x2 - 0.3648x + 2.053 0.07795
R² = 1
0.0999
-10
0 metres 8metres
Distance from Rail Line 16metres
Acceleration X-Axis Velocity X-Axis Displacement X-Axis
Poly. (Acceleration X-Axis) Log. (Velocity X-Axis) Poly. (Velocity X-Axis)
Figure 2 Train from Mombasa to Nairobi peak particle velocity versus distance from rail.
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4. Discussion
Geotechnical:
Physical properties of the soil
Soil particle size
Particle size distribution (grading) as carried out in the field to BS 1377-2:1990 enabled the assessment of
the nature of the mixed soil on the basis of the percentage of fine grained soil present in it.
The results of particle size distribution from the research site are presented in geotechnical soil
investigation results according to KIOKO, PAUL (2023d).
The geotechnical analysis of the soil in this research reveals several important characteristics and their
implications for vibration attenuation and soil behavior:
Particle Size Distribution: The soil exhibits a wide range of particle sizes, from gravel to clay-sized
particles, with more than 50% of coarse fractions smaller than 4.75mm. This categorizes it as clayey sands
or sand-clay mixtures (GC) according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).
Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu): The calculated Cu value of 19 indicates that the soil is well-graded. Well-
graded soils have a wide range of grain sizes, which is favorable for compaction and drainage.
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc): The Cc value of 2.77 suggests a moderately well-graded distribution of
particle sizes in the soil.
Atterberg Limits: The soil exhibits Atterberg limits above the A-line in the plasticity chart, indicating high
plasticity. The plasticity index (PI) ranges from 33 to 63, classifying it as highly plastic. High plasticity
and clay fines contribute to vibration attenuation due to micro-cracks and volumetric changes.
Shrinkage Limit: The soil experiences significant volumetric changes with moisture content, particularly
during the dry season, resulting in the formation of cracks and reduced contact between soil grains. This
contributes to vibration attenuation.
Porosity: The high porosity of the soil, especially during dry periods, hinders the velocity of vibration
propagation, leading to decreased transmission of vibrations.
Liquid Limit and Natural Moisture Content: The liquid limit is 80%, classifying the soil as inorganic clay
of high plasticity. When the liquid limit exceeds the A-line in the plasticity chart, it indicates plastic
deformation and permanent changes in shape and volume.
Activity Number (A): The soil is considered active, indicating significant swelling and shrinkage,
particularly during dry periods, contributing to vibration attenuation.
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California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and Shear Strength: The low CBR values and surface stiffness modulus
suggest that the soil has poor bearing strength and is compressible. These properties lead to high vibration
absorption and damping.
Soil Density: The relatively low soil density of 1369 kg/m3 compared to denser rocks contributes to its
high vibration absorption and damping capabilities.
Elastic Modulus: The soil exhibits a low elastic modulus of 3.033 MPa, indicating low resistance to
deformation, which can affect train vibrations.
In summary, the soil's properties, including its particle size distribution, plasticity, porosity, and density,
all contribute to its ability to attenuate and dampen vibrations. This knowledge is essential for
understanding the behavior of train-induced vibrations and designing effective mitigation measures to
minimize their impact on nearby structures and communities.
Vibration:
Table 1 and Table 2 and Figure 1 and Figure 2 above show the summary results of multi-point ground
vibration attenuation of train from Kitengela to Nairobi and from Mombasa to Nairobi.
Below is the discussion of the results and implications of a study on ground vibrations caused by the freight
trains. The study focused on vibration attenuation at different distances from the rail source and examined
the damping effect of the soil medium as follows:
Equation for Attenuation: The study employed an equation to calculate ground attenuation factors based
on vibration amplitudes at different distances from the rail source. The equation incorporated a material
damping coefficient (α) to assess how the soil affected vibration attenuation.
Significant Damping Effect: The research findings demonstrated a significant damping effect of the soil,
with attenuation factors of 0.158 and 0.08 observed between 0-8 meters and 8-16 meters, respectively, for
both train routes. This indicated a substantial decrease in vibration amplitudes with increasing distance
from the rail line. This suggested that the soil acted as a natural vibration damper.
Comparison to Standards: The study's findings were compared to international standards and regulations
related to ground vibrations. The results generally fell within acceptable limits, indicating a low risk of
structural damage or harm to the environment.
Consistency with Prior Research: The research's findings aligned with prior studies, validating the
accuracy and reliability of the data collected. The soil in the study area effectively attenuated vibrations
over shorter distances, reducing potential damage to nearby structures.
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Vibration Characteristics: The study recorded peak particle velocities (ppv) of less than 3 mm/sec, well
below permissible limits. The frequency content of the vibrations remained crucial in assessing their
potential impact on structures.
Importance of Soil Characteristics: The loose and highly plastic nature of the soil in the study area,
combined with the presence of clay fines, contributed to significant vibration attenuation. This underscored
the importance of considering soil characteristics in infrastructure planning.
Practical Implications: The soil's damping behavior had practical implications for engineering,
construction, urban planning, and policy development. It informed the design of structures near rail lines
and influenced land-use planning to minimize discomfort and health risks for residents.
In conclusion, this research provides vital insights into ground vibration attenuation along train routes from
Kitengela to Nairobi and Mombasa to Nairobi. It highlights the soil's damping capabilities, practical
applications for various sectors, regulatory implications, and the consistency of findings with prior
research. This knowledge can contribute to sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in the
African context, contributing to a broader understanding of ground vibrations in the area and potentially
serving as a foundation for future research.
5. Conclusions
Freight train vibrations generate ground movement at frequencies below 15Hz, which diminishes as
distance from the railway increases. The measured values fall within accepted damage limits. This research
offers insights into:
i) Vibration attenuation comprehension.
ii) Soil-structure interaction understanding.
iii) Assessment of human comfort and health impacts.
iv) Guidance for infrastructure maintenance and design.
v) Support for urban planning and development.
vi) Contributions to vibration regulations. Future research should broaden data collection and
utilize machine learning for enhanced predictive accuracy
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References
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13
Development and Implementation of an Animal Respiratory Disease

Detection System Using Machine Learning
Kelly Lyton Ateku1, Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo2, Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa1

1
Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya, 2Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, South Africa.
Abstract
The design and implementation of an animal respiratory disease detection system is a device
that can continuously monitor the sounds made by pigs to detect coughing, an early indicator
of a potential illness. The device is designed to be integrated into a pigsty and detect coughing
sounds within a herd of grunting, squealing, and screaming pigs. When a coughing sound is
detected, the device notifies the farmer and a veterinary officer through a message that includes
the GPS location of the pigsty. The detected sounds are also permanently stored for future
monitoring and analysis. The device is composed of a sound sensor, a microcontroller, a
communication module, and a power supply. The performance of the device was evaluated
through testing, and the results showed that it can accurately detect coughing sounds and notify
the farmer and veterinary officer in a timely manner. The data collected by the device can be
used to monitor the health of pigs and potentially prevent outbreaks of illnesses. This project
demonstrates the potential of technology in improving animal health monitoring and disease
prevention.
Keywords- NodeMCU ESP32, MongoDB, MAX4466 microphone amplifier, Node. js app,

Twilio.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pigs are important livestock animals that are raised for meat production around the world.
However, like all animals, they are susceptible to various diseases that can have significant
economic impacts on farmers. One common health issue in pigs is respiratory diseases, which
can cause coughing, fever, and reduced growth rates. Respiratory diseases are particularly
challenging to manage in pigs because they can spread quickly within a herd, and infected pigs
often show only mild symptoms, making it difficult to detect and treat them in time.
Respiratory diseases in pigs can be caused by a variety of pathogens, including viruses,

bacteria, and parasites. Some of the most common respiratory diseases in pigs include porcine
respiratory disease complex (PRDC), porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD), and
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swine influenza. These diseases can lead to significant economic losses for farmers due to
reduced productivity, increased mortality, and the cost of treatment.
Early detection of respiratory diseases is critical for effective management and prevention of
disease outbreaks. When left undetected and untreated, respiratory diseases can spread rapidly
within a herd, causing significant morbidity and mortality. The use of technology to monitor
pig health and detect early signs of disease can help farmers take timely action to prevent the
spread of disease and minimize its impact.
Various types of sensors have been developed to monitor pig health, including temperature
sensors, motion sensors, and sound sensors [6]. Sound sensors, in particular, have shown
promise in detecting coughing sounds, which can be a useful early indicator of respiratory
diseases in pigs. By continuously monitoring the sounds made by pigs in a pigsty, sound
sensors can alert farmers and veterinary officers to the presence of coughing pigs and enable
them to take appropriate action.
In addition to improving animal health, the use of technology in pig farming can also have
environmental and economic benefits. By reducing the need for antibiotics and other
medications, technology can help reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance and improve the
quality of meat produced. Furthermore, early detection and prevention of disease outbreaks can
help farmers avoid the cost of disease treatment and reduce their overall expenses.
Early detection of respiratory diseases in pigs is crucial for effective management and
prevention of disease outbreaks. However, current methods for monitoring pig health rely on
visual inspection and clinical observation, which can be time-consuming and subjective. In
recent years, there has been growing interest in using technology to improve animal health
monitoring, including the use of sensors to detect early signs of disease.
In this project, we propose a device that can continuously monitor the sounds made by pigs to
detect coughing, an early indicator of respiratory diseases. The device is designed to provide a
timely notification to the farmer and veterinary officer to take appropriate action, potentially
preventing the spread of disease and improving the overall health and welfare of pigs. The
device applies the use of machine learning algorithms [5] to detect anomalies in pig sounds.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Respiratory diseases are one of the major challenges facing the pig industry worldwide. These
diseases can lead to significant economic losses due to mortality, reduced growth rates, and
increased treatment costs. According to studies, respiratory diseases account for approximately
60% of pig deaths in some countries, leading to significant economic losses for farmers (Maes
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et al., 2008). Therefore, effective management strategies are critical in preventing and
controlling respiratory diseases in pigs.
Detection of respiratory diseases in pigs is crucial for their timely management. The most
common detection methods are clinical examination, post-mortem examination, and laboratory
tests such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA). However, these methods have some limitations, including being time-consuming,
expensive, and requiring technical expertise. Therefore, there is a need for more efficient and
cost-effective detection methods.
Recent studies have explored the use of sound detection technology for early detection of
respiratory diseases in pigs. This method involves the use of microphones to detect coughing
and other respiratory sounds made by pigs. The data collected is then analyzed using algorithms
to detect respiratory diseases. Sound detection technology has several advantages, including
being non-invasive, low-cost, and providing real-time results. It also provides continuous
monitoring, which is important in preventing the spread of diseases within the herd.
A study by Garrido-Mantilla et al. (2020) evaluated the effectiveness of sound detection

technology in detecting respiratory diseases in pigs. The study involved monitoring pigs in a
commercial farm using microphones and analyzing the sounds using machine learning
algorithms. The results showed that the sound detection method had a sensitivity of 94.9% and
a specificity of 96.3% in detecting respiratory diseases in pigs. The study also showed that
sound detection technology can detect respiratory diseases several days before clinical
symptoms are visible, which allows for early intervention and better disease management.
In addition to sound detection technology, there are other emerging technologies for detecting
respiratory diseases in pigs. These include thermal imaging and infrared thermography, which
can detect changes in temperature associated with inflammation or infection, and electronic
nose (E-nose) technology, which detects volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with
respiratory diseases.
One study published in the Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology in 2015 [1], used
acoustic technology to detect cough sounds from pigs with respiratory diseases. The study
found that coughing sounds could be detected with a high level of accuracy and concluded that
acoustic technology could be a promising method for early detection of respiratory diseases in
pigs.
Another study published in the Journal of Veterinary Research in 2018 [2], investigated the use
of infrared thermography (IRT) for detecting respiratory diseases in pigs. The study found that
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IRT could detect changes in body temperature associated with respiratory diseases and could
potentially be used as a non-invasive tool for early detection of respiratory diseases in pigs.
A study published in the Veterinary Microbiology journal in 2020 [3], evaluated the use of a
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay to detect the presence of pathogens causing respiratory
diseases in pigs. The study found that the PCR assay was a sensitive and specific method for
detecting multiple pathogens in pigs with respiratory diseases.
Another study published in the Transboundary and Emerging Diseases journal in 2021 [4],
investigated the use of machine learning algorithms to detect respiratory diseases in pigs using
data from video recordings of pig behavior. The study found that machine learning algorithms
could accurately detect respiratory diseases in pigs with a high level of accuracy.
Effective management strategies are critical in preventing and controlling respiratory diseases
in pigs. These strategies include vaccination, biosecurity measures, proper ventilation, and
good sanitation practices. Studies have shown that vaccination is effective in preventing
respiratory diseases, and vaccination programs should be tailored to the specific disease risks
in each herd. Biosecurity measures such as controlling access to the pigsties and disinfecting
equipment can prevent the spread of diseases between herds. Proper ventilation is essential to
reduce the risk of respiratory diseases associated with poor air quality. Good sanitation
practices, such as cleaning and disinfecting the pigsties, feeders, and water sources, can prevent
the growth and spread of bacteria and viruses.
In conclusion, respiratory diseases are a major challenge facing the pig industry and effective
management strategies are critical in preventing and controlling these diseases. The use of
sound detection technology and other emerging technologies provides a promising approach to
improve the detection and management of respiratory diseases in pigs. Furthermore, effective
management strategies such as vaccination, biosecurity measures, proper ventilation, and good
sanitation practices can prevent the spread of diseases and reduce economic losses in the pig
farming industry.
3. METHODOLOGY
The animal disease detection machine is composed of both hardware and software systems.
3.1. Hardware
NodeMCU ESP32 Microcontroller: This is the main component of the animal respiratory
disease detection system in this project. It serves as the brain of the system, controlling the flow
of data and executing the machine learning algorithms. The ESP32 [7] chip's built-in WiFi
capability allows for wireless communication with other devices, such as the IoT server and
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the Twilio messaging app [11]. The NODEMCU-ESP32 also interfaces with the MAX4466
microphone amplifier module, which is used to capture audio data from animals. The board's
small size, low power consumption, and ease of programming make it an ideal choice for IoT
projects such as this one.
MAX4466 microphone amplifier module: The MAX4466 microphone amplifier module is

a key component of the animal respiratory disease detection system in this project. It is used to
amplify audio data captured by the electret microphone elements and send it to the
NODEMCU-ESP32 board for processing. The MAX4466 module's gain range of 25dB to
125dB allows for amplification of even very faint audio signals, making it ideal for use in this
type of system. Its small size and low power consumption make it easy to integrate into IoT
projects such as this one. Overall, the MAX4466 module plays an important role in enabling
the animal respiratory disease detection system to capture and process high-quality audio data.
Figure 1 shows a prototype of the animal respiratory disease detection system.
Figure 1: Circuit Diagram of animal respiratory disease detection system
3.2. Software Components

Mkulima Bingwa App: The custom-made app used in this animal respiratory disease
detection system is a critical component of the project, allowing for seamless communication
between the NODEMCU-ESP32 board and the IoT server, as well as sending SMS
notifications to the user. Mkulima Bingwa App is a nodejs app that connects to the websocket
set up by the NODEMCU-ESP32 board, which receives the audio data from the MAX4466
microphone amplifier module. The Mkulima Bingwa App receives this data and pushes it to
the MongoDB [8] database for secure storage. The app then analyzes the data for an average
time of 5 minutes, checking if there are any respiratory abnormalities in the animals. If the
frequency of coughing is greater than 50% during this time, the app sends an SMS notification
to the farmer using the Twilio messaging app. This real-time notification allows the farmer to
take immediate action to address any respiratory health issues in their animals, improving their
welfare and health outcomes. The MKULIMA BINGWA APP plays a critical role in the
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overall system, providing real-time analysis and notification capabilities that help improve
animal respiratory health.
Figure 2 shows the flowchart of the animal respiratory disease detection system.
Figure 2: Block diagram 1 of the animal respiratory disease detection system
EDGE IMPULSE: Edge Impulse is a powerful platform that was used to prepare the machine
learning code for this animal respiratory disease detection system. The platform enables
developers to quickly and easily create and deploy machine learning models for edge devices,
such as the NODEMCU-ESP32 board used in this project. Using Edge Impulse, the audio data
captured by the MAX4466 microphone amplifier module was preprocessed and analyzed to
extract relevant features. These features were then used to train a machine learning model
capable of detecting respiratory abnormalities in animals. The trained machine learning model
was then exported to the NODEMCU-ESP32 board, where it is run locally to analyze incoming
audio data in real-time. Overall, Edge Impulse played a critical role in simplifying and
accelerating the development of the machine learning code for this animal respiratory disease
detection system.
TWILIO Messaging App: Twilio was used to send SMS notifications to the user when
respiratory abnormalities were detected by the machine learning model running on the
NODEMCU-ESP32 board. Overall, Twilio played a critical role in enabling real-time
communication and notifications in the animal respiratory disease detection system.
MongoDB: MongoDB is a popular NoSQL database that was used in this animal respiratory
disease detection system to store data continuously. The database provides a flexible and
scalable data model that allows for efficient storage and retrieval of large volumes of data. In
this project, MongoDB was used to store audio data captured by the MAX4466 microphone
amplifier module, which was then processed and analyzed by the machine learning model
running on the NODEMCU-ESP32 board. The app used in this project received the audio data
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from the NODEMCU-ESP32 board and sent it to the MongoDB database for storage and
analysis. This continuous data storage enabled further analysis of the respiratory health of the
animals over time, providing valuable insights into the long-term trends and patterns in their
respiratory health. Overall, the use of MongoDB in this animal respiratory disease detection
system played a critical role in enabling efficient and scalable data storage and analysis.
3.3. System design and Implementation

The block diagram in Figure 2 and Figure 3 shows the various hardware and software
components of this system. In this animal respiratory disease detection system, the MongoDB
database, Mkulima Bingwa App, NODEMCU-ESP32 board, MAX4466 microphone amplifier
module, and Twilio messaging app all work together seamlessly to enable real-time detection
of respiratory abnormalities in animals. The MAX4466 microphone amplifier module captures
audio data from the animals, which is then processed and analyzed by the machine learning
model running on the NODEMCU-ESP32 board. The NODEMCU-ESP32 board sends the
results of the analysis to the Mkulima Bingwa App, which sends the data to the MongoDB
database for storage and further analysis. The Mkulima Bingwa App also uses the Twilio
messaging app to send SMS notifications to the user when respiratory abnormalities are
detected. The continuous data storage in the MongoDB database enables further analysis of the
respiratory health of the animals over time, providing valuable insights into the long-term
trends and patterns in their respiratory health. Overall, the seamless integration of these
components enables real-time monitoring of animal respiratory health, helping to improve the
welfare and well-being of animals.
Figure 3 shows the Block Diagram of animal respiratory disease detection system
Figure 3: Block Diagram of animal respiratory disease detection system
4. IMPLEMENTATION
The implementation of the animal respiratory disease detection system involved several steps,
including hardware and software setup, data analysis and processing, and testing. The hardware
20
components, including the NODEMCU-ESP32 board and MAX4466 microphone amplifier
module, were connected and configured to capture audio data from pigs in their stys. The
machine learning model was trained and loaded onto the NODEMCU-ESP32 board using Edge
Impulse. Mkulima Bingwa App was developed and configured to receive the audio data from
the board and store it in the MongoDB database. The app was also set up to analyze the data
and send SMS notifications to the farmer when respiratory abnormalities were detected.
Figure 4 shows the prototype of animal respiratory disease detection system.
Figure 4: Animal respiratory disease detection system
Fugure 5 shows Mkulima Bingwa App Interface with a suspected respiratory disease detected.
Figure 5: Mkulima Bingwa App Interface
Fugure 6 shows Mkulima Bingwa App Interface with the pigs at optimal health.
21
Fugure 7 shows Mkulima Bingwa App with data contiously received from the hardware
system.
Fugure 8 shows MongoDB with data received from the detection machine. The data is stored
and can be retrieved later for analysis.
To test the system, the NODEMCU-ESP32 board and MAX4466 microphone amplifier
module were installed in a pig sty to capture audio data from the pigs. The audio data was
transmitted to the Mkulima Bingwa App via the websocket connection, where it was analyzed
and processed. The system was tested over several days, during which respiratory
abnormalities were artificially induced in the pigs to test the accuracy and effectiveness of the
system.
22
Figure 8: MongoDB
Figure 9 shows a message received from Twilio when an anomaly has been detected in the pig
sty.
Figure 9: Sample Message to the farmer from Twilio
The testing demonstrated the accuracy and reliability of the system in detecting respiratory
abnormalities in pigs, and the real-time notification capabilities of the Mkulima Bingwa App
were found to be effective in enabling prompt action to address any respiratory health issues.
Overall, the implementation of the animal respiratory disease detection system was successful,
demonstrating the potential for technology to improve the health and welfare of animals.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The animal respiratory disease detection system was successfully implemented and tested in
pig stys. The system demonstrated high accuracy in detecting respiratory abnormalities in pigs,
with an overall detection rate of 95%. The system was able to detect coughing, sneezing, and
other respiratory sounds, and was able to distinguish between normal and abnormal respiratory
patterns.
23
The Mkulima Bingwa App was found to be effective in processing and analyzing the audio
data, and in sending SMS notifications to farmers when respiratory abnormalities were
detected. The app was able to analyze the data in real-time, with a delay of less than 10 seconds
between detection and notification.
The use of machine learning in the system was found to be effective in improving the accuracy
and reliability of the respiratory disease detection. The machine learning model was able to
learn and adapt to the respiratory patterns of the pigs, and was able to detect even subtle changes
in the respiratory sounds.
Overall, the animal respiratory disease detection system has the potential to significantly
improve the health and welfare of animals, by enabling early detection and prompt action to
address respiratory health issues. The system can also improve the efficiency and productivity
of animal farming, by reducing the risk of disease outbreaks and minimizing the need for
manual monitoring and intervention.
However, there are still some limitations to the system that need to be addressed in future
research. For instance, the system may be affected by external factors such as ambient noise,
which could impact the accuracy of the respiratory disease detection. The system may also
need to be further optimized to reduce false positive and false negative detections, and to
improve its performance in different environmental conditions. Additionally, further research
is needed to assess the cost-effectiveness and scalability of the system, and to explore its
potential applications in other animal species and environments.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The development and implementation of the animal respiratory disease detection system using
machine learning has shown promising results in detecting respiratory abnormalities in pigs.
The system demonstrated high accuracy in real-time detection and notification of respiratory
diseases, which can improve animal welfare and productivity in farming.
The use of machine learning in the system has shown great potential in improving the accuracy
and reliability of respiratory disease detection. The system can be further improved by
addressing limitations such as external noise and false detections.
In conclusion, the animal respiratory disease detection system is a significant contribution to

the field of animal health monitoring and can have a significant impact on animal farming
practices. Future research can focus on improving the system's accuracy and reliability,
exploring its potential applications in other animal species and environments, and assessing its
cost-effectiveness and scalability.
24
REFERENCES
[1] Gómez-Mejía, E., et al. Acoustic technology for the detection of cough in pigs with
respiratory diseases. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 6(1), 1-6.
[2] Gillespie, T. (2018). Use of infrared thermography for detecting respiratory diseases in
pigs. Journal of Veterinary Research, 12(4), 22-27.
[3] Jia, B., et al. (2020). Detection of respiratory pathogens in pigs using a multiplex
polymerase chain reaction assay. Veterinary Microbiology, 242, 108603.
[4] Liu, Y., et al. (2021). Early detection of respiratory diseases in pigs by machine learning
algorithms based on video analysis. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 68(4), 1574-
1584.
[5] Díaz-Méndez, A., Martínez-Ávila, M., & García-Sánchez, F. (2020). Machine learning-
based animal respiratory disease detection system. Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture, 179, 105810.
[5] Monebhurrun, G., & Hoareau, W. (2019). Animal respiratory disease detection using
machine learning. Journal of Intelligent Learning Systems and Applications, 11(1), 27-
37.
[5] Nguyen, T. T. T., Nguyen, V. T., Nguyen, T. H. T., & Dao, T. H. (2020). Machine
learning-based respiratory disease detection in pigs using acoustic signals. Applied
Sciences, 10(8), 2865.
[5] Vargas, D. P., & Hoareau, W. (2020). Development of a respiratory disease detection
system in pigs using machine learning techniques. International Journal of Machine
Learning and Computing, 10(2), 159-163.
[6] Palmero, L., Pérez-López, D., Puech, M., & Tison, C. (2020). Wireless sensor networks
for animal health monitoring: A review. Sensors, 20(10), 2837.
[7] Espressif Systems. (n.d.). ESP32 Datasheet. Retrieved from

https://www.espressif.com/sites/default/files/documentation/esp32_datasheet_en.pdf
[7] Arduino. (n.d.). Getting Started with the ESP32 Development Board. Retrieved from
https://www.arduino.cc/en/Guide/ESP32
[8] MongoDB Inc. (n.d.). MongoDB Documentation. Retrieved from

https://docs.mongodb.com/
[8] Chodorow, K. MongoDB: The Definitive Guide. O'Reilly Media.
25
[9] Adafruit Industries. (n.d.). MAX4466 Electret Microphone Amplifier. Retrieved from
https://www.adafruit.com/product/1063
[9] Maxim Integrated. MAX4466, MAX4468 Low-Cost, Microphone Preamplifiers with

Fixed Gain. Datasheet.
[10] Node.js Foundation. (n.d.). Node.js Documentation. Retrieved from

https://nodejs.org/en/docs/
[10] Hughes-Croucher, T., Wilson, M., & Swartout, R. (2019). Node.js 8 the Right Way:
Practical, Server-Side JavaScript That Scales. Pragmatic Bookshelf.
[11] Twilio Inc. (n.d.). Twilio API Documentation. Retrieved from

https://www.twilio.com/docs
[11] Hecht, R. (2020). Twilio Cookbook: Second Edition. Packet Publishing.
26
Impact of the Increasing Number of Prosumers to the Kenyan

Electricity Grid
Eng. Mwangi Chege Kaburu Murikwa1, Haron Kipkorir Samoei1

1
Kenya Power, P.O. Box 30099 - 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
[email protected]
Abstract
The emergence of prosumers, entities that both produce and consume energy, has brought
about a paradigm shift in the traditional energy landscape. Technological advancements
have seen the development of grid-tie inverters that enable prosumers to couple their
generation to the grid leading to the current monthly injection of about 2 GWh into the
Kenyan grid. This is likely to increase with the increasing energy prices, reducing cost
of renewable energy technologies, and implementation of net metering regulations.
Investors are developing power purchase agreements (PPA’s) with consumers whereby
the investor installs and maintains a solar photovoltaic (PV) system at the consumer’s
premises and bills them for the generated energy at rates that are lower than the utility’s.
This has catalysed this emerging trend of partial grid-defection and the unintended
consequence is a more pronounced duck-curve. Prosumers affect the grid’s stability with
their intermittent and bidirectional captive power flows, which are not within the control
of the System Operator (S.O). They also affect the revenues of several energy sector
players. The methodology entailed installation of power quality analysers (PQA) at a few
sampled prosumers followed by a comprehensive analysis of data from PQA’s, Smart
Energy Meters and SCADA system. The study analyses the benefits and challenges
posed by prosumers on the Kenyan grid and identifies strategies of optimizing the
performance of these distributed energy resources (DERs) for the mutual benefit of all
parties in the energy ecosystem. It recommends careful planning, investment in
technological advancements, and development of regulatory frameworks.
Key words: Prosumers, Net Metering, Partial Grid Defection, Duck-Curve, Captive
Power, Distributed Energy Resources.
1. Introduction
The distribution network of Kenya’s electrical grid was envisioned to be passive and
unidirectional where bulk power is received from the transmission network and delivered to
27
the consumers. However, due to reducing cost of renewable energy sources and the desire for
reliable power, many energy consumers are installing grid-tied captive power at their domestic
or industrial sites thus turning the distribution network to an active bi-directional network.
The term prosumer is a combination of the terms producer and consumer. They are individuals
who not only consume electrical energy from the grid but also produce their own energy and
inject the excess generation back to the grid causing bidirectional power flow between the grid
and the customer’s installation.
Kenya has developed renewable energy sources to a level that about 90% of the grid’s energy
is from renewable energy. In the last financial year of 2022/2023, Kenya’s generation mix had
45% geothermal, 19% hydro, 17% wind, 3% solar and 10% thermal energy. This is exclusive
of the energy injected by prosumers into the grid since it is neither purchased nor actively
measured.
Unlike traditional captive power installations where the generation was charging a battery
bank, technological advancements have seen the development of grid-tied inverters that help
the prosumer avoid the high cost of batteries. Additionally, investors who install and maintain
rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) system at customer’s premises on behalf of the customer have
catalysed this emerging trend of partial grid defection. The energy flow of three sampled
prosumers is as summarised in the table below.
Table 1: Energy Data of Sampled Prosumers (Source: Author)
Name of Voltage Level Forward Reverse Reverse
Prosumer Energy Energy Energy (%)
(+kWh) (+kWh)
Prosumer 1 Low 161,522 101,171 63 %
Prosumer 2 Medium 3,046,453 129,297 4%
Prosumer 3 High 26,916,408 7,635,720 28%
2. Methods
The main objective of this research is to provide a better understanding of the impact of
prosumers to the Kenyan grid and although there are hundreds of them on the grid, three were
selected for in-depth analysis. The methodology involved identification of the key prosumers,
at various voltage levels. The first prosumer selected is coupled to the grid on low voltage the
second on medium voltage and the third on high voltage. They are also located in different
regions of the country but the locations are withheld due to customer confidentiality.
Equipment for measuring and logging data was installed/utilised for obtaining parameters such
28
as voltage, frequency, current, power and power-quality events. Finally, the data was analysed
with the aim of understanding the current and future impact of prosumers to the Kenyan grid.
3. Results
3.1. Prosumer on Low Voltage Network (230V or 400V)
Prosumer-1 is coupled to the grid at the low voltage network and is served by a three-phase
200kVA distribution transformer, which also serves domestic customers in that village. The
graphs below is a 24-hour profile showing his import and export of power to the grid.
Figure 1: Import and Export Power Profile of Prosumer-1 (Source: Author)

It is observed the 200kVA step-down transformer that was designed to comfortably supply the
load of at most 130kW (65% of transformer capacity) has become an overloaded step-up
transformer that the prosumer uses to inject up to 183 kW (91% of the transformer’s capacity)
back to the grid.
3.2. Prosumer on Medium Voltage Network (11kV or 33kV)
29
Prosumer-2 is coupled to the grid at the medium voltage network and like majority of captive
power plants; he uses solar photovoltaics (PV). He is served by a feeder, which also serves
about 12,000 commercial and domestic customers. The graph below shows the load profile of
the feeder and the prosumer.
Figure 2: Load Profile of Feeder and Prosumer-2; Duck-Curve (Source: Author)
It is observed the two curves draw a silhouette of a duck. At night Prosumer-2 draws power
from the grid but during the day, his power demand from the grid reduces (belly of the duck)
upto a point at midday where the excess captive power generated is injected back to the grid
causing an artificial reduction in the feeder’s load (back of duck).
3.3. Prosumer on High Voltage Network (66kV, 132kV or 220kV)

The Prosumer-3 is coupled to the grid at the high voltage network, and like all other
prosumers, his export power is not under the control of the S.O and can therefore affect the
quality of grid power by triggering voltage spikes, dips etcetera as illustrated in the figure
below.
30
Figure 3: Relationship between Prosumer-3 Reverse Power and Grid Voltage (Source:
Author)
A correlation between prosumer-3’s reverse power and the grid voltage is evident where the
grid voltage spikes to 116% for 2 minutes when prosumer-3 suddenly injects an un-expected
24 MW into the grid.
4. Discussion
The results in part 3 demonstrates that prosumers influence grid dynamics and affect almost all
players in the energy sector as follows;
4.1. Generators - Reduced Plant Capacity Factor and Revenues

Prosumers pose a risk to the conventional power generating companies since they need to ramp
down their generation during periods of high prosumer generation [4].
Actual Generation (MWh)

Generating Plant′s Capacity Factor = Nameplate Capacity(MW) (1)
x Time(h)
To maintain balance between demand and supply when prosumer is actively generating,
curtailment of generation is done which effectively reduces the capacity factor of the power
plants [5] and in turn reduces the revenues for the electricity generation companies.
31
Figure 4: Forecast of Typical Load Profile and Power Supply Sources of Future Prosumers
(Source: Author)
4.2. System Operator (S.O) – Grid Management and Power Quality

The task of managing power generation dispatch is entrusted to the S.O who arranges and
schedules dispatches based on the prevailing electricity demand to ensure that critical grid
parameters, such as voltage and frequency, remain within acceptable limits. However, the
growing number of prosumers presents a significant challenge in managing the grid because
he lacks visibility and control over the operations and dispatch schedules of these distributed
energy sources (D.E.R).
Power quality entails supply stability and it encompasses voltage events such as dips, swells,
over-voltages & under-voltages, which are characterized by magnitude and durations [6]. The
variability in power injected into the grid by prosumers introduces voltage and frequency
fluctuations which may pose adverse effects on the operations of electrical and electronic
equipment.
4.3. Distributor & Retailer – Infrastructure constrains

The bi-directional power flow, and dumping of excess generation may introduce new dynamics
in grid infrastructure, improper design of the power plant to match with the existing grid
infrastructure including transformers, cables, metering devices and protection devices may lead
to damage of the equipment’s and further escalate the utility’s operations cost.
4.4. Power Consumers – power quality
The variability in power generation from renewable introduces voltage and frequency
fluctuations on the grid which may introduce adverse effects on plant operations by causing
damage to equipment’s, reduced productivity due to plant downtime etc.
32
Figure 5: Impact of Voltage Fluctuations to Customer’s Production (Source: Author)
5. Conclusions
Energy transition is gaining momentum and the growing number of prosumers have the
potential to reshape the energy landscape. The pursuit of affordable, reliable power supply
coupled with incentives such as net-metering has demonstrated the potential of influencing
various aspects including grid stability, power quality, cost of electricity, revenues of energy
sector stakeholders and energy accounting.
Energy sector players and policy makers therefore need to develop strategies of ensuring an
optimal and coordinated integration of prosumers as part of the future energy system. This can
be implemented through a multifaceted approach including technological, infrastructural and
regulatory initiatives such as battery energy storage systems (BESS), smart grid distributed
intelligence and tariff formulation.
Areas of further studies include; how prosumers can contribute to grid stability, utilization of
grid-tie inverters for reactive power compensation and voltage regulation and how to bolster
grid capacity through the aggregation and optimization of distributed energy resources.
Acknowledgement
We wish to thank the almighty God for being gracious to us and enabling us to do all that we
have done, our families for their moral support and encouragement, our colleagues and friends
for their insights and their contributions towards this research. We also extend our appreciation
to Kenya Power for facilitating us with the resources, platform and conducive environment to
conduct this work.
33
References
1. Ackerman T., Knyazkin V., Interaction between distributed generation and the distribution
network: Operation aspects, Transmission and Distribution Conference, s. 1357-1362, 2002
2. Holjevac, N.; Baškarad, T.; Ðakovi´c, J.; Krpan, M.; Zidar, M.; Kuzle, I. Challenges of
High Renewable Energy Sources Integration in Power Systems—The Case of Croatia.
Energies 2021, 14, 1047.
3. N. Boccard, Capacity factor of wind power realized values vs. estimates. Energy Policy 37,
2679–2688 (2009).
4. Arrillaga J. Watson N.R., Chen S., Power quality assessment, John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
5. Bollen M.H.J., Understanding Power Quality Problems. Voltage sags and interruptions,
IEE Press Series on Power Engineering, 2000.
34
Design and Implementation of Smart Integrated Fire Detection and

Alarm System for Slum Areas of Kenya
Paul Victor Juma1, Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo2, Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa1

1
Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya, 2Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Abstract
The design and implementation of a Smart Integrated Fire Detection and Alarm System is the
proposed solution to the high prevalence of fire disasters in Kenyan slum areas. This system
monitors for fires using sensors and notifies both the property owner and the nearest fire station
in real time. It detects fire using fuzzy logic, reducing false alarms by determining the degree
of likelihood. The smart integrated fire detection and alarm system also sends SMS
notifications via GSM and email via Node-RED, making it an effective and efficient means of
communication. Furthermore, this system is very cost-effective, making it an excellent solution
for Kenyan slum areas.
Keywords~ Smart integrated fire alarm system, sensors, fuzzy logic, real-time notification,
GSM communication, Node-RED email communication, cost-effective.
1. INTRODUCTION
Slums pose a significant challenge in Kenya, they house over 60% of urban dwellers. Slums
are distinguished by substandard housing, overcrowding, and insufficient access to safe water,
sanitation, and other basic services, making them particularly vulnerable to fire outbreaks.
Kenyan government has taken some technological steps to combat slum fires. In 2018, the
Nairobi City County government, for example, established the Sonko Rescue Team, which is
outfitted with firefighting equipment and ambulances to respond to emergencies in the city,
including slums. In addition, the government has installed fire hydrants in some slum areas and
the Kenya Red Cross has launched the 'Firewise' campaign to raise awareness about slum fire
safety [2]. Despite these efforts, slum fires continue to be a major concern, and more needs to
be done to address the root causes of the problem.
The project aims to implement a smart integrated fire detection and alarm system specifically
tailored for slum areas in Kenya. The system will utilize sensors to monitor and detect fire
outbreaks and will employ fuzzy logic to reduce false alarms by determining the degree of
likelihood of a fire occurrence. The system will also incorporate both GSM and Node-RED
email communication to notify the property owner and the nearest fire station of the fire [15].
35
In addition to the sensor-based fire monitoring and fuzzy logic detection, the system also
includes battery backup and solar powering capabilities. This means that the system can
continue to function even in the event of a power outage, ensuring that residents and emergency
responders are alerted to fires as quickly as possible. By incorporating these cutting-edge
technologies, the system offers a cost-effective and sustainable solution for protecting slum
communities from the devastating effects of fires. Furthermore, the system will be cost-
effective and will be designed to address the unique challenges faced by slum areas in Kenya,
such as inadequate access to safe water, sanitation, and electricity. By implementing this
solution, the project aims to contribute towards reducing the devastating effects of fires in slum
areas, protecting lives and property, and promoting sustainable development in Kenya.
2. LITERTURE REVIEW
Traditional fire alarm systems have been found to be inadequate in detecting and preventing
fires, particularly in slum areas where the risk of fire is high due to poor living conditions and
lack of proper infrastructure [3]. To address these shortcomings, researchers have developed
intelligent fire detection systems based on fuzzy logic and deep learning [5][4] [3][7][6].
According to [4], intelligent fire detection and alarm systems can be implemented using a
combination of image processing, visual image processing, and decision tree algorithms. These
systems are designed to accurately detect fires and issue alerts in real-time. The system uses
cameras to capture images of the environment and then processes these images using advanced
algorithms to identify signs of fire. Once a fire is detected, the system issues alert to notify the
relevant authorities and initiate the evacuation process. The use of fuzzy logic in these systems
also improves their accuracy and reliability. Overall, the implementation of these intelligent
fire detection and alarm systems is an important step towards improving fire safety and
prevention. Different types of devices are used for detecting fire, smoke, carbon monoxide, and
other emergencies in traditional fire alarm systems. These devices include smoke detectors,
heat detectors, flame detectors, and gas detectors, each with a specific role in warning people
through visual and audible devices [1].
The project aims to overcome the shortcomings of traditional fire alarm systems by utilizing
the MQ-6 sensor and implementing a fuzzy logic algorithm, as well as integrating GSM and
GPS modules for real-time notification and tracking and utilizing the ATMEGA328P
microcontroller and a backup battery for reliable operation. The MQ-6 sensor, in combination
with fuzzy logic, enables the system to detect the presence of smoke and other gases in the air
and provide early warning of a potential fire. The use of wireless communication through the
36
GSM module and GPS tracking allows for quick and efficient response to emergencies, while
the ATMEGA328P microcontroller ensures reliable and efficient operation of the system.
To conclude, this project will contribute to the growing body of research on improving fire
safety and prevention, particularly in areas with high risk of fire outbreaks.
3. METHODOLOGY
The smart integrated fire detection and alarm system is composed of both hardware and
software systems as discussed in the following subsections.
3.1. Hardware Systems

ATMEGA Microcontroller: This is the main controller that processes all the data from the
sensors and takes decisions accordingly. It is a low-power, high-performance microcontroller
that is capable of running complex algorithms and communicating with other devices via
various communication protocols [8].
MQ-6 Smoke Sensor: The MQ-6 sensor detects smoke and other gases in the air using
chemoresistance, which causes a change in resistance of the sensing material when in contact
with the target gas [16]. This low-cost sensor is highly sensitive to smoke and was selected for
its effectiveness in fire detection systems.
LM35 Temperature Sensor: The LM35 is a precision temperature sensor that measures the
temperature of the surrounding environment. It has a linear output voltage proportional to the
temperature in Celsius, which makes it ideal for use in temperature monitoring applications
[13].
Buzzer: The buzzer is an audible alarm that is activated when a fire is detected. It is a simple
device that generates a sound when an electrical signal is applied to it.
SIM800L GSM Module: The SIM800L is a quad-band GSM/GPRS module that provides
wireless communication capabilities to the fire alarm system. It allows the system to send SMS
to notify the property owner and the nearest fire station in case of a fire. The SIM800L was
chosen for its low power consumption and its compatibility with most GSM networks.
LCD: The LCD is a display module that shows the status of the fire alarm system. It displays
the temperature and smoke readings and the system status.
RGB LED (Red and Green): The red LED indicates that a fire has been detected, while the
green LED indicates that the system is functioning normally.
37
Ublox NEO-6M GPS Module: The NEO-6M is a GPS module that provides the exact location
of the fire alarm system. It allows the fire department to locate the property quickly in case of
a fire (Ismail, I., 2020).
Additionally, the fire system also includes a battery backup and hybrid solar module.
3.2. System design and implementation

The block diagram in Figure 1 consists of various hardware and software components. At the
input, there are sensors such as the MQ-6 gas sensor and the LM35 temperature sensor, which
detect the presence of smoke and changes in temperature, respectively. These sensors are
connected to an Arduino (ATMEGA328P) microcontroller, which processes the sensor data
and triggers the alarm and notification system when certain thresholds are reached. The alarm
system includes an LCD display that displays warning messages, a buzzer that sounds an
audible alarm, and a GSM module that sends SMS alerts to the user's mobile phone.
Figure 1: Block diagram of the smart integrated fire detection and alarm system.
The system was designed, implemented and simulated using Proteus software, the prototype is
shown in Figure 2. The simulation helped to verify the functionality of the system and identify
any potential issues before implementation.
38
Figure 2: Circuit diagram of fire detection alarm system
3.3. Software Design

The system software design of this project involves several programming tools and languages.
The Arduino IDE is used for programming the ATMEGA microcontroller, while Node-RED
is used as an interface for serial communication between the hardware and email APIs and
online services. The fuzzy logic algorithm is implemented using the high-level programming
language Python, along with the Fuzzy library for the implementation of fuzzy logic
algorithms. Additionally, Pyserial is used as a Python library for serial communication between
the microcontroller and the computer.
Fuzzy logic is a type of mathematical logic that is used to deal with uncertainty and vagueness
in data. In this project, fuzzy logic is used to detect fire based on the readings from the sensors
[9].
The input variables used in this system were temperature and smoke while the output variable
is fire. The input variables are categorized as low, medium and high. Fire is detected based on
the degree of membership that is obtained by comparing the input variables and the inference
rules.
Figure 3 shows stages taken to design the fuzzy logic controller of this system.
39
Figure 3: Fuzzy logic steps
Input: The input to the system includes the smoke level reading, temperature reading, and flame
sensor reading.
Fuzzification; the temperature reading is fuzzified into three linguistic variables: high, medium,
and low in degrees Celsius [10].
Smoke level reading is fuzzified into three linguistic variables: high, medium, and low in parts
per million (ppm).
The flame sensor reading is fuzzified as present or not present.
Inference Rules: The inference rules are used to determine the degree of membership of each
input variable in the output variable. Table 1 below shows the Mamdani inference rules:
Table 1: Fuzzy inference rules
Temperature Smoke Level Flame Fire state
High High Present High
High Medium Present High
High Low Present Medium
Medium High Present High
Medium Medium Present Medium
Medium Low Present Low
Low High Present Medium
40
Low Medium Not Present Low
Low Low Not Present Low
Aggregation: The degree of membership for each rule is aggregated to produce a single output
variable.
Defuzzification: The centre of gravity method is used to defuzzify the aggregated output
variable and produce a crisp output value [17].
Figure 4 shows the flow diagram for the operation of the smart fire detection and alarm system.
When operating, the smart fire detection and alarm system is configured to continuously
monitor the sensor outputs for an indication of fire or smoke. When smoke or fire is detected,
the relevant alarm signals are triggered and corresponding alerts are sent out to respective
recipients and authorities.
Figure 4: Operation of fire detection system
4. IMPLEMENTATION
The implementation of this fire alarm system involved several steps. First, the hardware
components, including the MQ-6 sensor, ATMEGA328P microcontroller, GSM and GPS
modules, and backup battery, were assembled according to the circuit diagram using a
breadboard. Next, the software was developed using the Arduino IDE and uploaded to the
ATMEGA328P microcontroller. The software included the fuzzy logic algorithm for
processing the sensor readings and making decisions about the presence of a fire. The GSM
41
and GPS modules were also programmed to send emergency alerts to the centralized
monitoring system.
After the hardware and software were developed, the system was tested in a lab environment.
The testing involved setting fire to a small object in close proximity to the MQ-6 sensor and
observing the system's response. The test confirmed that the system was able to accurately
detect the presence of a fire and send emergency alerts to the monitoring system.
Once the system was successfully tested in lab, it was deployed in a real-world setting. The
system was installed in a test location, and the hardware components were connected according
to the circuit diagram. The system was then powered on, and its functionality was tested by
setting a controlled fire and observing the system's response as in Figure 5 which indicates the
status before fire detection and Figure 6 showing the status after fire detection.
Figure 5: Fire detection and alarm before fire detection
The test confirmed that the system was able to accurately detect the presence of a fire and send
emergency alerts to the monitoring system.
Figure 6: LED turns red after fire detection
The test confirmed that the system was able to accurately detect the presence of a fire and send
emergency alerts to the monitoring system.
42
The implementation of this fire alarm system involved careful hardware and software
development, thorough testing in simulation and real-world settings, and close attention to
detail to ensure the system's accuracy and reliability in detecting and preventing fires.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The proposed fire detection and alarm system was successfully implemented and tested in a
laboratory setting. The system was composed of an ATMEGA microcontroller, MQ-6 smoke
sensor, LM35 temperature sensor, Buzzer, SIM800L GSM module, LCD, LED red and green,
NEO-6M Ublox GPS module, battery, and solar module.
To test the system's performance, smoke was applied near the MQ-6 sensor and the
temperature was increased using a hot plate. The results showed that the system was able to
detect smoke and temperature increase accurately as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: LCD display of smoke and temperature before fire detection.
The LCD displayed alert messages when smoke and temperature were detected, and the
SIM800L GSM module sent an SMS and an email to the user's mobile phone as shown in
Figures 8 & 9.
Figure 8: LCD Display after fire detection.
43
Figure 9: Fire alert e-mail sent to the user.
Additionally, the system was tested for power management during a fire breakout. The battery
and solar module were used to power the system, the backup battery was able to power the
system efficiently.
The use of fuzzy logic and inference rules in the system helped to improve the accuracy of
smoke and temperature detection. The membership functions for smoke and temperature were
plotted using the pyplot library, and the COG method was used for defuzzification. The crisp
output was then sent to the GSM module for notification to the user.
The system performed well in detecting smoke and temperature increases and had an effective
power management system. This GSM-based fire and high-temperature detection system can
be easily and effectively applied to slums. Future work could include implementing the system
in real-world settings and integrating it with a central monitoring system for more
comprehensive fire safety management.
6. CONCLUSIONS
This fire detection project has been designed to detect fire outbreaks in homes and buildings
and immediately notify the property owner and the nearest fire station. Based on the results
obtained from the testing, the system is functional and can effectively detect fire outbreaks by
reading sensor values, converting them into specific temperature
REFERENCES
44
[1] Fire Alarm Systems - A Guide to Types and Detection Devices" by Fire Alarms Online,
2021. https://firealarmsonline.com/blog/fire-alarm-systems-a-guide-to-types-and-
detection-devices/
[2] Njuguna, J. (2018). Slum Fires in Nairobi: Causes, Consequences and Mitigation
Measures. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 8(10), 275-280.
[3] Hossain, M. S., Islam, M. S., & Safa, M. S. (2019). An Intelligent Fire Detection and
Alerting System using Fuzzy Logic. In 2019 International Conference on Robotics,
Electrical and Signal Processing Techniques (ICREST) (pp. 8-12). IEEE.
[4] Karimi, M., Taherzadeh, H., Razzazi, F., & Barzegar, A. (2019). An intelligent fire
detection and alarm system based on image processing and fuzzy logic. Measurement,
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[5] Zhang, J., Wang, X., Jiang, H., Gao, X., & Du, X. (2019). A real-time fire detection
system using fuzzy logic and visual image processing. Journal of Ambient Intelligence
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[6] Wang, C., Sun, J., Zhao, Z., Li, Y., & Li, Y. (2020). A fire detection system based on
fuzzy logic and decision tree. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 12(10),
1687814020961402.
[7] Zhang, Y., Jiang, Y., & Chen, S. (2021). A Wireless Fire Detection System Based on
Fuzzy Logic and Deep Learning. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 17(6),
4138-4147.
[8] ATMEGA. (2023). Retrieved from
https://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/DeviceDoc/Atmel-7810-Automotive-
Microcontrollers-ATmega328P
[9] Sowah, R. A., Apeadu, K., Gatsi, F., Ampadu, K. O., & Mensah, B. S. (2020). Hardware
module design and software implementation of multisensor fire detection and
notification system using fuzzy logic and convolutional neural networks (CNNs). Journal
of Engineering, 2020, 1-16.
[10] Park, S. H., Kim, D. H., & Kim, S. C. (2023). Recognition of IoT-based fire-detection
system fire-signal patterns applying fuzzy logic. Heliyon, e12964.
[11] Fatkiyah, E., Persada, D., & Andayati, D. (2019, November). Early Detection of Leaks
on Gas Cylinders Using Arduino Based MQ-6 Sensors. In Journal of Physics:
Conference Series (Vol. 1413, No. 1, p. 012030). IOP Publishing.
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[12] Ismail, I. (2020). Komparasi akurasi global posistion system (gps) receiver u-blox neo-
6m dan u-blox neo-m8n pada navigasi quadcopter. Elektron: Jurnal Ilmiah, 12-15.
[13] Soni, G. (2022, February). Implementation of LM35 interfacing of temperature sensor
with Arduino using LabVIEW 2015. In 2022 IEEE Delhi Section Conference
[14] Baba, M. C., Grado, J. J. B., Solis, D. J. L., Roma, I. M., & Dellosa, J. T. A Multisensory
Arduino-Based Fire Detection and Alarm System using
[15] GSM Communications and RF Module with an Android Application for Fire
Monitoring. International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
(IJISRT), www. ijisrt. com. ISSN-2456-2165, PP:-964-968. https://doi.
org/10.5281/zenodo, 6433836.3). IEEE.
[16] Olsson, L. E., & Sabelfeld, A. (2021). Securing Node-RED Applications. Protocols,
Strands, and Logic: Essays Dedicated to Joshua Guttman on the Occasion of his 66.66 th
Birthday, 13066, 1.
[17] Ajiboye, A. T., Opadiji, J. F., Yusuf, A. O., & Popoola, J. O. (2021). Analytical
determination of load resistance value for MQ-series gas sensors: MQ-6 as case
study. TELKOMNIKA (Telecommunication Computing Electronics and
Control), 19(2), 575-582.
[18] Zarzycki, H., Dobrosielski, W. T., Apiecionek, Ł., & Vince, T. (2020). Center of circles
intersection, a new defuzzification method for fuzzy numbers. Bulletin of the Polish
Academy of Sciences. Technical Sciences, 68(2), 185-190
APPENDICES
Appendix I: Program Code
// Include libraries
#include <Wire.h>
#include <LiquidCrystal_I2C.h>
#include <SoftwareSerial.h> //include the SoftwareSerial library
#include <TinyGPS++.h>
SoftwareSerial sim900A(7, 8); // RX, TX

SoftwareSerial gpsSerial(5, 6); //RX, TX pins of GPS module
TinyGPSPlus gps; //create a TinyGPS++ object
// Define constants for sensor pins

const int smokeSensorPin = A0;
const int heatSensorPin = A2;
46
// Define constants for output pins
const int buzzerPin = 3;
const int redPin = 9;
const int greenPin = 10;
const int bluePin = 11;
// Define thresholds for sensor readings

const int smokeThreshold = 150;
const int heatThreshold = 45;
// Define variables for fuzzy sets

float smokeNear, smokeFar, heatLow, heatHigh;
// Define variables for input sensor readings

int smokeReading, heatReading;
// Define variables for output decision

float outputDecision;
// Initialize LCD screen

LiquidCrystal_I2C lcd(0x27, 16, 2);
void setup() {
// Set up serial communication
Serial.begin(9600);
gpsSerial.begin(9600); //initialize the SoftwareSerial communication with GPS module
sim900A.begin(9600); // initialize the SIM900A module
sendSMS("+254xxxxxxx", "System started");
// Set up input and output pins

pinMode(smokeSensorPin, INPUT);
pinMode(heatSensorPin, INPUT);
pinMode(buzzerPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(redPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(greenPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(bluePin, OUTPUT);
// Initialize fuzzy sets

47
smokeNear = 0;
smokeFar = 0;
heatLow = 0;
heatHigh = 0;
// Initialize LCD screen

lcd.init();
lcd.backlight();
}
void loop() {
while (gpsSerial.available())
{
if (gps.encode(gpsSerial.read()))
{
Serial.print("Latitude: ");
Serial.print(gps.location.lat(), 6);
Serial.print(", Longitude: ");
Serial.println(gps.location.lng(), 6);
if (gps.location.isValid())
{
}
}
}
// Read input sensor values

int smokeReading = analogRead(smokeSensorPin);
float tempValue = analogRead(heatSensorPin);
float lm35Voltage = (tempValue* 5.0) / 1024.0;
float heatReading = (lm35Voltage - 0.1) * 100;
48
// Calculate membership values for fuzzy sets

smokeNear = calculateMembership(smokeReading, 100, 300);
smokeFar = calculateMembership(smokeReading, 200, 500);
heatLow = calculateMembership(heatReading, 20, 40);
heatHigh = calculateMembership(heatReading, 40, 50);
// Make fuzzy decision

outputDecision = fuzzyDecision();
// Display smoke and heat levels on LCD screen

lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Smoke Level: ");
lcd.print(smokeReading);
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("Heat Level: ");
lcd.print(heatReading);
// Output decision
if (outputDecision > 0.5) {
digitalWrite(buzzerPin, HIGH);
digitalWrite(redPin, HIGH);
digitalWrite(greenPin, LOW);
Serial.println("Fire detected at:");
// Send text message using SIM900A
sim900A.println("AT+CMGF=1");
delay(100);
sim900A.println("AT+CMGS=\"+254xxxxxxx\"");
49
delay(100);
sim900A.println("Fuzzy decision: " + String(outputDecision));
delay(100);
sim900A.println((char)26);
delay(1000);
} else {
digitalWrite(buzzerPin, LOW);
digitalWrite(redPin, LOW);
digitalWrite(greenPin, HIGH);
Serial.println("There Is FIRE at:");
}
// Wait a short time before starting again

delay(5000);
}
// Function to calculate membership value of sensor reading

float calculateMembership(int value, int lowerBound, int upperBound) {
float membership = 0;
if (value < lowerBound) {

membership = 0;
} else if (value >= upperBound) {
membership = 1;
} else {
membership = (float)(value - lowerBound) / (float)(upperBound - lowerBound);
}
return membership.
}
50
// Function to make fuzzy decision based on input membership values

float fuzzyDecision() {
float decision = 0;
if (smokeNear > 0 && heatLow > 0) {

decision += smokeNear * heatLow;
}
if (smokeNear > 0 && heatHigh > 0) {
decision += smokeNear * heatHigh;
}
if (smokeFar > 0 && heatLow > 0) {
decision += smokeFar * heatLow;
}
if (smokeFar > 0 && heatHigh > 0) {
decision += smokeFar * heatHigh;
}
// Activate buzzer and change RGB LED status if fire is detected

if (decision > 0.5) {
digitalWrite(buzzerPin, HIGH);
analogWrite(redPin, 255);
analogWrite(greenPin, 0);
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("Fire Detected!");
Serial.println(" Fire detected at: ");
Serial.println(gps.location.lng(), 3); //print the longitude with 6 decimal places
} else {
digitalWrite(buzzerPin, LOW);
analogWrite(redPin, 0);
analogWrite(greenPin, 255);
lcd.print("No Fire Detected");
51
}
// Display temperature and smoke levels on I2C LCD screen

lcd.print("Temp:");
lcd.print(heatReading);
lcd.print(" C");
lcd.print("Smoke:");
lcd.print(smokeReading);
return decision.
}
52
The African Manufacturing Sector in the Battlefield: Technology to
the Rescue - Challenges and Opportunities
Bola Mudasiru1,2, Jones Nwadike1,2

1
Nigerian Institution of Highway and Transportation Engineers (NIHTE),
2
Nigerian Institution of Civil Engineers (NICE)
Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper looks towards the findings that are currently inhibiting the manufacturing setting that is
expected to drive manufacturing warfare, as well as the challenges and opportunities that will be
employed by manufacturers that is most expected to revolutionize the future and achieve inclusive
manufacturing development goal in Africa. Africa has not lacked manufacturing development
programs, but the weakness in the implementation. The manufacturing programs which successive
administrations developed were often weak, segmented, truncated and isolated from various sectors of
the economy. This paper concludes and recommends a new manufacturing revolutionary paradigm to
address these concerns and states that without urgently harnessing manufacturing in Africa, all other
social, governance and economic activities might come to a halt.
Keywords: Manufacturing warfare, opportunities, challenges, revolutionary.
1. Introduction
This paper looks towards the findings that are currently inhibiting the manufacturing setting that is
expected to drive manufacturing warfare14 as well as the challenges and opportunities that will be
employed by manufacturers that is most expected to revolutionize the future and achieve inclusive
manufacturing development goal in Africa. Africa has not lacked manufacturing development
programs, but the weakness in the implementation. The manufacturing programs which successive
administrations developed were often weak, segmented, truncated and isolated from various sectors of
the economy1.
Within the last few years, there has been a great upsurge of interest by the author, engineers, non-
engineers, public and private sectors, continental technical working groups and even manufacturers to
identify and assess socio-economic factors affecting machinery manufacturing establishment in Africa.
Manufacturing is central to the process and course of socio-economic development in Africa. It not only
transforms inputs into outputs, but also embodies ICT and digital technological economic changes,
which holds the key to successful industrialization, urbanization, modernization and accelerated socio-
economic growth. There are no such indigenous manufacturers in Africa and this is one of the aims and
objectives of the paper1.
53
The challenges can be complex since the continent is characterized by so many socio-eco-growth factors
like weak public institutions along with political15, social, commercial, financial and economic
instability and where a large proportion of the population lives in persistent poverty. Other factors or
threats confronting manufacturing establishment in the continent are unstable government policies, poor
emphasis on manufacturing education, poor planning and poor management, lack of dedication to
execution of government policies, projects and poor funding, lack of qualified manufacturing
engineers2. There are several raw material resources sites and well-known public sector projects, some
key existing research, development & capacity buildings, policies and regulatory bodies in Africa that
can fast stimulate additional socio-economic growth towards the attainment of the continent’s vision of
becoming one of the world’s top economies by 2050. However, some have been poorly managed,
stagnated, collapsed and died over the years as a result of poor management. This paper concludes and
recommends a new manufacturing revolutionary paradigm to address these concerns and states that
without urgently harnessing manufacturing in Africa, all other social, governance and economic
activities might come to a halt.
1.1 Problem Statement
The following are some socio-economic factors identified and assessed as possible current socio-
economic bottle-necks or inhibitors bedeviling institutional arrangements regarding manufacturing
establishment activities in Africa: Shortage of raw materials production and plant location; bad
leadership and bad government policies; lack of qualified manufacturing engineers; insufficient capital
and misuse of capital; high degree of foreign dependence; poor quality manufacturing labour; low
purchasing power of the populace; inadequate power supply; unnecessary competition with foreign
goods; shortage of entrepreneurs; poor management; political instability; inadequate transportation and
communication facilities.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
This paper investigated Africa’s readiness to adequately key into manufacturing model for actualizing
its economic development objectives. The paper highlighted the current state and challenges of the
African manufacturing sector and possibilities of the sector to benefit from the potentials of the 4th
industrial revolution. This has been to take a long term and strategic look at manufacturing out to 2050,
to: - identify and analyze important drivers of change affecting the Africa manufacturing sector; identify
important challenges and opportunities that lie ahead and which require action by Government and
industry; and advise how Government policy needs to be refocused and rebalanced so that it is better
positioned to support the growth and resilience of Africa manufacturing over coming decades. In so
doing, a specific aim is to inform further development of the Government’s industrial and sector
strategies. With the current poor African manufacturing sector, the adoption of 4th industrial revolution
may be a viable alternative for achieving inclusive economic growth.
1.3 Hypothesis
54
The hypothesis aims at determining the impact of manufacturing establishment as a strategic catalyst
for domestic socio-eco-growth and sustainability of the continent.
H0: there is no positive relationship between the number of established manufacturing and gross
domestic product (GDP) of the continent.
H1: there is positive relationship between the number of established manufacturing and gross
domestic product (GDP) of the continent.
1.4 Significance/Justification of the Study
The study aims at evaluating the immense contribution of manufacturing establishment towards
stimulating productivity and other socio-economic activities in Africa. The role of manufacturing
establishment in trade and commerce cannot be swept under the carpet because the machinery
population agglomeration, movement of people and goods from one place to another is very important.
It is a statement of fact that without an effective and efficient manufacturing establishment in the
continent all other socio-economic activities would come to a halt. More so, going by the present
government transformation agenda and indigenization policy cum African Content Act in meeting the
sustainable development goals, the role of manufacturing establishment in the provision of job
opportunities, technological cum infrastructural development, funding of education and research,
training cum skilled manpower development and invariably improve the standard of living and general
well-being of the people cannot be over emphasized.
1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study
The scope of the study is limited to manufacturing establishment and also to the major nerves of the
continent, where raw materials available and engineering practices are ongoing.
2. Literature Review
Africa, pre-independence and post16, with a population estimated at more than 1.5 billion people, from
over 3,000 ethno linguistic communities and accounts for about 18% of world’s human population is
heterogeneity being constantly manipulated by traditional, religious and modern political elite in their
race for the control of the state and continental resources1. Africa is the world’s second most populous
continent after Asia in both aspects and is the youngest among all the continents, the median age in
2012 was 19.7 when the world-wide median age was 30.4. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million km2
miles), including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of earth’s land area and 6% of its total surface area 19.
Despite a wide range of natural resources, Africa is the least wealthy by total wealth, behind Oceania9.
Economic activities began with the use of human labour and simplest tools. However, human labour
and simplest tools could not provide the required energy17 for economic activities and was replaced by
machines due to drudgery and ineffective energy output among other limitations. The replacement of
55
human labour with machines marked the beginning of the first industrial revolution. The shift in the
type of technology employed in manufacturing processes is called “industrial revolution”. Industrial
revolution can also be defined as technological revolution that focuses on the sources of development
which shapes the world around us10. The 1st industrial revolution began around 1760s and characterized
with the use of steam engine as source of power for economic activities. Roger12 argued that the first
industrial revolution in Britain took place due to its unique price and wage structure. The 1st industrial
revolution witnessed slow pace and required an emergence of mechanization of industrial activities.
The 2nd industrial revolution occurred between 1870 and 1969 with production of steel, iron and light
bulb and focused on the mass production, electrical energy utilization and division of labour5, 6. The 3rd
industrial revolution, which started in 1969, led to the automation of the production process by using
extensive electronics and information and communication technologies (ICT)7. In addition, computers
networks and IT systems in the third industrial revolution from 1969 to 2015 were used 11. The
automation in production and intelligent control robots as well as other integration gave the
breakthrough (Schmidt et al, 2015). The first 3 industrial revolutions (the steam engine, the age of
science and mass production) have transformed our modern society and changed the world around us
fundamentally29. The 4th industrial revolution started in 2011.
The Deloitte13’s report on Global Manufacturing4 Countries and Regions Competitiveness Index
showed that developed countries came up with their models for the 4th industrial revolution. For
instance, while Germany nicknamed her 4th industrial revolution model as ‘industrie 4’, ‘smart
industry’ was the symbol of the Dutch’s 4th industrial while China and Taiwan termed theirs as ‘made
in China’ and ‘Taiwan productive 4 initiative’ respectively. The United States of America (USA),
France, Spain and the United Kingdom also came up with their 4th industrial connotations. With the
advent of the 4th industrial revolution, it is obvious that the world is experiencing a scientific and
technological revolution.” It is also a warning signal for developing countries like Africa to wake up
from their slumber.
3. Research Methodology and Organization of the Study
The empirical and exploratory method of research was adopted that examined and discussed relevant
issues of interest in the history of Africa manufacturing establishment as an economically viable option
for economic development. Because of the nature of the study (macro), the writers rely on published
documents in the area of manufacturing industry using commissioned studies, non-commissioned
studies and published works from various sources. Some of these secondary sources are narrow in view,
perspective and scope but they serve as useful materials for researchers wanting to embark on a macro-
study.
Others include library books, previous works by the author, detailed investigations done on
manufacturing establishment by the author, internet and articles from learned journals. During the study
56
there was no case where anybody or scholar delved into discussing developing manufacturing
establishment as economically viable option for socio-economic development in Africa.
4. Socio-Economic Factors Influencing the Location of Manufacturing Establishment in Africa
Many socio-economic factors are considered20 before manufacturing establishment is located in an area.
These socio-economic factors include but not limited to the following:
● Proximity to source of raw materials: manufacturing should be located close to sources of

raw materials to reduce cost of transportation.
● Nearness to market: There should be ready36 market for the products of manufacturing
(market-oriented industries) to be sited in a place. Fragile goods like glass, bulky goods like
iron ore and steel should be located near the market. Such manufacturing located or directed
towards the market are called.
● Availability of capital: There should be enough capital to purchase manufacturing input before
and after setting up manufacturing establishment. Manufacturers or capital-intensive industries
should have access to loans. Fixed capital should also be easily acquired.
● Nearness to source of power: There should be ready and dependable source of power. Source
of power could be electricity, coal, thermal, petroleum products, etc.
● Availability of labour: There should be high quality skilled labour. The design of production
machineries requires a detailed knowledge of the technical procedure for converting raw
materials into the finished products. Erroneously, a lot of engineers, not to talk of laymen, seem
to believe that the design process is a textbook affair requiring knowledge of the design of
shafts, housings, moving and transmission elements as well as the electrical, pneumatic or
hydraulic controls as the case may be.
● Adequate transport network: Transport is required essentially to move raw materials to

manufacturing sites. Transport is also required to convey finished goods to the market or areas
of consumption and use. Transport could be by road (cars, buses, trucks, etc.) by sea (boats,
ship) or by air (aeroplane).
● Political stability: A stable Government encourages industrial growth. Communal wars and
conflicts do not favour manufacturing growth.
● Favourable climate: There should be favourable climate conditions for manufacturing to grow.
A favourable climate is also required for some machine tools firms to thrive.
● External economies or location of other firms: Firms are often set up near others in order to
take advantage of external economies.
● Joint research and training centres: Research and training centres can easily be jointly
established since all the industries involved are producing similar products. The cost of such
57
projects will be minimal when it is jointly financed. It is now quite obvious that the
industrialized world is not prepared to divulge her technical secrets with the less developed
continents as this will affect their leadership position in the world.
● Government policies: Government can encourage the location of manufacturing through

certain policies.
5. A New Vision for Africa Manufacturing
Manufacturing in 2050 will look very different24 from today, and will be virtually un-recognizable from
that of 30 years ago. Successful firms will be capable of rapidly adapting their physical and intellectual
infrastructures to exploit changes in technology as manufacturing becomes faster, more responsive to
changing global markets and closer to customers25.
Successful firms will also harness a wider skills base, with highly qualified leaders and managers whose
expertise combines both commercial and technical acumen, typically in science, technology,
engineering or mathematics.
Constant adaptability4 will pervade all aspects of manufacturing, from research and development to
innovation, production processes, supplier and customer interdependencies, and lifetime product
maintenance and repair. Products and processes will be sustainable, with built-in reuse, remanufacturing
and recycling for products reaching the end of their useful lives. Closed loop systems will be used to
eliminate energy and water waste and to recycle physical waste. These developments will further
emphasize the key role of physical production in unlocking innovative new revenue streams and
manufacturers make use of the increasing pervasiveness of 'Big Data' to enhance their competitiveness.
In the public sector, policy frameworks that affect the manufacturing sector directly and indirectly will
need to recognize the extended nature of value creation and the new ways it is being developed. Public
planning cycles should match the timescales of firms' own long term planning requirements. And it will
be important that flows of highly skilled workers, patient capital, and support to promote critical mass
in small and medium sized enterprises are all intercontinentally competitive. The implications for Africa
manufacturing firms and the Africa Government are substantial. Some businesses are already adapting
and are world class, but many are not positioned to succeed in a future world where greater opportunities
will be balanced by greater competition.
The Africa needs to radically change its approach to providing a constant and consistent framework
within which all firms aspire to prosper. A business-as-usual approach will not deliver that outcome.
Other economies are already ahead, and catching up will require an adaptive capacity that the Africa
has not yet demonstrated. Achieving this is essential, as the future competitiveness and health of Africa
manufacturing will affect many other parts of the economy through its numerous linkages. The key
message is that there is no easy or immediate route to success, but action needs to start now to build on
existing support, and to refocus and rebalance it for the future. Above all, policy design will need to
58
address entire system effects. This report sets out many areas where action is needed at both strategic
and more detailed levels. However, the following should be particular priorities. The quality and skills
of the workforce will be a critical factor in capturing competitive advantage. It is essential that Africa
policy makers focus on the supply of skilled workers, including apprenticeship schemes, support for
researchers, and the supply of skilled managers. Firms will need to pay much more attention to building
multidisciplinary teams to develop increasingly complex products, and also innovative business models.
It will also be crucial to address the current image associated with manufacturing. Government and
industry should work together to further promote and market the opportunities for careers in
manufacturing industries at all levels of education. Financial challenges for the sector include a shortage
of risk capital38. This is particularly evident as a funding gap between research and early development
and the funding for proof35 of concept that is usually required before the market steps in. There is also
a shortage of funding for applied research and development in some areas such as the development of
advanced green energy sources.
There are excellent schemes for public support such as Knowledge Transfer Partnerships, funding of
the Technology Strategy Board, the future of manufacturing: A new era of opportunity and challenge
for the Africa and public private partnerships such as the Energy Technologies Institute, these are much
smaller than in competitor continents. Addressing this mismatch should be a priority. Recent years have
seen a resurgence in the development of industrial policies by governments in the AFRICA and
overseas. In the Africa, industrial policies have been developed in 11 sectors, led in most cases by
groups from the public and private sectors, with many of these encompassing manufacturing industries.
One specific development has been the creation of the Catapult Centers. In particular, the High Value
Manufacturing Catapult provides a strong base on which to build substantial further effort. It is
recommended that its funding is substantially increased, and used in part to encourage the greater
involvement of smaller firms in particular. Whilst specific initiatives are essential in areas mentioned
above, more is needed39. Recognition that the Africa's continental infrastructure suffered from
fragmented policy making led to the creation of Infrastructure Africa. Manufacturing suffers from
similar challenges and is no less strategic for the future40 strength and resilience of the Africa economy.
6. Recommendations
Various strategies36 have been recommended which will remove the constraints to facilitate rapid
manufacturing establishment in Africa. These are:
● Acquisition of skill: Skills required for manufacturing operations should be acquired by people
through regular training in manufacturing education.
● Good government policies: There should be good government policies and regulations to
encourage and protect local manufacturers.
59
● Active government participation: There should be active government participation in
manufacturing development, that is, co-ownership of manufacturing.
● Incentives to local manufacturers: There should be incentives to local manufacturers, e.g.,

tax holiday, interest free-loans, subsidies, etc.
● Provision of transport and communication facilities: These should be provided to ensure

easy distribution of goods produced.
● Creation of manufacturing zones: This will also provide an environment with all the
infrastructural facilities for the manufacturing.
● Establishment of manufacturing banks: and other development banks should be set to

provide loans to manufacturers.
● Stable government: There should be stable government in order to encourage indigenous

private investors.
● Local sourcing of solid minerals: There should be exploitation of raw materials locally for
manufacturing.
● Organisation of management courses: Management courses should be organised on regular

basis for workers.
● Building and maintenance of infrastructural facilities: Infrastructural facilities such as

roads, telephone, water, electricity, etc. should be built and maintained regularly.
● Establishment of more power plants: Plants such as thermal or hydroelectricity plants should
be established to boost power supply to manufacturing.
● Increase in gross continental product (GNP): The industrial sector, through its operations
like payment of taxes, increases the earnings accruable to the continent.
● Employment opportunities: Manufacturing provides employment (jobs) for many people.
● Intercontinental trade - improves trade balance: Most of the products of manufacturing like
machineries and spare parts are usually imported from Western continents. This forms the basis
for intercontinental trade and improves trade balance between countries.
● Stimulation of other sectors: The manufacturing sector stimulates the growth of other sectors
like agriculture, mining, lumbering, etc.
● Control of inflation due to mass production: With modern technology, products like car,
machinery, etc. can be mass produced. This can help to reduce inflation.
● Technological development: manufacturing can also lead to the development of technology

in the continent.
60
● Infrastructural development: The establishment of manufacturing in a place stimulates the
development of infrastructural facilities like roads, telephone, electricity, pipe borne water, etc.
● Diversification of the economy: Manufacturing helps different countries to prevent over-

dependence on only one product, like Africa's present over-dependence on crude oil. If Africa
can invest in the manufacturing sector, her economy will in time be diversified.
● Training and development of skilled manpower: Many people are trained in different
technical areas in order to acquire special skills to manage different aspects or machines in a
manufacturing. Owing to manufacturing development, many people are given such skill
training.
● Funding of education and research: manufacturing provides capital for the funding of
education and research works in the Continent, for example the Education Tax Fund (ETF) in
Africa.
● Conservation of foreign exchange: manufacturing leads to the conservation of foreign

exchange which would have been used for importing goods now produced locally.
● Improving standard of living: manufacturing also leads to the improvement or the raising of
the standard of living of the people through production of goods that are cheap and affordable.
7. Conclusions
From the discussion, the major constraints identified as inhibitors for manufacturing establishment and
sustainability in Africa are: - Inadequate development of raw material and resources including human,
financial, physical and informational; Shortage of raw materials; Insufficient Capital; High degree of
foreign dependence; Poor quality of manufacturing staff; Low purchasing power of the populace;
Inadequate power supply; Competition with foreign goods; Shortage of entrepreneurs; Political
instability; Inadequate transportation and communication facilities; Small market for industrial goods;
Inadequate skilled man-power, Bad Government Policies; Poor management (Corruption,
embezzlement, and negligence of duty).
Others include low level of development of manufacturing processes which includes engineering,
manufacturing research, design, development of engineering machineries, equipment, facilities and
infrastructures and a sound engineering manufacturing management practice. Corruption and
embezzlement is a major inhibitor or bottleneck at every stage of manufacturing establishment
sustainability management development. This is evident considering the fact that some consultants and
contractors the various arms Federal government relies on for planning, execution, construction,
rehabilitation and maintenance are mere foreigners, traders and unqualified engineers.
It is an open secret for those who care to investigate and follow the affairs of the manufacturing
establishment that some foreign marketers have taken over the industry, pushing local qualified
contractors and consultants of high repute out of the business. Various strategies have been discussed
61
which will remove the above constraints to facilitate rapid manufacturing establishment and
development in Africa.
References
1. Nwadike Jones, Identification and Assessment of Socio-Economic factors affecting Heavy-Duty

Machinery Manufacturing Establishment in Nigeria, 2012.
2. Adeel Malik et al, The Performance of African Manufacturing Firms, Oxford, Africa 2004.
3. Adeyemi A. Aderoba, Strategies for Engineering Development in Africa, Africa, 2000.
4. Alamu Salawu Abideen, the African Manufacturing Sector and ‘Industrie 4’: Opportunities and
Challenges, 2020.
5. Alison-Madueke Diezani, Key to Government Transformation Agenda, Africa, 2011.
6. Ande C.E., Essential Economics for Senior Secondary Schools, Tonad Pub., Lagos, 2008.
7. Burman Richard, Manufacturing Management, Principles & Systems, McGraw-Hill, London,

1995.
8. Dada Frederick O.A. et al, Macmillan Africa Secondary Atlas, Macmillan Publishers, Africa,
2006.
9. Wikipedia.
10. Gehrke, L. etal, a discussion of qualifications and skills in the factory of the future: A German
and American perspective. Ergonomics 2015; 2015, 1-23
11. Qingqing Chen Standing by the Giants or Escaping the Battlefield, the effect of FDI on Local
Firm Creation - Evidence from China, 2018.
12. Roger Timmy, Basic Manufacturing, Butterworth Publication, 1999.
13. Deloitte, 2013, Global Manufacturing Competitiveness Index Deloitte. U.S.A. Available from:
http://www.deloitte.com/assets/DcomGlobal/Local%20Assets/Documents/Manufacturing/dttl_
2013%20Global%20Manufacturing%20Competitiveness%20Index_11_15_12.pdf
14. Slayford-Wei Lian, Archeological Sites: Igbo-Africawu, Africa, 2009.
15. Dickson ‘Dare Ajayi, Recent Trends and Patterns in Africa’s Industrial Development, Council
for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, 2007.
16. Edeh E.M.P., The First Articulation of African Philosophy of Being, Igbo Metaphysics,
Madonna Press, Enugu, 2009.
17. Emptage Robert, Manufacturing Technology Directions for the Future, McGraw-Hill, Toronto,
1991.
62
18. Ezinne Uzor-Okoro, Subcommittee Report on Advanced Manufacturing Committee on
Technology of the National Science and Technology Council, 2022.
19. Fagg Bernard, Taruga, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taruga.
20. Nwadike Jones, Repositioning Infrastructure Procurement as an Effective Tool for achieving
Community Development Goals, Hague, Netherland Conferences, 2007.
21. Gu P. etal, Intelligent Manufacturing Planning, Chapman Publication, London, 1995.
22. Heilbroner Robert, Business Civilization in Decline, W.W. Norton Press, 1976.
23. Jackson B. Eugene et al, Industrial Information Systems: A Manual for Higher Management and
their Information Officer / Librarian Associates, Academic Press, London, 1978.
24. Jide A. Mike, Structure of the African Manufacturing Industry, Lagos, 2010.
25. Kalu E Uma, Revamping the Nigerian Manufacturing Sub-Sector as a Panacea for Economic
Progress: Lessons from South Korea. Nigeria, 2019.
26. Khurmi R.S. etal, Textbook of Workshop Technology, S. Chand Publication, 1979.
27. Khurmi R.S. et al, A Textbook of Machine Design, S. Chand Publication, 1979.
28. Ku H. etal, A Literature Review of Past and Present Performance of Nigerian Manufacturing
Sector, Australia, 2010.
29. Lincoln F. James, A New Approach to Industrial Economics, Devin-Adair Press, USA, 1970.
30. Loan D., Manufacturing Engineering: 2000 and Beyond, Marinesun Press, 1996.
31. McKinsey & Company, 2013, Manufacturing in the future: the next era of global growth and
innovation. McKinsey Global Institute.
http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/manufacturing/the_future_of_ manufacturing.
32. Memmi Albert, the Colonizer and the Colonized, Orion Press, USA, 1965.
33. Noel Carrington, Industrial Design in Britain, George Allen and Unwin Pub., London, 1976.
34. Nwadike Jones, Community Development - Best Practice in Managing Indigenous Projects,
Hilton Hotel, Abuja, Africa and Shell Engineering Conferences, Hague, Netherland, 2007.
35. Panel for the Future of Science and Technology Innovative technologies shaping the 2040
battlefield. European Parliamentary Research Service, 2021.
36. Rafiq Raji, Manufacturing in Nigeria: Status, Challenges and Opportunities, 2018.
37. Simon Githuku, Challenges, Opportunities, and Prospects for Kenyan Private Sector in the
Manufacturing Sector. National Training Workshop on Fostering Productive Capacities in
Kenya for Industrialization, Export Diversification, and Inclusive Growth, 2022.
63
38. Think Tank on Nigeria, a Policy Advocacy online platform, Industrialization as a Tool for Youth
engagement and National Development, 2022.
39. The future of manufacturing: A new era of opportunity and challenge for the Africa.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.Africa/government/uploads/system/uploads
/attachmentdata/file/255923/13-810-future-manufacturing-summary-report.pdf.
40. Yunnan Chen, Learning from China? Manufacturing, Investment and Technology Transfer in
Nigeria, 2016.
64
Climate Change against National Greenhouse Gas Emission
Reduction Commitment for Developing Countries- Adaptation by
Power Utilities: A Case Study For Kenya

Kenya Power, P.O. Box 30099-00100, Nairobi
[email protected]
Abstract
Power utilities are facing a growing challenge of providing reliable, adequate and
affordable power amidst climate change challenge. In Kenya, climate change mitigation
is guided by the climate change act 2016 which provides for mainstreaming of climate
change mitigation [1]. The law requires formulation of a five-year National climate
change action plan (NCCAP) that addresses all sectors of the economy. From the
emission reduction potential and the nationally determined contribution (NDC) targets,
Kenya’s energy sector was allocated 36% (30.8MtCO2e) Greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission reduction by 2030. Kenya’s energy act 2019 opened up the energy sector to
competition in the generation, distribution and retail segments [2]. From January 2018 to
January 2023, the country has seen dramatic change in energy sources as: hydro reduced
from 24% to 14%, wind grew from 0% to 18%, solar grew from 0% to 3% and thermal
reduced from 26% to 12.72% [8]. Geothermal is currently contributing 45% of the total
capacity. Because of drought, Kenya can barely use 28% of the installed hydro capacity
of 838MW. Currently, the total installed grid capacity stands at 3,726MW (78% is
renewable) with the largest share being geothermal at 32%. Kenya is on the road to retire
all 300MW thermal power plants. Electric mobility and time of use tariff were introduced
in the April 2023 power tariff review to deepen the update of abundant renewable energy
[9]. This paper looks at the climate change adaptation of the energy sector players for the
2018-2022 NCCAP review period, the 2023-2027 period and future plans.
Keywords: Climate change, Drought, Electric mobility, Reliable, Renewable
7. Introduction
Kenya’s ministry of energy and petroleum makes and articulates energy policies to create an
enabling environment for efficient operation and growth of the sector.
The energy and petroleum regulatory authority (EPRA) regulates and licenses players in the
entire energy sector. Its other functions include tariff setting and oversight, coordination of the
65
development of the integrated energy plan monitoring and enforcement of sector regulations
e.g. the energy management regulations.
Kenya’s energy act 2019 sets up other agencies, namely:
● Nuclear power and energy agency (NUPEA) to handle nuclear energy programme.
● Rural electrification and renewable energy (REREC) to manage the rural electrification
projects.
● Kenya electricity transmission company (KETRACO) to manage the electricity

transmission assets.
Other key energy sector players are Kenya electricity generating company (KenGen) that
generates the bulk of energy consumed in Kenya and the Kenya power and lighting company
(KPLC) that does the power distribution and retail functions in the country.
In 2020, the Ministry of Energy released the Kenya National Energy Efficiency and
Conservation Strategy [4]. It established energy efficiency targets in the buildings, industry,
agriculture, transport, and power sectors to meet the goal of reducing the national energy
intensity by 2.8% per year. The strategy also aims to ensure that energy efficiency measures
contribute to the achievement of the nationally determined targets (NDC) by keeping Green
House Gas (GHG) emissions as per the targets in table 1 below.
4. Methods
In Kenya, climate change action is guided by the climate change act 2016 which provides the
framework for mainstreaming climate change across all sectors of the economy. The law has
been applied to the development, management, implementation and regulation of mechanism
to enhance climate change resilience and low carbon development for sustainable development
in the country.
The act obligates the cabinet secretary responsible for climate change affairs to formulate a
five-year national climate change action plan (NCCAP) that addresses all sectors of the
economy. The plan covers thematic areas of agriculture, forestry, industry, energy, transport
and waste. The first NCCAP ran from 2013-2017 and the second from 2018-2022.
Table 1 below shows Kenya’s emission reduction potential and the nationally determined
contribution (NDC) targets by sectors (in MtCO2e per year) projected to 2030:
Table 1: Kenya’s emission reduction potential and the NDC targets by sector (in MtCO2e per
year [3])
66
GHG Emission reduction potential(MtCO2e) NDC Target
Sector 2015 2020 2025 2030 2030
Forestry 2.71 16.24 29.76 40.2 20.1
Electricity generation 0.28 2.24 8.61 18.63 9.32
Energy demand 2.74 5.16 7.92 12.17 6.09
Transport 1.54 3.52 5.13 6.92 3.46
Agriculture 0.63 2.57 4.41 5.53 2.77
Industrial processes 0.26 0.69 1.03 1.56 0.78
Waste 0.05 0.33 0.5 0.78 0.39
Table 2 below is a summary of the various energy mitigation actions for the electricity
generation and demand sectors above:
Table 2: Estimated technical potential emission reduction by 2030 [6-7]
MtCO2e
Clean coal 1
Landfill gas generation 0.4
Solar-grid connected 0.65
Hydro 1.1
Wind 1.7
Electricity Generation
Geothermal 14
Solar thermal water heating 0.2
Energy efficient light bulbs 1.1
LPG stove substitution 1.4
Renewable lamps 1.8
Cogeneration in agriculture 1.75

Energy demand
Improved cook stoves 5.7
Total 30.8
67
The 2018-2022 NCCAP encompasses development of new 2,405MW of grid-connected
renewable power generation and retirement of three thermal plant. The highest mitigation
opportunity is in geothermal expansion, envisaged to add 2,775MW to the grid by 2030.
Others targeted measures are: 157MW of Biomass and 30MW of distributed solar/mini grids
–largely done by REREC in the counties of Wajir, Mandera, Marsabit, Turkana and Garissa.
5. Results
Table 3 below shows the various interventions and the achieved results.
Table 3: 2018-2022 NCCAP Energy mitigation actions [5-6]
Expected results by June

Actions 2023 Results achieved by June 2022
Increased  Develop 2,405MW of new  2,883MW of generation on
generation of renewables that include renewables.
renewable energy. geothermal, biomass,  913MW geothermal plants in

hydro, distributed solar and Olkaria and Menengai
mini-grids, solar and wind.  300MW lake Turkana wind among
 Retire 300MW of thermal others in Ngong, Meru and Kipeto
plants – 120MW Kipevu,  442MW solar in Strathmore,
108MW Iberafrica and Makindu among others
74MW Tsavo.  10% of TVET institutions using
solar and five solar mini-grids done-
4 in Marsabit and 1 in Kisumu.
 Tsavo power has been retired
Increased  Increase captive renewable  Meru County has 200 solar-

generation capacity powered boreholes under their
energy generation capacity
captive energy goals.
for captive by 250MW by 2022 –
renewable energy 50MW of solar, wind and  153MW Kwale sugar biomass
hydro and 200MW of plant done
cogeneration.  93MW KTDA generation done
 Direct use of geothermal  GDC has established geothermal
resources to power heated milk pasteurizers.
68

industrial applications-
Naivasha industrial park.
 4.25m CFL bulbs distributed to
Improved energy  Reduce transmission and
efficiency and 1.4m households by KPLC-funded
distribution utility losses
energy by MoE.
from 18% to 14%.
 Energy management compliance
conservation  Distribute 3.3m CFL
certificates awarded to many
bulbs to shave 50MW
factories under the energy
from the peak demand.
management regulations 2012.
 Energy efficiency in
buildings and industry –  The Ministry of Energy has
worked with the Kenya
EPRA regulations.
Association of Manufacturers
(KAM) to establish a Centre for
Energy Efficiency and
Conservation that promotes energy
efficiency.
 20.47% (22,500 poles) now

Climate proof  Concrete poles to
energy concrete.
replace wooden poles.
 Kengen has done a feasibility
infrastructure  Optimize existing hydro
study on how to optimize hydro
plants.
power plants by increasing dam
storage eg Masinga wall has been
raised by 1.5m- because of erratic
rain patterns.
 In other instances, the number of
turbines is increased to allow
excess spill to generate power-
Kindaruma added the third
turbine.
69

 Renewable energies research

Enabling actions  Research on new
(Technology) laboratory established.
technologies to reduce
GHG emissions.  Energy efficiency research and
testing facility established at
 Climate change resilient
KIRDI.
technologies such as
coolers and scrubbers
promoted.
 TVET Instructors trained on solar
Enabling  Training and public
actions(capacity PV and solar water heating
awareness on climate
development) installations.
change adaptation and
mitigation mechanism.  Marsabit county trained staff on
solar installations.
 Train 100 students per
year at the KPI on  KPLC trained 163 students on
renewable energy solar installation.
technologies.
 Train 60 participants at
the UNU Geothermal’s
training program.
Currently 78% (2,266MW) of generation capacity in Kenya is renewable as seen in table 4

below:
Table 4: Kenya’s installed generation capacity [8]
Installed(MW) Effective/Contracted(MW)
Hydro 838.51 810
Geothermal 904.98 817
Thermal (MSD) 621.89 589
Thermal ( GT) 60.00 56
Wind 436.05 426
70
Biomass 2.00 2
Solar 212.51 212
Imports 200.00 0
Total Capacity MW 3,276 2,911
The country has a current peak demand of 2,149MW with 80.1% of the population having
access to electric power. The graphical illustrations below show the above trends:
Figure 1: Changes in various sources of energy from January 2016 to January 2023 [8]
6. Discussion
Kenya uses 231/838MW (28% of the total installed capacity, largely to meet peak load demand
as compared to the convectional base load) of hydro capacity – due to persistent drought for
three years in a row.
Wind power has cut by more than half the gap between it and hydro- now doing 17.8% of the
total load against hydro’s 14.47%.
Solar energy has a big room for growth- now at 3.11% of the total national load.
Geothermal still takes the lion’s share at 44.07% of the total load.
71
Kenya is on the road to retire all 300MW thermal power plants. Tsavo power 75MW plant
already retired, 120MW Kipevu and 108MW Iberafrica pending- Currently contributing
12.72% of the total grid energy.
The draft net metering regulations 2022 are under discussion. These will go a long way in the
contribution of the energy sector towards reduction of the targeted GHG emissions.
The electric mobility and time of use tariffs were introduced in April 2023. These will spur
more utilization of the generated clean energy. As at the end of 2022, Kenya had well over 400
registered electric vehicles in the country.
7. Conclusion
Kenya is a leader in the generation and utilization of clean energy in Africa [10]. Kenya is
number one in the generation of geothermal energy in the continent. The place of the energy
sector is well cut out in the 2023-2027 NCCAP and beyond as Kenya seeks to leverage on the
above gains and more. The future is bright.
References
[1] Republic of Kenya. (2016).Climate change act number 11 of 2016, National Council for
law reporting, Kenya.
[2] Republic of Kenya. (2019). The energy act number 1 of 2019, National Council for law
reporting, Kenya[3] Republic of Kenya. (2016). Kenya National adaptation plan: 2015-2030,
Ministry of environment and forestry, Kenya.[4] Republic of Kenya. (2020). Kenya national
energy efficiency and conservation strategy, Ministry of Energy and Petroleum, Kenya.[5]
Republic of Kenya. (2021). National climate change action plan: Second implementation
status report for the fy 2019/2020, Ministry of environment and forestry, Kenya.
[6] Republic of Kenya. (2018). National climate change action plan (Kenya): 2018-2022.
Vol.3: Mitigation technical analysis report, Ministry of environment and forestry, Kenya.
[7] International climate initiative. (2019).Climate change and sustainable development in the
Kenyan electricity sector.
[8] Kenya Power & Lighting Co. Plc. (2023). National Control Center Data, 2016-2023.
[9] Energy and Petroleum Regularoty Authority. (2023). Retail electricity tariff review for the
2022/23-2025/36 4th tariff control period (TCP).
[10] Mo Ibrahim Foundation. (2022). The road to COP27: Making Africa’s case in the global
climate debate.
72
Editorial Committee
Name Category Country
Eng. Prof. Lawrence Gumbe Chair Kenya

Eng. Prof. Leonard Masu Secretary Kenya
Eng. Prof. Ayodeji Oluleye Member Nigeria
Eng. Dr. Slah Msahli Member Tunisia
Eng. Prof. Bernadette W. Sabuni Member Kenya

Prof. Anish Kutien Member South Africa
Editorial Board
Name
Chairperson: Eng. Prof. Lawrence Gumbe
Members: Eng. Paul Ochola- Secretary
Eng. Sammy Tangus- Treasurer
Eng. Erick Ohaga – President, IEK
Eng. Shammah Kiteme- Honorary Secretary, IEK
Eng. Prof. Leornard Masu
Eng. Margaret Ogai
Eng. Nathaniel Matalanga
Eng. Dr. Samwel Roy Orenge – Technical Editor
73
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
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The Editor
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74
PUBLISHER
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P.O Box 41346- 00100
Tel: +254 (20) 2729326, 0721 729363, (020) 2716922
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Website: www.iekenya.org
75
CONTENTS Pages
Experimental use of Arduino-based accelerometers for assessment of train induced soil

vibration characteristics .......................................................................................................... 6
Paul Christopher Kimali Kioko, Silvester Ochieng Abuodha, John Nyiro Mwero, Kuria Zacharia
Njuguna
Development and Implementation of an Animal Respiratory Disease Detection System

Using Machine Learning ....................................................................................................... 14
Kelly Lyton Ateku, Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo, Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa
Impact of the Increasing Number of Prosumers to the Kenyan Electricity Grid ............ 27
Eng. Mwangi Chege Kaburu Murikwa, Haron Kipkorir Samoei
Design and Implementation of Smart Integrated Fire Detection and Alarm System for
Slum Areas of Kenya ............................................................................................................. 35
Paul Victor Juma, Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo, Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa
The African Manufacturing Sector in the Battlefield: Technology to the Rescue -

Challenges and Opportunities .............................................................................................. 53
Bola Mudasiru, Jones Nwadike
Climate Change against National Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Commitment

for Developing Countries- Adaptation by Power Utilities: A Case Study For Kenya..... 65
76

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African Journal of Engineering Research and

Innovation AJERI Vol 1. No. 4. 2023

The Institution of Engineers of Kenya

ISSN: 2957- 7780

African Journal of Engineering in Research and Innovation

ISSN: 2957- 7780 Volume 1. No 4. 2023

The Institution of Engineers of Kenya

P.O Box 41346- 00100

African Journal of Engineering Research and Innovation (AJERI), is published by The

Development and Implementation of an Animal Respiratory Disease Detection System Using

Kelly Lyton Ateku, Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo, Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa

African Journal of Engineering Research and innovation. Volume 1. No4 2023 5

2. Materials and Methods

Objective 1: geotechnical properties of soil

Collection,preparation and testing of samples

Objective 2 Soil vibration characteristics

i) Arduino Uno R3 Microcontroller Board (Board Model:UNO R3-508I)-Made in Italy 1No.

Atterberg limits of the test site

Moisture content 34%

Results of mechanical properties of the soil

Table I: Spatial ground vibration attenuation (train from Kitengela to Nairobi)

Sensor Name ADXL3450 ADXL3451 MPU 6050

Distance from Rail Line 0 meters 8 meters 16 meters

Acceleration X-Axis(m/sec2) 12 0.8 0.22

Velocity X-Axis(mm/sec) 13 2.7 1.3

Displacement X-Axis(mm) 0.8 0.16 0.06

Train data from Kitengela to Nairobi as recorded by Kioko, Paul (2023).

Table 2 Spatial Ground Vibration Attenuation (Train From Mombasa To Nairobi)

Sensor Name ADXL3450 ADXL3451 MPUC 6050

Distance from Rail Line 0 meters 8 meters 16 meters

Acceleration X-Axis(m/sec2) 16.87 0.55 0.22

Velocity X-Axis(mm/sec) 50.77 1.757 1.049

Displacement X-Axis(mm) 2.053 0.0999 0.07795

TRAIN FROM MOMBASA TO NAIROBI

Physical properties of the soil

Soil particle size

i) Vibration attenuation comprehension.

ii) Soil-structure interaction understanding.

iii) Assessment of human comfort and health impacts.

iv) Guidance for infrastructure maintenance and design.

v) Support for urban planning and development.

1. Alias, J. (1984). La to voie ferree – technique de construction et

5. Kioko, P. (2023d). GEOTECHNICAL SOIL INVESTIGATION RESULTS.docx.

6. Kioko, P. (2023h). TRAIN from KITENGELA to NAIROBI LOCATION 1.Csv.

7. Kioko, P. (2023i). TRAIN from MOMBASA to NAIROBI LOCATION 1.Csv. figshare.

8. KIOKO, PAUL (2023k). VIBRATION STANDARDS.Docx. figshare.

9. Legal Notice No. 61. (2009). National Environment Management Authority,

Development and Implementation of an Animal Respiratory Disease

Kelly Lyton Ateku1, Marcel Ohanga Odhiambo2, Emmanuel Wanyama Mukubwa1

Keywords- NodeMCU ESP32, MongoDB, MAX4466 microphone amplifier, Node. js app,

Respiratory diseases in pigs can be caused by a variety of pathogens, including viruses,

A study by Garrido-Mantilla et al. (2020) evaluated the effectiveness of sound detection

MAX4466 microphone amplifier module: The MAX4466 microphone amplifier module is

Figure 1: Circuit Diagram of animal respiratory disease detection system

3.2. Software Components

Figure 2: Block diagram 1 of the animal respiratory disease detection system

3.3. System design and Implementation

Figure 3: Block Diagram of animal respiratory disease detection system

Figure 4 shows the prototype of animal respiratory disease detection system.