History

History (derived from Ancient Greek

ἱστορία (historía) 'inquiry; knowledge
acquired by investigation')[1] is the
systematic study and documentation of
the human past.[2][3]
 Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) has
been considered the "father of
history" in the Western world.

The period of events before the invention

of writing systems is considered
prehistory.[4] "History" is an umbrella term
comprising past events as well as the
memory, discovery, collection,
organization, presentation, and
interpretation of these events. Historians
seek knowledge of the past using
historical sources such as written
documents, oral accounts, art and material
artifacts, and ecological markers.[5]
History is incomplete and still has
debatable mysteries.

History is an academic discipline which

uses a narrative to describe, examine,
question, and analyze past events, and
investigate their patterns of cause and
effect.[6][7] Historians debate which
narrative best explains an event, as well as
the significance of different causes and
effects. Historians debate the nature of
history as an end in itself, and its
usefulness in giving perspective on the
problems of the present.[6][8][9][10]
Stories common to a particular culture, but
not supported by external sources (such
as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are
usually classified as cultural heritage or
legends.[11][12] History differs from myth in
that it is supported by verifiable evidence.
However, ancient cultural influences have
helped create variant interpretations of the
nature of history, which have evolved over
the centuries and continue to change
today. The modern study of history is wide-
ranging, and includes the study of specific
regions and certain topical or thematic
elements of historical investigation.
History is taught as a part of primary and
secondary education, and the academic
study of history is a major discipline in
universities.

Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek

historian, is often considered the "father of
history", as one of the first historians in the
Western tradition,[13] though he has been
criticized as the "father of lies".[14][15]
Along with his contemporary Thucydides,
he helped form the foundations for the
modern study of past events and
societies.[16] Their works continue to be
read today, and the gap between the
culture-focused Herodotus and the
military-focused Thucydides remains a
point of contention or approach in modern
historical writing. In East Asia, a state
chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals,
was reputed to date from as early as 722
BC, though only 2nd-century BC texts have
survived.

Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from historía

(Ancient Greek: ἱστορία,
romanized: historíā, lit. 'inquiry, knowledge
from inquiry, or judge'[17]). It was in that
sense that Aristotle used the word in his
History of Animals.[18] The ancestor word
ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric
Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes'
oath, and in Boeotic inscriptions (in a legal
sense, either "judge" or "witness", or
similar). The Greek word was borrowed
into Classical Latin as historia, meaning
"investigation, inquiry, research, account,
description, written account of past
events, writing of history, historical
narrative, recorded knowledge of past
events, story, narrative". History was
borrowed from Latin (possibly via Old Irish
or Old Welsh) into Old English as stær
("history, narrative, story"), but this word
fell out of use in the late Old English
period.[19] Meanwhile, as Latin became Old
French (and Anglo-Norman), historia
developed into forms such as istorie,
estoire, and historie, with new
developments in the meaning: "account of
the events of a person's life (beginning of
the 12th century), chronicle, account of
events as relevant to a group of people or
people in general (1155), dramatic or
pictorial representation of historical events
(c. 1240), body of knowledge relative to
human evolution, science (c. 1265),
narrative of real or imaginary events, story
(c. 1462)".[19]
It was from Anglo-Norman that history was
brought into Middle English, and it has
persisted. It appears in the 13th-century
Ancrene Wisse, but seems to have become
a common word in the late 14th century,
with an early attestation appearing in John
Gower's Confessio Amantis of the 1390s
(VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled | To
this matiere an old histoire, | The which
comth nou to mi memoire". In Middle
English, the meaning of history was "story"
in general. The restriction to the meaning
"the branch of knowledge that deals with
past events; the formal record or study of
past events, esp. human affairs" arose in
the mid-15th century.[19] With the
Renaissance, older senses of the word
were revived, and it was in the Greek sense
that Francis Bacon used the term in the
late 16th century, when he wrote about
natural history. For him, historia was "the
knowledge of objects determined by space
and time", that sort of knowledge provided
by memory (while science was provided by
reason, and poetry was provided by
fantasy).[20]

In an expression of the linguistic synthetic

vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English
like Chinese ( 史 vs. 诌) now designates
separate words for human history and
storytelling in general. In modern German,
French, and most Germanic and Romance
languages, which are solidly synthetic and
highly inflected, the same word is still used
to mean both "history" and "story".
Historian in the sense of a "researcher of
history" is attested from 1531. In all
European languages, the substantive
history is still used to mean both "what
happened with men", and "the scholarly
study of the happened", the latter sense
sometimes distinguished with a capital
letter, or the word historiography.[18] The
adjective historical is attested from 1661,
and historic from 1669.[21]
Description

The title page to The Historians'

History of the World

Historians write in the context of their own

time, and with due regard to the current
dominant ideas of how to interpret the
past, and sometimes write to provide
lessons for their own society. In the words
of Benedetto Croce, "All history is
contemporary history". History is
facilitated by the formation of a "true
discourse of past" through the production
of narrative and analysis of past events
relating to the human race.[22] The modern
discipline of history is dedicated to the
institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and

preserved in some authentic form
constitute the historical record.[23] The
task of historical discourse is to identify
the sources which can most usefully
contribute to the production of accurate
accounts of past. Therefore, the
constitution of the historian's archive is a
result of circumscribing a more general
archive by invalidating the usage of certain
texts and documents (by falsifying their
claims to represent the "true past"). Part of
the historian's role is to skillfully and
objectively use the many sources from the
past, most often found in the archives. The
process of creating a narrative inevitably
generates debate, as historians remember
or emphasize different events of the
past.[24]

The study of history has sometimes been

classified as part of the humanities, other
times part of the social sciences.[25] It can
be seen as a bridge between those two
broad areas, incorporating methodologies
from both. Some historians strongly
support one or the other classification.[26]
In the 20th century the Annales school
revolutionized the study of history, by
using such outside disciplines as
economics, sociology, and geography in
the study of global history.[27]

Traditionally, historians have recorded

events of the past, either in writing or by
passing on an oral tradition, and
attempted to answer historical questions
through the study of written documents
and oral accounts. From the beginning,
historians have used such sources as
monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In
general, the sources of historical
knowledge can be separated into three
categories: what is written, what is said,
and what is physically preserved, and
historians often consult all three.[28] But
writing is the marker that separates history
from what comes before.

Archaeology is especially helpful in

unearthing buried sites and objects, which
contribute to the study of history.
Archeological finds rarely stand alone, with
narrative sources complementing its
discoveries. Archeology's methodologies
and approaches are independent from the
field of history. "Historical archaeology" is
a specific branch of archeology which
often contrasts its conclusions against
those of contemporary textual sources.
For example, Mark Leone, the excavator
and interpreter of historical Annapolis,
Maryland, US, has sought to understand
the contradiction between textual
documents idealizing "liberty" and the
material record, demonstrating the
possession of slaves and the inequalities
of wealth made apparent by the study of
the total historical environment.

There are varieties of ways in which

history can be organized, including
chronologically, culturally, territorially, and
thematically. These divisions are not
mutually exclusive, and significant
intersections are present. It is possible for
historians to concern themselves with
both the very specific and the very general,
though the trend has been toward
specialization. The area called Big History
resists this specialization, and searches
for universal patterns or trends. History
has often been studied with some
practical or theoretical aim, but may be
studied out of simple intellectual
curiosity.[29]
Prehistory

Human history is the memory of the past

experience of Homo sapiens sapiens
around the world, as that experience has
been preserved, largely in written records.
By "prehistory", historians mean the
recovery of knowledge of the past in an
area where no written records exist, or
where the writing of a culture is not
understood. By studying painting,
drawings, carvings, and other artifacts,
some information can be recovered even
in the absence of a written record. Since
the 20th century, the study of prehistory is
considered essential to avoid history's
implicit exclusion of certain civilizations,
such as those of sub-Saharan Africa and
pre-Columbian America. Historians in the
West have been criticized for focusing
disproportionately on the Western
world.[30] In 1961, British historian E. H.
Carr wrote:

The line of demarcation between

prehistoric and historical times
is crossed when people cease to
live only in the present, and
become consciously interested
both in their past and in their
 future. History begins with the
handing down of tradition; and
tradition means the carrying of
the habits and lessons of the
past into the future. Records of
the past begin to be kept for the
benefit of future generations.[31]

This definition includes within the scope of

history the strong interests of peoples,
such as Indigenous Australians and New
Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral
records maintained and transmitted to
succeeding generations, even before their
contact with European civilization.
Historiography

The title page to La Historia d'Italia

Historiography has a number of related

meanings.[32] Firstly, it can refer to how
history has been produced: the story of the
development of methodology and
practices (for example, the move from
short-term biographical narrative toward
long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it
can refer to what has been produced: a
specific body of historical writing (for
example, "medieval historiography during
the 1960s" means "Works of medieval
history written during the 1960s").[32]
Thirdly, it may refer to why history is
produced: the philosophy of history. As a
meta-level analysis of descriptions of the
past, this third conception can relate to the
first two in that the analysis usually
focuses on the narratives, interpretations,
world view, use of evidence, or method of
presentation of other historians.
Historians debate whether history can be
taught as a single coherent narrative or a
series of competing narratives.[33][34]
Methods

A depiction of the ancient Library of

Alexandria

Historical method
basics

The following
questions are used
by historians in
modern work.
1. When was the
source,
written or
unwritten,
produced
(date)?
2. Where was it
produced
(localization)?
3. By whom was
it produced
(authorship)?
4. From what
pre-existing
material was
 it produced
(analysis)?
5. In what
original form
was it
produced
(integrity)?
6. What is the
evidential
value of its
contents
(credibility)?

The first four are

known as
historical criticism;
the fifth, textual
criticism; and,
together, external
criticism. The sixth
and final inquiry
about a source is
called internal
criticism.

Europeans have written and published

extensively to pull together a "universal
history" in the early modern period. This
written corpus and discourse in Europe
includes ethnographic encounters,
comparative philosophy, as well as
archaeological discovery.[35]

Herodotus, from the 5th-century BC,[36] has

been acclaimed as the "father of history".
However, his contemporary Thucydides is
credited with having first approached
history with a well-developed historical
method in the History of the Peloponnesian
War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus,
regarded history as the product of the
choices and actions of humans, and
looked at cause and effect, rather than the
result of divine intervention (though
Herodotus was not wholly committed to
this idea himself).[36] In his historical
method, Thucydides emphasized
chronology, a nominally neutral point of
view, and that the human world was the
result of human actions. Greek historians
viewed history as cyclical, with events
regularly recurring.[37]

There was sophisticated use of historical

method in ancient and medieval China.
The groundwork for professional
historiography in East Asia was
established by court historian Sima Qian
(145–90 BC), author of the Records of the
Grand Historian (Shiji) and posthumously
known as the Father of Chinese
historiography. Saint Augustine was
influential in Christian and Western
thought at the beginning of the medieval
period. Through the Medieval and
Renaissance periods, history was often
studied through a sacred or religious
perspective. Around 1800, German
philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a
more secular approach in historical
study.[29]

In the preface to his book, the

Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian
and early sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned
of 7 mistakes he thought historians
committed. In this criticism, he
approached the past as strange and in
need of interpretation. The originality of
Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural
difference of another age must govern the
evaluation of relevant historical material,
to distinguish the principles according to
which it might be possible to attempt the
evaluation, and to feel the need for
experience, in addition to rational
principles, in order to assess a culture of
the past. Ibn Khaldun criticized "idle
superstition and uncritical acceptance of
historical data". He introduced a scientific
method to the study of history, and
referred to it as his "new science".[38] His
method laid the groundwork for the
observation of the role of state,
communication, propaganda and
systematic bias in history,[39] and so is
considered to be the "father of
historiography"[40][41] or the "father of the
philosophy of history".[42]

In the West, historians developed modern

methods of historiography in the 17th and
18th centuries, especially in France and
Germany. In 1851, Herbert Spencer
summarized these methods:"From the
successive strata of our historical
deposits, they [historians] diligently gather
all the highly colored fragments, pounce
upon everything that is curious and
sparkling and chuckle like children over
their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the
rich veins of wisdom that ramify amidst
this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected.
Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily
accumulated, while those masses of rich
ore, that should have been dug out, and
from which golden truths might have been
smelted, are left untaught and
unsought."[43] By the "rich ore" Spencer
meant scientific theory of history.
Meanwhile, Henry Thomas Buckle
expressed a dream of history becoming
one day a science: "In regard to nature,
events apparently the most irregular and
capricious have been explained and have
been shown to be in accordance with
certain fixed and universal laws. This has
been done because men of ability and,
above all, men of patient, untiring thought
have studied events with the view of
discovering their regularity, and if human
events were subject to a similar treatment,
we have every right to expect similar
results.[44] Contrary to Buckle's dream, the
19th-century historian with greatest
influence on methods became Leopold
von Ranke in Germany. He limited history
to "what really happened" and by this
directed the field further away from
science. For Ranke, historical data should
be collected carefully, examined
objectively and put together with critical
rigor. But these procedures "are merely the
prerequisites and preliminaries of science.
The heart of science is searching out order
and regularity in the data being examined
and in formulating generalizations or laws
about them."[45]

As Historians like Ranke and

many who followed him have
pursued it, no, history is not a
science. Thus if Historians tell
us that, given the manner in
which he practices his craft, it
cannot be considered a science,
 we must take him at his word. If
he is not doing science, then,
whatever else he is doing, he is
not doing science. The
traditional Historian is thus no
scientist and history, as
conventionally practiced, is not
a science.[46]

In the 20th century, academic historians

focused less on epic nationalistic
narratives, which often tended to glorify
the nation or great men, to more objective
and complex analyses of social and
intellectual forces. A major trend of
historical methodology in the 20th century
was to treat history more as a social
science rather than art, which traditionally
had been the case. Leading advocates of
history as a social science were a diverse
collection of scholars which included
Fernand Braudel and E. H. Carr. Many are
noted for their multidisciplinary approach
e.g. Braudel combined history with
geography. Nevertheless, these
multidisciplinary approaches failed to
produce a theory of history. So far only one
theory of history came from a professional
historian.[47] Whatever other theories of
history exist, they were written by experts
from other fields (for example, Marxian
theory of history). The field of digital
history has begun to address ways of
using computer technology, to pose new
questions to historical data and generate
digital scholarship.

In opposition to the claims of history as a

social science, historians such as Hugh
Trevor-Roper argued the key to historians'
work was the power of the imagination,
and hence contended that history should
be understood as art. French historians
associated with the Annales school
introduced quantitative history, using raw
data to track the lives of typical
individuals, and were prominent in the
establishment of cultural history (cf.
histoire des mentalités). Intellectual
historians such as Herbert Butterfield have
argued for the significance of ideas in
history. American historians, motivated by
the civil rights era, focused on formerly
overlooked ethnic, racial, and
socioeconomic groups. A genre of social
history to emerge post-WWII was
Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday
Life). Scholars such as Ian Kershaw
examined what everyday life was like for
ordinary people in 20th-century Germany,
especially in Nazi Germany.
Marxist historians sought to validate Karl
Marx's theories by analyzing history from a
Marxist perspective. In response to the
Marxist interpretation of history, historians
such as François Furet have offered anti-
Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist
historians argued for the importance of
studying the experience of women.
Postmodernists have challenged the
validity and need for the study of history
on the basis all history is based on the
personal interpretation of sources. Keith
Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of
History defended the worth of history.
Today, most historians begin their
research in the archives, on either a
physical or digital platform. They often
propose an argument and use research to
support it. John H. Arnold proposed that
history is an argument, which creates the
possibility of creating change.[5] Digital
information companies, such as Google,
have sparked controversy over the role of
internet censorship in information
access.[48]

Marxian theory

The Marxist theory of historical

materialism theorises that society is
fundamentally determined by the material
conditions at any given time – in other
words, the relationships which people
have with each other in order to fulfill
basic needs such as feeding, clothing and
housing themselves and their families.[49]
Overall, Marx and Engels claimed to have
identified five successive stages of the
development of these material conditions
in Western Europe.[50] Marxist
historiography was once orthodoxy in the
Soviet Union, but since the communism's
collapse there, its influence has
significantly reduced.[51]
Potential shortcomings in the
production of history

Many historians believe that the

production of history is embedded with
bias because events and known facts in
history can be interpreted in a variety of
ways. Constantin Fasolt suggested that
history is linked to politics by the practice
of silence itself.[52] He said: "A second
common view of the link between history
and politics rests on the elementary
observation that historians are often
influenced by politics."[52] According to
Michel-Rolph Trouillot, the historical
process is rooted in the archives, therefore
silences, or parts of history that are
forgotten, may be an intentional part of a
narrative strategy that dictates how areas
of history are remembered.[24] Historical
omissions can occur in many ways and
can have a profound effect on historical
records. Information can also purposely be
excluded or left out accidentally.
Historians have coined multiple terms that
describe the act of omitting historical
information, including: "silencing",[24]
"selective memory",[53] and erasures.[54]
Gerda Lerner, a twentieth century historian
who focused much of her work on
historical omissions involving women and
their accomplishments, explained the
negative impact that these omissions had
on minority groups.[53]

Environmental historian William Cronon

proposed three ways to combat bias and
ensure authentic and accurate narratives:
narratives must not contradict known fact,
they must make ecological sense
(specifically for environmental history),
and published work must be reviewed by
scholarly community and other historians
to ensure accountability.[54]
Areas of study

Particular studies
and fields

These are
approaches to
history; not listed
are histories of
other fields, such
as history of
science, history of
mathematics, and
history of
philosophy.
Ancient history:
the study of
history from the
beginning of
human history
until the Early
Middle Ages.
Atlantic history:
the study of the
history of
people living on
or near the
Atlantic Ocean.
Art history: the
study of
changes in and
the social
context of art.
Comparative
history: the
historical
analysis of
social and
cultural entities
not confined to
national
boundaries.
Contemporary
history: the
study of recent
historical
events.
Counterfactual
history: the
study of
historical events
as they might
have happened
in different
causal
circumstances.
Cultural history:
the study of
culture in the
past.
Digital history:
the use of
computing
technologies to
do massive
searches in
published
sources.
Economic
history: the use
of economic
models fitted to
the past.
Intellectual
history: the
study of ideas in
the context of
the cultures that
produced them
and their
development
over time.
Maritime
history: the
study of
maritime
transport and all
connected
subjects.
Material history:
the study of
objects and the
stories they can
tell.
Modern history:
the study of
modern times,
the era after the
Middle Ages.
Military history:
the study of
warfare,
historical wars,
and Naval
history, which is
sometimes
considered to
be a sub-branch
of military
history.
Oral history: the
collection and
study of
historical
information by
utilizing spoken
interviews with
people who
have lived past
events.
Palaeography:
the study of
ancient texts.
People's history:
historical work
from the
perspective of
common
people.
Political history:
the study of
politics in the
past.
Psychohistory:
the study of the
psychological
motivations for
historical
events.
Pseudohistory:
studies about
the past that fall
outside the
domain of
mainstream
history
(sometimes
equivalent to
pseudoscience).
Social history:
the study of the
process of
social change
throughout
history.
Women's
history: the
history of
female human
beings. Gender
history is
related and
covers the
perspective of
gender.
World history:
the study of
history from a
global
perspective,
with special
attention to non-
Western
societies.
Periods

Historical study often focuses on events

and developments that occur in particular
blocks of time. Historians give these
periods of time names in order to allow
"organising ideas and classificatory
generalisations" to be used by
historians.[55] The names given to a period
can vary with geographical location, as
can the dates of the beginning and end of
a particular period. Centuries and decades
are commonly used periods and the time
they represent depends on the dating
system used. Most periods are
constructed retrospectively and so reflect
value judgments made about the past. The
way periods are constructed and the
names given to them can affect the way
they are viewed and studied.[56]

Prehistoric periodization

The field of history generally leaves

prehistory to archeologists, who have
entirely different sets of tools and
theories. In archeology, the usual method
for periodization of the distant prehistoric
past is to rely on changes in material
culture and technology, such as the Stone
Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, with
subdivisions that are also based on
different styles of material remains. Here
prehistory is divided into a series of
"chapters" so that periods in history could
unfold not only in a relative chronology but
also narrative chronology.[57] This narrative
content could be in the form of functional-
economic interpretation. There are
periodizations, however, that do not have
this narrative aspect, relying largely on
relative chronology, and that are thus
devoid of any specific meaning.

Despite the development over recent

decades of the ability through radiocarbon
dating and other scientific methods to give
actual dates for many sites or artefacts,
these long-established schemes seem
likely to remain in use. In many cases
neighboring cultures with writing have left
some history of cultures without it, which
may be used. Periodization, however, is
not viewed as a perfect framework, with
one account explaining that "cultural
changes do not conveniently start and
stop (combinedly) at periodization
boundaries" and that different trajectories
of change need to be studied in their own
right before they get intertwined with
cultural phenomena.[58]
Geographical locations

Particular geographical locations can form

the basis of historical study, for example,
continents, countries, and cities.
Understanding why historic events took
place is important. To do this, historians
often turn to the methods and theory from
the discipline of geography.[59] According
to Jules Michelet in his book Histoire de
France (1833), "without geographical
basis, the people, the makers of history,
seem to be walking on air".[60] Weather
patterns, the water supply, and the
landscape of a place all affect the lives of
the people who live there. For example, to
explain why the ancient Egyptians
developed a successful civilization,
studying the geography of Egypt is
essential. Egyptian civilization was built on
the banks of the Nile River, which flooded
each year, depositing soil on its banks. The
rich soil could help farmers grow enough
crops to feed the people in the cities. That
meant everyone did not have to farm, so
some people could perform other jobs that
helped develop the civilization. There is
also the case of climate, which historians
like Ellsworth Huntington and Ellen
Churchill Semple cited as a crucial
influence on the course of history.
Huntington and Semple further argued
that climate has an impact on racial
temperament.[61]

Regions

Allegory of the recognition of the

Empire of Brazil and its
independence. The painting depicts
British diplomat Sir Charles Stuart
presenting his letter of credence to
Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, who is
flanked by his wife Maria Leopoldina,
their daughter Maria da Glória (later
Queen Maria II of Portugal), and other
dignitaries. At right, a winged figure,
representing History, carving the
"great event" on a stone tablet.[62]

History of Africa begins with the first

emergence of modern human beings on
the continent, continuing into its modern
present as a patchwork of diverse and
politically developing states.
History of the Americas is the collective
history of North and South America,
including the Caribbean and Central
America.
History of North America is the
study of the past passed down from
generation to generation on the
continent in the Earth's Northern
and Western Hemispheres.
History of the Caribbean begins
with the oldest evidence where
7,000-year-old remains have been
found.
 History of Central America is the
study of the past passed down from
generation to generation on the
continent in the Earth's Western
Hemisphere.
History of South America is the
study of the past passed down from
generation to generation on the
continent in the Earth's Southern
and Western Hemispheres.
History of Eurasia is the collective
history of several distinct peripheral
coastal regions: the Middle East, South
Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and
Europe, linked by the interior mass of
the Eurasian Steppe of Central Asia and
Eastern Europe.
History of Europe describes the
passage of time from humans
inhabiting the European continent
to the present day.
History of Asia can be seen as the
collective history of several distinct
peripheral coastal regions, East
Asia, South Asia, and the Middle
East, linked by the interior mass of
the Eurasian Steppe.
History of East Asia is the
study of the past passed down
from generation to generation
in East Asia.
History of India is the study of
the past passed down from
generation to generation in the
sub-Himalayan region.
History of the Middle East
begins with the earliest
civilizations in the region now
known as the Middle East that
were established around 3000
BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).
History of Southeast Asia has
been characterized as
 interaction between regional
players and foreign powers.
History of Oceania is the collective
history of Australia, New Zealand, and
the Pacific Islands.
History of Australia starts with the
documentation of the Makassar
trading with Indigenous Australians
on Australia's north coast.
History of New Zealand dates back
at least 700 years to when it was
discovered and settled by
Polynesians, who developed a
distinct Māori culture centered on
kinship links and land.
 History of the Pacific Islands covers
the history of the islands in the
Pacific Ocean.
History of Antarctica emerges from
early Western theories of a vast
continent known as Terra Australis,
believed to exist in the far south of the
globe.

Political

Political history covers the type of

government, the branches of government,
leaders, legislation, political activism,
political parties, and voting.
Military

Military history concerns warfare,

strategies, battles, weapons, and the
psychology of combat.[63] The "new
military history" since the 1970s has been
concerned with soldiers more than
generals, with psychology more than
tactics, and with the broader impact of
warfare on society and culture.[64]

Religious

The history of religion has been a main

theme for both secular and religious
historians for centuries, and continues to
be taught in seminaries and academe.
Leading journals include Church History,
The Catholic Historical Review, and History
of Religions. Topics range widely from
political and cultural and artistic
dimensions, to theology and liturgy.[65]
This subject studies religions from all
regions and areas of the world where
humans have lived.[66]

Social

Social history, sometimes called the new

social history, is the field that includes
history of ordinary people and their
strategies and institutions for coping with
life.[67] In its "golden age" it was a major
growth field in the 1960s and 1970s
among scholars, and still is well
represented in history departments. In two
decades from 1975 to 1995, the
proportion of professors of history in
American universities identifying with
social history rose from 31% to 41%, while
the proportion of political historians fell
from 40% to 30%.[68] In the history
departments of British universities in
2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644
(29%) identified themselves with social
history while political history came next
with 1425 (25%).[69] The "old" social history
before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of
topics without a central theme, and it often
included political movements, like
Populism, that were "social" in the sense
of being outside the elite system. Social
history was contrasted with political
history, intellectual history and the history
of great men. English historian G. M.
Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point
between economic and political history,
reflecting that, "Without social history,
economic history is barren and political
history unintelligible."[70] While the field has
often been viewed negatively as history
with the politics left out, it has also been
defended as "history with the people put
back in".[71]
Subfields

The chief subfields of social history

include:

Black history
Demographic history
Ethnic history
Gender history
History of childhood
History of education
History of the family
Labor history
LGBT history
Rural history
 Urban history
American urban history
Women's history

Cultural

Cultural history replaced social history as

the dominant form in the 1980s and
1990s. It typically combines the
approaches of anthropology and history to
look at language, popular cultural
traditions and cultural interpretations of
historical experience. It examines the
records and narrative descriptions of past
knowledge, customs, and arts of a group
of people. How peoples constructed their
memory of the past is a major topic.
Cultural history includes the study of art in
society as well is the study of images and
human visual production (iconography).[72]

Diplomatic

Diplomatic history focuses on the

relationships between nations, primarily
regarding diplomacy and the causes of
wars.[73] More recently it looks at the
causes of peace and human rights. It
typically presents the viewpoints of the
foreign office, and long-term strategic
values, as the driving force of continuity
and change in history. This type of political
history is the study of the conduct of
international relations between states or
across state boundaries over time.
Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that
after the First World War, "diplomatic
history replaced constitutional history as
the flagship of historical investigation, at
once the most important, most exact and
most sophisticated of historical
studies".[74] She adds that after 1945, the
trend reversed, allowing social history to
replace it.

Economic

Although economic history has been well

established since the late 19th century, in
recent years academic studies have
shifted more and more toward economics
departments and away from traditional
history departments.[75] Business history
deals with the history of individual
business organizations, business
methods, government regulation, labour
relations, and impact on society. It also
includes biographies of individual
companies, executives, and entrepreneurs.
It is related to economic history. Business
history is most often taught in business
schools.[76]
Environmental

Environmental history is a new field that

emerged in the 1980s to look at the history
of the environment, especially in the long
run, and the impact of human activities
upon it.[77] It is an offshoot of the
environmental movement, which was
kickstarted by Rachel Carson's Silent
Spring in the 1960s.

World

World history is the study of major

civilizations over the last 3000 years or so.
World history is primarily a teaching field,
rather than a research field. It gained
popularity in the United States,[78] Japan[79]
and other countries after the 1980s with
the realization that students need a
broader exposure to the world as
globalization proceeds.

It has led to highly controversial

interpretations by Oswald Spengler and
Arnold J. Toynbee, among others.

The World History Association publishes

the Journal of World History every quarter
since 1990.[80] The H-World discussion
list[81] serves as a network of
communication among practitioners of
world history, with discussions among
scholars, announcements, syllabi,
bibliographies and book reviews.

People's

A people's history is a type of historical

work which attempts to account for
historical events from the perspective of
common people. A people's history is the
history of the world that is the story of
mass movements and of the outsiders.
Individuals or groups not included in the
past in other types of writing about history
are the primary focus, which includes the
disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor,
the nonconformists, and the otherwise
forgotten people. The authors are typically
on the left and have a socialist model in
mind, as in the approach of the History
Workshop movement in Britain in the
1960s.[82]

Intellectual

Intellectual history and the history of ideas

emerged in the mid-20th century, with the
focus on the intellectuals and their books
on the one hand, and on the other the
study of ideas as disembodied objects
with a career of their own.[83][84]
Gender

Gender history is a subfield of History and

Gender studies, which looks at the past
from the perspective of gender. The
outgrowth of gender history from women's
history stemmed from many non-feminist
historians dismissing the importance of
women in history. According to Joan W.
Scott, "Gender is a constitutive element of
social relationships based on perceived
differences between the sexes, and gender
is a primary way of signifying relations of
power",[85] meaning that gender historians
study the social effects of perceived
differences between the sexes and how all
genders use allotted power in societal and
political structures. Despite being a
relatively new field, gender history has had
a significant effect on the general study of
history. Gender history traditionally differs
from women's history in its inclusion of all
aspects of gender such as masculinity and
femininity, and today's gender history
extends to include people who identify
outside of that binary. LGBT history deals
with the first recorded instances of same-
sex love and sexuality of ancient
civilizations, and involves the history of
lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender
(LGBT) peoples and cultures around the
world.[86]
Public

Public history describes the broad range of

activities undertaken by people with some
training in the discipline of history who are
generally working outside of specialized
academic settings. Public history practice
has quite deep roots in the areas of
historic preservation, archival science, oral
history, museum curatorship, and other
related fields. The term itself began to be
used in the United States and Canada in
the late 1970s, and the field has become
increasingly professionalized since that
time. Some of the most common settings
for public history are museums, historic
homes and historic sites, parks,
battlefields, archives, film and television
companies, and all levels of
government.[87]

Historians

Benedetto Croce
 Ban Zhao, courtesy
name Huiban, was the
first known female
Chinese historian.

Professional and amateur historians

discover, collect, organize, and present
information about past events. They
discover this information through
archeological evidence, written primary
sources, verbal stories or oral histories,
and other archival material. In lists of
historians, historians can be grouped by
order of the historical period in which they
were writing, which is not necessarily the
same as the period in which they
specialized. Chroniclers and annalists,
though they are not historians in the true
sense, are also frequently included.

Judgement

Since the 20th century, Western historians

have disavowed the aspiration to provide
the "judgement of history".[88] The goals of
historical judgements or interpretations
are separate to those of legal judgements,
that need to be formulated quickly after
the events and be final.[89] A related issue
to that of the judgement of history is that
of collective memory.

Pseudohistory

Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts

which purport to be historical in nature but
which depart from standard
historiographical conventions in a way
which undermines their conclusions. It is
closely related to deceptive historical
revisionism. Works which draw
controversial conclusions from new,
speculative, or disputed historical
evidence, particularly in the fields of
national, political, military, and religious
affairs, are often rejected as
pseudohistory.

Teaching

Scholarship vs teaching

A major intellectual battle took place in

Britain in the early twentieth century
regarding the place of history teaching in
the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge,
scholarship was downplayed. Professor
Charles Harding Firth, Oxford's Regius
Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the
system as best suited to produce
superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors,
who had more votes than the professors,
fought back in defense of their system
saying that it successfully produced
Britain's outstanding statesmen,
administrators, prelates, and diplomats,
and that mission was as valuable as
training scholars. The tutors dominated
the debate until after the Second World
War. It forced aspiring young scholars to
teach at outlying schools, such as
Manchester University, where Thomas
Frederick Tout was professionalizing the
History undergraduate programme by
introducing the study of original sources
and requiring the writing of a thesis.[90][91]
In the United States, scholarship was
concentrated at the major PhD-producing
universities, while the large number of
other colleges and universities focused on
undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the
21st century was for the latter schools to
increasingly demand scholarly productivity
of their younger tenure-track faculty.
Furthermore, universities have increasingly
relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to
do most of the classroom teaching.[92]

Nationalism

From the origins of national school

systems in the 19th century, the teaching
of history to promote national sentiment
has been a high priority. In the United
States after World War I, a strong
movement emerged at the university level
to teach courses in Western Civilization, so
as to give students a common heritage
with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980,
attention increasingly moved toward
teaching world history or requiring
students to take courses in non-western
cultures, to prepare students for life in a
globalized economy.[93]

At the university level, historians debate

the question of whether history belongs
more to social science or to the
humanities. Many view the field from both
perspectives.

The teaching of history in French schools

was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as
disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers
pédagogiques and Enseignement and other
journals for teachers. Also influential was
the Institut national de recherche et de
documentation pédagogique (INRDP).
Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of
teacher training, said pupils children
should learn about historians' approaches
as well as facts and dates. Louis François,
Dean of the History/Geography group in
the Inspectorate of National Education
advised that teachers should provide
historic documents and promote "active
methods" which would give pupils "the
immense happiness of discovery".
Proponents said it was a reaction against
the memorization of names and dates that
characterized teaching and left the
students bored. Traditionalists protested
loudly it was a postmodern innovation that
threatened to leave the youth ignorant of
French patriotism and national identity.[94]
Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several countries history textbooks are

tools to foster nationalism and patriotism,
and give students the official narrative
about national enemies.[95]

In many countries, history textbooks are

sponsored by the national government and
are written to put the national heritage in
the most favorable light. For example, in
Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre
has been removed from textbooks and the
entire Second World War is given cursory
treatment. Other countries have
complained.[96] Another example includes
Turkey, where there is no mention of the
Armenian Genocide in Turkish textbooks
as a result of the denial of the genocide.[97]

It was standard policy in communist

countries to present only a rigid Marxist
historiography.[98][99]

In the United States, textbooks published

by the same company often differ in
content from state to state.[100] An
example of content that is represented
different in different regions of the country
is the history of the Southern states, where
slavery and the American Civil War are
treated as controversial topics. McGraw-
Hill Education for example, was criticized
for describing Africans brought to
American plantations as "workers" instead
of slaves in a textbook.[101]

Academic historians have often fought

against the politicization of the textbooks,
sometimes with success.[102][103]

In 21st-century Germany, the history

curriculum is controlled by the 16 states,
and is characterized not by
superpatriotism but rather by an "almost
pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic
undertone" and reflects "principles
formulated by international organizations
such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe,
thus oriented towards human rights,
democracy and peace." The result is that
"German textbooks usually downplay
national pride and ambitions and aim to
develop an understanding of citizenship
centered on democracy, progress, human
rights, peace, tolerance and
Europeanness."[104]

See also

Glossary of history
 Outline of history History
portal
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Further reading

Norton, Mary Beth; Gerardi, Pamela, eds.

(1995). The American Historical Association's
Guide to Historical Literature (3rd ed.). Oxford
U.P; Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most
important English language history books in
all fields and topics.
Benjamin, Jules R. (2009). A Student's Guide
to History.

Carr, E.H. (2001). What is History?. With a

new introduction by Richard J. Evans.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN 0333977017.
Cronon, William (2013). "Storytelling" (http://
www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm) .
American Historical Review. 118 (1): 1–19.
doi:10.1093/ahr/118.1.1 (https://doi.org/10.
1093%2Fahr%2F118.1.1) . Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20160723044136/htt
p://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.ht
m) from the original on 23 July 2016.
Retrieved 24 July 2016; Discussion of the
impact of the end of the Cold War upon
scholarly research funding, the impact of the
Internet and Wikipedia on history study and
teaching, and the importance of storytelling
in history writing and teaching.
Evans, Richard J. (2000). In Defence of
History. W.W. Norton & Company.
ISBN 0393319598.
Furay, Conal; Salevouris, Michael J. (2010).
The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical
Guide.

Kelleher, William (2008). Writing History: A

Guide for Students; excerpt and text search (h
ttps://www.amazon.com/dp/0195337557/) .
Lingelbach, Gabriele (2011). "The
Institutionalization and Professionalization
of History in Europe and the United States" (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6
zAFoC&pg=PA78) . The Oxford History of
Historical Writing. Vol. 4: 1800–1945. Oxford
University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-
0199533091. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20150915192900/https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA7
8) from the original on 15 September 2015.
Retrieved 2 July 2015.
Presnell, Jenny L. (2006). The Information-
Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for
History Students; excerpt and text search (htt
ps://www.amazon.com/dp/0195176510/) .
Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History.
Pearson Longman. ISBN 1405823518.
Woolf, D.R. (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of
Historical Writing. Vol. 2. Garland Reference
Library of the Humanities; excerpt and text
search (https://www.amazon.com/Encyclope
dia-Historical-Writing-Reference-Humanities/
dp/0815315147/) .
Williams, H.S., ed. (1907). The Historians'
History of the World (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ) . Vol. Book 1.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015
0915174251/https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ) from the original on
15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015;
This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes.
 Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (1998). As barbas do
imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos
trópicos (in Portuguese). São Paulo:
Companhia das Letras. ISBN 85-7164-837-9.

External links

Official website (http://www.besthistory

sites.net/) of BestHistorySites
Official website (https://www.bbc.co.uk/
history) of BBC History
Internet History Sourcebooks Project (ht
tp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/) See
also Internet History Sourcebooks
Project (Collections of public domain
 and copy-permitted historical texts for
educational use)

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