Mlie 102

UNIT 1 RESEARCH: MEANING, CONCEPT,
NEED
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of Research
1.3 Need for and Purpose of Research
1.4 Conceptual Framework of Research and Terminology
1.4.1 Basic and Applied Research
1.4.2 Conceptual Framework
1.5 General Characteristics of Modern Research
1.6 Criteria for a Topic to be Relevant for Research
1.7 Scientific Method
1.8 Research Design
1.9 Value of Studying Research Methodology for Library and Information
Professionals
1.10 Summary
1.11 Answers to Self Check Exercises
1.12 Keywords
1.13 References and Further Reading
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
perceive research methodology as a subject in its own right;
grasp the essentials of the principles and methods of research in general;
get an insight to apply the principles of research and its methods to problems of
library and information science;
pursue research as a means to extend the frontiers of knowledge in library and
information science; and
recognise the value of a full exposure to research methodology as a necessary
preparation for information support services to research community in addition to
pursuing research in library and information science.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
All societies from the primitive to the most modern sophisticated societies have
progressed only on the acquisition of knowledge and its application, depending upon
their capability to understand their environments and control them through concerted
efforts. Initially knowledge acquisition was more on the basis of observation, experience,
learning by trial and error, simple logics of deduction and inference, etc.But with the
increasing ability to conduct research and getting positive results and the ability to apply
them in solving problems, although confined to a few individuals, human societies were
slowly advancing materially. 1
Fundamentals of With science and technology opening up new directions of growth and development
Research from the 15th century in Western Europe and its influence in other parts of the world,
methods of research have become a mode of acquiring knowledge through scientific
methods. It was largely an individual flair that pushed up the frontiers of knowledge
albeit with very limited facilities for research. With the advent of universities, research
became one of their important functions, besides their teaching, training, and publications
functions. Increasing pursuit of research has resulted in the growth of a body of literature
over the years on research methodology, which has now developed into a subject in its
own right.
In the course of time, institutions, associations and cognate bodies, have been established
to deal with various development problems through research, with financial aids from
governments and industry. Today there are research institutions, which have been set
up to deal exclusively with research in different subjects, including library and information
science.
In this Unit, we are trying, in a general way, to study the subject of research methodology
in all its dimensions. Formal definitions of research, need to pursue research to expand
the horizons of knowledge, contours of research processes with an understanding of
the conceptual framework model of research methodology, characteristics of research,
scientific research, research design and other related aspects are discussed in this Unit.
Another important point to be noted in a study of research methodology by students of
library and information science is not only to get the necessary skills in doing research in
their own field but also to be of assistance and help to the research community offering
high quality information service. This aspect is also elaborated in this Unit.
There are likely to be some overlapping of ideas in discussing these aspects in the
different sections of this unit. They are reiterations and should be understood in the
contexts in which each of these ideas is discussed.
1.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Webster’s Third International Dictionary of the English Language defines research as
“studious inquiry or examination, especially critical and exhaustive investigation
or experimentation, having for its aim the discovery of new facts, and their correct
interpretation, the revision of accepted conclusions, theories, or laws in the light
of newly discovered facts, or practical applications of new or revised conclusions,
theories, or laws.”
According to the Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Research
is a systematic inquiry into a subject in order to discover or revise facts,
theories, etc.
In the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Research is defined as “the manipulation of
things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalization to extend, correct
or verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory
or in practice of an art.”
Best and Kahn, in their book Research in Education define research “as the
systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that
may lead to the development of generalization, principles or theories, resulting in
prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.”
Busha in his publication Research Methods in Librarianship says that Research is
“a systematic quest for knowledge that is characterized by disciplined enquiry.
Efficient and effective approach to expand knowledge is the conduct of special,
2 planned and structured investigations.”
Cook outlines research as an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts Research: Meaning,
and their meanings or implications, with reference to a problem. He sees the word Concept, Need
‘Research’ as an acronym, each letter of the word, standing for a particular aspect as
given below:
R = Rational way of thinking

E = Expert and Exhaustive treatment
S = Search and solution
E = Exactness
A = Analysis
R = Relationship of facts
C = Critical observation, Careful panning, Constructive attitude and Condensed
generalisation
H = Honesty and Hard working
Ranganathan describes research to represent a critical and exhaustive investigation
to discover new facts, to interpret them in the light of known ideas, theories and
laws, to revive the current laws and theories in the light of the newly discovered
facts to apply the conclusion to practical purpose.
The substance of all these samples of definitions of research can be broadly summed
up. To restate, the substantive phrases that stand out in all these definitions of research
are that research is an activity as characterised below:
An intellectual activity of a high order;
An investigation of a phenomenon, event or activity;
Aims to discover data and facts and their interpretations;
To arrive at conclusions to formulate new theories and laws or revise the already
established theories and laws;
To communicate the results for peer review; and
To be accepted or rejected before adding this new knowledge to the already
existing general pool of knowledge.
Self Check Exercise

1) What constitutes research?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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Fundamentals of
Research 1.3 NEED FOR AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
As it has been mentioned earlier, knowledge is the primary and powerful resource that
can provide scope for material prosperity of a society. New knowledge can be acquired
only with the pursuit of research to extend the frontiers of knowledge. To accentuate
the value of research, particularly with reference to scientific, technological and societal
knowledge in the Indian context, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru eloquently articulated the
Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) of the Government of India in 1958.
SPR states, ”the dominating feature of the contemporary world is the intense
cultivation of science on a large scale and its application to meet a country’s
requirements. It is this which for the first time in man’s history, has given the common
man, in countries advanced in science, a standard of living and social and cultural
amenities which were confined to a very small and privileged minority of the population.
It is only through scientific approach and method and use of scientific knowledge that
reasonable material and cultural amenities and services can be provided for every
member of the community and it is out of the recognition of this possibility that the idea
of the welfare state has grown.”
The implications and policy directions of this farsighted SPR are quite clear, namely:
Recognition of the vital role of science and technology for socio-economic development
as a fundamental approach
Another important point of note, particularly beginning from the middle of the last century,
is the increasing emphasis on the organising principle for all socio-economic development
as a mix of science, technology and societal knowledge (STSK). This mix is a complex
and multidimensional process, involving science, technology and societal knowledge.
Societal knowledge combines political, economic, sociological, demographic,
occupational, health, legal, regulatory and environment information and knowledge to
comprise a complete knowledge universe. Again development is not merely cultivating
physical resources, but also very much on building up human resources. Any imbalance
in these development approaches weakens the overall capacity of a State to transform
itself into a welfare state.
As a result of this policy direction in India, in the last half a decade, a number of R & D
complexes have been set up in science, technology, social sciences, and humanities.
Educational and training institutions of higher learning, centers of advanced studies in
many disciplines, acquisition and cultivation of technological and management skills
through institutions of technology and management have also been established. Creation
of learned societies and professional associations, publication of primary and secondary
sources for dissemination of information and knowledge, information systems and
services through libraries and information centers, consultancy organisations to bridge
research and industrial development, multimedia communication through Internet and
websites, and many others are undoubtedly oriented towards building up our knowledge
base. Research plays the vital role in this process.
For the business and industrial community world over, knowledge management has
become a crucial area for combating competition. This is a big challenge, which has
made them to invest very heavily on research on new knowledge creation. This trend is
also visible in the Indian context although somewhat blurred at present.
Accessibility and availability of information and knowledge through Internet is another
very important development, supporting research activities.
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Thus the need for research is to build up an infrastructure for creating new knowledge Research: Meaning,
to develop a knowledge reservoir. The application of this knowledge for socio- Concept, Need
economic and cultural development of a country to provide material well being of
societies, is the purpose.
Self Check Exercise
2) What is the need and purpose of research?
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1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF RESEARCH

AND TERMINOLOGY
Belkin, a well-known information scientist, in dealing with information concepts for
information science makes a distinction between definition and concept. The distinction
is, while a definition presumably defines phenomena, the concept explains or interprets
it. By accepting this approach, in our discussion here for concepts of research, it
becomes easier to look for a set of useful concepts, which would help to provide a
conceptual framework for operating the process of research.
We have already discussed a number of definitions of research in section 1.2. In this
section, we shall examine the different concepts from the point of view of performing
the different functions of research.
The general meaning of a concept is that it is an idea complex of something, formed up
of its characteristics. It is a construct, putting together all parts of a thing.
We can perceive concepts of research in two sets. One, as their attributes for ensuring
high quality of research, and another from the functional or operational point of view.
Generally a research topic is identified for study and research in a discipline, either to
add further to the existing knowledge by creating new ideas or modifying existing
knowledge by new findings. A research topic is always selected on the basis of the
theoretical knowledge of a subject possibly to bridge up a gap or reinterpret a known
finding or find new ideas to solve a new problem. To do this, a hypothesis is formulated,
identifying variables to test the hypothesis. The process gets to the next step to find
evidences by collecting appropriate data or facts by a suitable method, analyse the
collected data systematically, interpret the results to arrive at conclusions and
generalise the findings, possibly to be applied to an appropriate or a typical situation
to test the result and its validity and finally add the validated findings to the already
existing body of knowledge after peer review.
Each one of these words or phrases in italics in the sentence above can be deemed to
be a functional concept and can be considered as a step-by-step procedure for a
research activity. These concepts when integrated, serve as a general functional model
of a research process. 5
Fundamentals of 1.4.1 Basic and Applied Research
Research
Research is characterised by two types viz. Basic Research and Applied Research.
Many or most of the concepts stated above are also associated with the process of
research in both these types. Basic research — also referred to, as pure or fundamental
research, — studies phenomena to get a fuller understanding of it. This is essentially to
obtain knowledge of a natural phenomenon whose applications may or may not have
any bearing on any application in the immediate future or even after a long time. Generally
this type of research demands a very high order of intellectual calibre; intuition also
plays an important role in this type of research. Those who are involved in basic research
devote their efforts to the formulation or reformulation of theories and may not be
concerned at all with their practical application. The knowledge obtained thus expands
the theoretical base of a subject. Generally, basic research is conducted by intellectuals
at academic institutions who are specially commissioned for this purpose.
Applied research on the other hand, is to acquire knowledge on the practical application
of the theoretical base already built up which is expected to solve a critical problem.
Applied Research is usually conducted for industries or governments by universities or
by specialised research laboratories or institutions. Applied Research is always for
development purposes. It is generally referred to as Research and Development (R& D)
The concepts stated earlier in this section can be used for planning a research process
both in basic or applied research.
1.4.2 Conceptual Framework
To restate here, the functional concepts stated at the beginning of this section are: Theory,
Hypothesis, Variables, Data/facts, Organisation of data/facts, Analysis, Interpretation,
Conclusions, Generalisations, Tests for Validity of findings, Application to solve a problem,
finally adding to the pool of knowledge.
A schematic diagram given below explains the step-by-step procedure of a research
process:
Theory — Hypothesies - Variables - Data Collection -
- Organisation - Analysis - Interpretation
- Conclusions - New Findings - Generalisation - Test

Application
-Validated findings - Peer Review - Addition to the Pool of
Knowledge
Fig. 1.1: A Schematic Diagram of a Research Process Model

To explain the above schematic diagram, a theory is a body of knowledge that
establishes a cause and effect relationship between variables with the purpose
of explaining and predicting a phenomenon. Theory of a subject is the source
from which a topic for research is identified for research. A gap may exist in
already established knowledge and this gap has to be bridged. Filling up this gap may
need to be investigated through research. Once the topic for research is identified
and taken up for investigation, the first step in research is to formulate hypothesis(es).
A hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome,
a tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. To give an
example, “SDI services of an Information Centre, are used by students of research
6 and junior research scholars much more than senior researchers.” To test the hypothesis,
the variables must be identified and operationally defined. It must also be noted that Research: Meaning,
all research efforts need not necessarily be started with a formulation of hypothesis. Concept, Need
Sometimes a broad objective may be the starting point for research. For example,
in the research project of the College of Aeronautics in Cranfield, England, (Cranfield
I), and the general objective was to evaluate the relative performance of various
indexing methods and systems.
Once the hypothesis(es) is formulated, the next step is to test the hypothesis(es)
for its validity. This is done by identifying variables and collecting data or facts to
assemble them systematically for analysis and study. A variable is an element,
entity, or a factor of a research investigation, having varying quantitative and
qualitative values. Sometimes, the values of variables change during the course of
a research project. A major part of the research process consists of the
measurement of changes or differences between or among the pertinent variables.
For instance, in the Cranfield Project, the variables were Documents, Users, and
Indexing Devices for storage and retrieval, etc.
Qualitative variables are those that cannot be measured in terms of quantity but
can be seen only as shades of differences of qualitative attributes. Language factors
in collection development would be only a qualitative measure, using an appropriate
yardstick; whereas studying the users’ age, department affiliations, etc. may be
quantitatively measured in terms of numbers.
A dependent variable is users’ needs which may have different values is a constant
factor of investigation in an evaluative study of library and information services.
An independent variable is manipulated by a researcher to examine its effects on
the dependent variable during the course of an investigation. For instance, the
types of documents retrieved in a search process can be manipulated in varying
degrees by devices like recall or precision measures.
Once the data or facts are collected systematically and assembled in a form that
could be studied, the investigation moves to the method of analysis. Several methods
are available for studying both qualitative and quantitative data. The data is organised
and presented to draw proper inferences and interpretations. This leads to some
tentative findings that can be refined with appropriate logic to arrive at a conclusion.
The conclusion may lead to a generalisation, which can be further tested in its
applications to a problem.
Self Check Exercise
3) Distinguish between basic and applied research.
4) What are the concepts that could be formed into a framework?
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the Unit.
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Fundamentals of Concepts of Attributes
Research
In the all these steps, a number special terms are employed whose characteristics are
useful in research studies. This leads us to the discussion of attributive concepts whose
use ensures the quality of research. Some of these concepts are discussed below.
Reliability is used to characterise stable, consistent, and dependable research methods,

instruments, data or results. Validity is the essential characteristic of the entities,
procedure, or devices to measure the dimensions that are used to measure. Objectivity
and subjectivity are characteristics that affect the research results in the sense that any
personal bias (that is subjective) may vitiate research results.
Intuition is an important element in research. A person who is involved in a research

project is likely to be constantly thinking about the research process and its progress.
An idea may suddenly flash in the mind of a researcher that could sort out a ticklish
problem where the progress of work had got struck up.
There are a number similar other basic concepts that are associated with the various
methods of research. It is not necessary to exhaust this list in the Unit, as they will be
more appropriately discussed in units where the different research methods are discussed.
Only a few general attributive concepts are discussed here to focus attention on them to
comprehend the steps in research.
1.5 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN

RESEARCH
There are a number of general characteristics of research that help to get a total
perspective of research. Some of the more important ones are discussed below:
Research is a highly intellectual activity: It is usually long drawn, painfully slow,

tedious, sometimes frustrating, and rarely spectacular. Research work demands intensive
study, dedication, devotion, patience, and continuous effort till the projected goal is
reached.
Knowledge growth and development: Knowledge growth and development and their
use and application to problems of sustenance is the only way to enhance human living
standards. This idea has been already stated in this Unit. This is done only through R &
D. But research is a never-ending process. No final word can ever be said on any
aspect of our knowledge. Any research finding can become invalid with new advances
in knowledge.
Modern Research and Development is multi-disciplinary: It is becoming more

or more team research, each member of the team, contributing to research with his/
her expertise in a particular discipline. Research activities have, therefore, become
highly professional. Industry and business organisations coordinate and operate in the
most efficient manner by applying scientific methods and mathematical principles to
organisational problems. Today corporate bodies are increasingly using Operations
Research (OR) and techniques of management science to improve productivity and
quality and to reduce costs. The problems they tackle involve strategy, forecasting,
resource allocation, facilities layout, inventory control, personnel schedules and
distribution systems.
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Modern research is, therefore, increasingly a corporate activity: It is conducted Research: Meaning,
by specialised research establishments, research projects getting sponsored by Concept, Need
governments, industries, and other agencies involved in developmental work.
Modern research is highly professional: Research professionals with expertise

in a particular discipline are employed for the purpose of investigative research. As
said above, it is a team research. A particular aspect of the research problem is
taken up by a researcher and the results of all the findings are properly correlated
by the team head or the project manager and the research report is prepared for
dissemination for peer review. Research now provides ample career opportunities
University Research: Expansion of knowledge horizon is one of the basic functions

of universities. Conventionally universities are expected to work on the frontiers of
knowledge and conduct fundamental research. Universities, however, do take up
developmental research projects, engaging research professionals for the purpose.
In universities, generally, students who pursue higher studies and research are offered
scholarships and fellowships, for the award of research degrees. Theses or dissertations
of research studies are stocked in respective university libraries, which are available
for use, by others. Some of them get published.
Dissemination and publication activity: Research results are always reported

through appropriate channels such as research journals, specialized research reports,
and such others. They are made public for peer review either for acceptance or
rejection. Research journals have the refereeing system to ensure quality control of
research done, before any research paper is submitted to the journal editorial office
for publication.
Citation Analysis: This method of publication of research papers with citations of

consulted references already published, has given rise to the system of citation
analysis. Through citation studies, a research scientist’s contribution is evaluated for
its quality. This method of assessment is used for award or reward systems for
meritorious work or even as promotional criteria for assessing researchers’
performance in labs or institutions.
Funding: Another characteristic of modern research is financial support. Apart from

the provision of scholarships and fellowships with financial supports for research
students and scholars, governments allocate an exclusive and specific percentage of
their budgets to research activities. Industries, in Western countries spend a great
lot of money on research and development by sponsoring specific projects of their
interest to research institutions or through their own R & D wings. International
organisations are also allocating funds for research and give financial support to
appropriate research institutions to pursue research on specific problems of global
interest.
Research Facilities: Research facilities in the form of highly specialised libraries for
information institutions have come up with all forms of computer based information
systems and services. Internet is a major facility to accessing global information and
to obtain hard copies of recorded information. E-mail, computer conferences, and
other electronic information systems have become quite common providing for inter
personal communication and exchange of ideas.
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Fundamentals of Self Check Exercise
Research
5) What are the characteristics of modern research?
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1.6 CRITERIA FOR A TOPIC TO BE RELEVANT

FOR RESEARCH
One of the most difficult phases in research, particularly for students who wish to take
up research for higher degrees is the selection of research topic. The choice and selection
of a research topic is crucial because the topic should lend itself for investigative studies
and promise some useful and tangible results. Busha and Harter say, researchers “have
a responsibility to search for real solutions to both practical and theoretical problems.
Productive research is the product of test of propositions or searches for answers to
exploratory questions; however, these activities cannot be accomplished unless a need
for specific information has been recognised and pertinent phenomena have been
pinpointed that can be observed, interpreted and evaluated. Thus, the selection of a
topic for a disciplined inquiry is a key element of the research process.” It is, therefore,
worthwhile discussing here a few useful criteria or a set of guidelines for the selection of
a topic for research. A few sources that might help identifying a field and a topic in it,
are discussed below.
A fast developing field like computer software development wherein many applications
are constantly in demand may pose problems, needing solutions. Similarly, biotechnology
and genetic engineering are fields, students are likely to face challenging problems for
research investigations of applied nature.
Confining ourselves to library and information field, the increasing application of computer
and communication technologies to the different of information systems and services
need a great deal of creative ideas. Information retrieval systems, library automation,
institutional mechanism to deal with multi-disciplinary nature of the innovative services,
are some of the fields demanding a lot of intense studies and investigations. So the field
that lends itself for study and research to identify areas of research is the best source for
taking suitable topics for investigation.
Besides, intensive surveys of literature in library and information science, computer and
communication technology, management science, sociology of information, economics
of information, are some of the other disciplines which may suggest new ideas for
research investigation for solutions to be applied to information systems and services in
the changing context of information.
As library and information studies are also very much inter-disciplinary, it is useful to
attend professional seminars, conference forums and other such group meetings where
different subject specialist gets involved to deal with information problems. Valuable
inputs for research can be picked up from such meetings.
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Senior professionals with a great deal of experience and expertise may be helpful to Research: Meaning,
students in suggesting areas of research and selecting topics for research. They can Concept, Need
also guide students at every stage of the research process.
Academic and professional institutions and cognate bodies, funding agencies may have
lists of topics for study and investigation in library and information fields.
Combining all the sources mentioned above, a student may be able to identify a topic of
research.
Research projects of industries or governments wherein information is a component for

study and research may engage research professionals to investigate their problems for
solutions. Lists of topics of these bodies, for investigations and research may also be
useful for getting an idea of research areas for research students working for M.Phil or
Ph.D in library and information science.
Apart from the selection of topics for research, a researcher must have certain quality
and competence to take up research studies. In -depth knowledge of the subject with
a research bent of mind, combined with practical experience in the field are essential
requirements for research. Hard work, devotion, dedication, etc. are additional inputs
that could enhance the capacity to think, systematically collect information and data,
and record them accurately for easy retrieval when needed.
Self Check Exercise

6) Mention some of the criteria for selection of topics for research.
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1.7 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Science is defined as a body of knowledge of facts and truths of all systematised
knowledge (subjects, disciplines) that show the operations of general laws and others
appropriate to them. Library and information science is also considered to be slowly
but surely emerging as a subject of systematised knowledge. Solutions to problems in
this discipline also could be obtained through research applying the principles of scientific
methods.
Scientific method is defined by Random House Dictionary as a method in which a
problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated, which is
empirically tested.
It can be discerned from the above definition, scientific method is a logical systematic
process. Some steps in this logical procedure are:
• Identification of the research topic which would be a proper formal statement;
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Fundamentals of • Review of relevant literature to assess what has been already done in the topic
Research taken for research;
• Collection of already established facts and figures on the topic of research;
• Formulation of carefully drafted hypothesis(es);
• Testing the hypothesis(es), on the basis of a thoughtful research design;
• Assembling and organising the data collected systematically for analysis;
• Arriving at inferences and conclusions;
• Generalisation, if the results are amenable for it;
• Preparation and presentation of the research results; and
• Dissemination for peer review.
Scientific method as described by Ranganathan provides a comprehensive view of all
the principles involved. As research is a cyclic process, the procedures get repeated
with each and every round of study.
Self Check Exercise
7) State the logical processes of scientific method as applied to research.
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1.7.1 Ranganathan’s Spiral of Scientific Method

According to Ranganathan, “Scientific Method makes intellection pursue any discipline
perpetually round and round a never-ending succession of cycles.” Figure 1.2 represents
the endless Spiral of Scientific Method propounded by Ranganathan.
II
A D
Fig. 1.2: Spiral of Scientific Method

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Types of Laws, Activity and Cardinal Stages Research: Meaning,
Concept, Need
The Spiral of Scientific Method comprises various types of laws, stages, and intellectual
activities as given below:
A) Types of Laws:
i) Fundamental laws.
ii) Deduced laws.
iii) Nadir facts.
iv) Empirical laws.
B) Types of Activity
i) Senses, experimentation, observation, concretisation, and particularisation.
ii) Intellect, induction, abstraction and generalisation.
iii) Generalisation, abstraction, sublimation, and intuition.
iv) Particularisation, concretisation, deduction and intellect.
C) Cardinal Stages in the Cycle
i) Nadir.
ii) Ascendent.
iii) Zenith.
iv) Descendent.
Spiral and its Quadrants and their descriptions
Quadrant I is between nadir and ascendent.
Quadrant II is between ascendent and zenith.
Quadrant III is between zenith and descendent.
Quadrant IV is between descendent and nadir.
Quadrant 1 corresponds to the stage in the development of a subject in the universe
of subjects, conforming to scientific method, in which:
1) Primary senses are used to either in their native state or with the aid of instruments
of various intensity of powerfulness;
2) Observation are made of knowees, either with or without experimental inference
and conditioning; and
3) Facts are found.
Quadrant 2 corresponds to the stage in which:
1) Intellect is used either by itself or aided by machinery constructed to speed up
the work of the intellect and to give relief to it in some measure;
2) Reasoning is made with the aid of inductive logic, including normal equations and
statistical and other calculations to boil down the numerous facts accumulated at
the nadir to a small number of inducted or empirical laws; and
3) Inducted or empirical laws are formulated.
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Fundamentals of Quadrant 3 corresponds to the stage in which involves:
Research
1) Intuition of some intensity is used unmediated by the primary senses or the intellect;
2) The inducted or empirical laws stand boiled down to a very small number of
fundamental laws;
3) Progression towards ultimate generalisation;
4) Progression towards ultimate abstractness; and
5) Seizing of fundamental laws and their recording.
Quadrant 4 with the use of intellect to the formulation and recording of deducted laws
involves:
1) Use of intellect by itself or aided by machinery;
2) Reasoning with the aid of deductive logic including mathematical and other classes;
3) Progression towards particularisation;
4) Progression towards concreteness;
5) Derivation of deducted laws and their recording;
6) Deducted laws must include one and all of the inducted empirical laws; and
7) The number of deducted exceeds that of the empirical laws if fundamental laws
have been seized with intuition of adequate intensity.
Thus, we find the process of observation corresponds to Quadrants 1 and 2, the process
of formations hypothesis to quadrant 2 and testing of hypothesis to quadrant 4 in the
cycle.
Re-entering into the Spiral
Two things happen in re-entering the spiral:
1) Observations and experiments are made to verify the validity of new deduced laws;
2) Further continuous observation and experiment lead to accumulation of new
empirical facts. So long as the deduced laws are verified empirically to be true and
the new empirical facts are found to be in conformity with the implication of the
fundamental laws, there is no further movement in the spiral. As and when new
empirical facts appear to contradict the new fundamental laws, scientific method is
applied and new cycle get into full swing and carries the Spiral of Scientific Method
further. The cycle is liable to be repeated without end. This method is easily
applied to natural sciences because:
a) Observations can be impersonal;
b) Experiments can be made without hindrance; and
c) There has been continuous sharpening of mathematical calculation necessary
to make induction and deduction.
Research in social sciences is subjective because of different factors. Social phenomena
are not amenable to accurate observations as is possible in natural sciences. Yet with all
the limitations, scientific method is applied to get results that could be approximately
accurate.
Social sciences also aim to create new knowledge studying social phenomena through
14 scientific enquiry. Social sciences study issues, which have a direct bearing on society.
Social research has been defined by Pauline V. Young in her book Scientific Social Research: Meaning,
Surveys and Research as a “Scientific understanding which by means of logical and Concept, Need
systematised techniques, aims to:
1) discover new facts or verify and test old facts;
2) analyse their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations which were
derived within an approximate frame of references;
3) develop new scientific tools, concepts, and theories which would facilitate a
reliable and valid study of human behaviour. A researcher’s primary goal is to
explore and gain an understanding of human behaviour vis-a-vis social life, and
thereby gain a greater control over them. In other words, social research is a
systematic method of exploring, analysing, and conceptualising social life in order
to “extend, correct or verify knowledge, aid in the construction of a theory or in
the practice of an art.” Social research seeks to find explanations to unexplained
social phenomena, to clarify the doubtful and correct the misconceived facts
about social life. Social research, too aims at discovering laws of human behaviour;
but they are more tentative than scientific laws on account of their dependence
on uncontrollable behavioural data.’’
Research in library and information science also has the limitations as social sciences.
Despite these limitations, a lot of good work has been done in classification, information
storage and retrieval systems, indexing languages, expert system as applied to
Information handling, library automation, and others. Further research needs to be
done in the changing context information to seek solutions to a plethora of problems.
The spiral of scientific method is open-ended in nature, and has unlimited scope for
hospitality of various rounds in any field of activity.
Self Check Exercise
8) What are the types of laws, activity and cardinal stages in Ranganathan’s Spiralof
Scientific Method?
9) How does the cycle of spiral of scientific method function?
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1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN

Design, in general, means organising a structural form of elements of any activity,
keeping the purpose in view. Research design “is a plan of the proposed research
work.” (Ghosh, 1984) It provides guidelines and directions in research investigations.
Kerlinger defines research design as “the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. The 15
Fundamentals of Plan is the overall scheme or program of research. It prepares an outline of the
Research investigations, formulating the hypothesis and to collect evidences for analysis for testing
the hypothesis.
Research design provides a structure before data collection or analysis of data
commences. In fact, research is not just a work plan which details what has to be done
to complete the project but the work plan will flow from the project’s research design.
“The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables to
answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible. Obtaining relevant evidence
entails specifying the type of evidence needed to answer the research question, to test
a theory, to evaluate a program or accurately describe some phenomenon. In other
words, when designing research we need to ask: given this research question (or theory),
what type of evidence is needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing
way.” It is emphasised that research design deals with a logical problem and not a
logistical problem.” (DeVaus, 2001,p, 9).
De Vaus also insists that research design is different from the method by which data are
collected. He says that the way by which data is collected is irrelevant to the logic of the
design.
Research design is prepared at the commencement of the research project to serve as
a blueprint for execution of the research effort.
The purpose of research design is two fold: 1) to provide answers on research as
objectively, validly, accurately and economically as possible; and 2) to bring empirical
evidence (i.e. derived from or guided by experience or experiment) to bear on the
research problem by controlling variance. Controlling the variables refers to collecting
evidences on one variable keeping the other variables constant. This method of controlling
the variables is likely to give acceptable data for analysis and interpretation.
1.8.1 Composition of a Research Design
A research design generally comprises the following details:
• Statement of the problem of research;
• Specific questions to be answered or hypothesis to be tested;
• Significance of the problem;
• Objectives of research study;
• Assumptions, concepts and their operational definitions or variables;
• Kinds and sources of gathering data;
• Methods of gathering data;
• Data gathering instruments;
• Analysis and interpretations;
• Resources including personnel and budget; and
• Time scheme.
A simple and rather an unrefined example, to illustrate the above research design is
given below. If the research effort is to find out the relatively sure method of building up
a balanced collection for a research library, the steps are:
• Collection Building and Usage in Research Libraries;
16
• What methods of collection building would meet users’ needs;
• A working hypothesis is that the professional staff of the library who has the maximum Research: Meaning,
contact with the users, would select items that would circulate most frequently; Concept, Need
• The significance of this investigation is that it would give guidelines in building a

most useful collection for the library;
• The objective is to identify the group that makes the best collection building among
the three groups who get involved in this work viz. The heads of research project
teams, the library professional staff and book vendors and jobbers who supply
books on approval;
• The assumption underlying this research effort is that the purpose of a library is to
develop the most useful collection possible, where useful is defined in terms of the
circulation of the collection. Selection of materials is an independent variable in
this project;
• The data to be collected are a selection of material items, their circulation over a
period of time;
• Data to be collected by using library records of circulation in a matrix of tabular
statements;
• Use of a computer if data is stored in a computer;
• Appropriate statistical analysis for interpreting the data;
• An appropriate budget to get the work done and optimum staff required; and
• A suitable time frame for the work.
1.8.2 Attributes of a Research Design
It must be noted that the research hinges heavily on the steps 6 to 9 which deal with the
collection of data for getting the right evidences and the subsequent operations of
assembling them in a logical way, and organising the data for analysis and interpretation.
A research design should have the attributes like objectivity, reliability, validity and
generalisation to ensure a reasonable quality in the collection of data and recording
them.
Objectivity refers to the method of collection of data to obtain accuracy in recording
the scores. The measuring instrument should also measure accurately without any
subjectivity.
Reliability is the attribute of consistency in measurement. “A respondent is expected to
give the same response to a particular item every time he is asked about it. In case, a
respondent keeps on changing his response, then it would be difficult to decide as to
which of the responses should be considered a genuine response.
There are different methods of determining reliability of responses given by a respondent.
These include use of (a) check items (b) administering the same test repeatedly and (c)
series of parallel forms.” (Krishan Kumar, 1999)
Validity pertains to the appropriate measuring instrument, it is taken to measure. For
instance, a job satisfaction test should only measure job satisfaction and nothing else.
There are different procedures adopted for establishing the validity of a test. These
include validating the present data against ‘concurrent’ criterion of a future principle or
a theory etc.
From the application of the above attributes, a research design should use appropriate
measuring instruments to yield objective, reliable and valid data. The data analysis 17
Fundamentals of should lead to generalisation, which may permit application with reference to a larger
Research group of data and thus lead to some generalisation.
Self Check Exercise
10) What is Research design? State its function and purpose.
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1.9 VALUE OF STUDYING RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY FOR LIBRARY AND
INFORMATION PROFESSIONALS
The value of studying research methodology for students of library and information
science is not only to conduct research in their professional field to contribute new
knowledge but also be of great help and assistance to researchers in general.
Clifford Hawkins and Marco Sorgi list a series of values from research as given below:
• A critical or scientific attitude is likely to be developed;
• Research gives the chance to study a subject in depth;
• A researcher gets to know how to use a library and its resources; and also
effectively exploit all the secondary and tertiary resources in general, using the
Internet facilities and other database networks;
• A researcher knows to assess critically the literature in the subject of his study;
• Research helps to develop special interests and skills in the researcher; and
• Helps in understanding the attitude of others whether in routine interactions or
research laboratories.
Specifically for a library and information professional, research would enable them to
offer a higher degree of efficient and thoughtful services to users in general and more
particularly to fellow researchers.
Research studies are pursued by students in most cases to earn higher academic degrees
to enhance their chances to move to higher professional positions in their careers. In
addition, it also prepares them to partake in research projects of research institutions
where team research is carried out. Studies in research methodology would give
opportunities to take part in discussions of research problems and to suggest appropriate
methods to find solution to them. They are likely to get opportunities to help the research
team in report writing, evaluate other research reports and suggest new problems for
18 research in light of the experiences obtained in the course of time.
Self Check Exercise Research: Meaning,
Concept, Need
11) What are the values of studying research methodology?
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1.10 SUMMARY
This Unit gives an overview of research methodology that includes all the procedural
efforts to conduct a research program. Beginning from identifying a problem of research
through extensive studies of the literature, to select a problem for research investigations
to the final effort of preparing a blue print for operating the research program, every
process of research is described. Wherever possible illustrations are given to explain
a particular point. The value of specialising in research methodology not only for
taking research problems in library and information science, this exposure would enable
information professionals to offer quality information support service to users in general
and to researchers in particular. Research today is more and more team research and
hence most research projects are operated by specialised institutions or departments
of universities or research wings of industrial and business organisations. Those
specialising in research methodologies would fit in these projects to gain valuable
opportunities to enhance their professional competence and expertise.
1.11 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) Research is a conscious and planned, critical and exhaustive intellectual activity,
devoted to investigation of a phenomenon with the objective of expanding the
frontiers of existing stock of knowledge. Such a process of investigation becomes
scientific when a designated set of methods or techniques are applied to secure,
measure, analyse and interpret data in a cycle of research ranging from the choice
of a problem to the writing of the final report.
2) The need for research is to build up an infrastructure for creating new knowledge
to develop a knowledge reservoir. The application of this knowledge for socio-
economic and cultural development of a country to provide material well being
of societies, is the purpose.
3) Basic research studies a phenomena, essentially to obtain knowledge of it whose
applications may or may not have any bearing on any application in the immediate
future or even after a long time. Generally this type of research demands a very
high order of intellectual caliber; intuition also plays an important role in this type
of research. Those who are involved in basic research devote their efforts to the
formulation or reformulation of theories and may not be concerned at all with
their application.
Applied research on the other hand, is to acquire knowledge on the practical
application of the theoretical base already built up which is expected to solve a
critical problem. 19
Fundamentals of 4) The concepts that could form a framework are: Theory, Hypothesis, Variables,
Research Data/facts, Organisation of data/facts, Analysis, Interpretation, Conclusions,
Generalisations, Tests for Validity of findings, Application to solve a problem,
finally adding to the pool of knowledge.
5) The general characteristics of modern research are:
• Research is the only way by which new knowledge can be created.
• It is highly intellectual, time consuming, long drawn, slow, sometimes frustrating
and rarely spectacular.
• It is multi disciplinary and multidimensional.
• Most research is team effort, mostly undertaken corporate bodies.
• Modern Research is highly professional.
• Research funding is a very characteristic of modern research.
• Dissemination of results of research is systematically organised in modern
research for peer review.
• Information Support services are also highly organised.
6) Some of the sources for selecting a research are:
• The field that lends itself for study and research to identify areas of research
is one of the best sources for taking suitable topics for investigation.
• The application of Information Technology to library and information science
is a fertile area for research.
• Literature surveys in library and information studies are also a good source.
• Since Library and Information studies are increasingly multidisciplinary,
attending such multidisciplinary conferences could throw light on the selection
of a research topic.
• Senior professionals experts and academic leaders could suggest topics for
research.
• Lists of topics of research university departments in Library and Information
Science, Industries and Governments are also useful sources.
7) Some of the logical processes of scientific method are:
• Identification of the research topic which would a proper formal
statement;
• Review of relevant literature to assess what has been already done in the
topic taken for research;
• Collection of already established facts and figures on the topic of research;
• Formulation of a carefully drafted hypothesis;
• Testing the hypothesis, on the basis of a thoughtful research design;
• Assembling and organising the data collected systematically for analysis;
• Arriving at inferences and conclusions;
• Generalisation, if the results amenable for it;
• Preparation and presentation of the Research results; and
20 • Dissemination for peer review.
8) The types of laws, activity and cardinal stages in Ranganathan’s Spiral of Scientific Research: Meaning,
Method are: Concept, Need
A) Types of Laws:
i) Fundamental laws
ii) Deduced laws
iii) Nadir facts, and
iv) Empirical laws.
B) Types of Activity
i) Senses, experimentation, observation, concretisation, and
particularisation;
ii) Intellect, induction, abstraction and generalisation;
iii) Generalisation, abstraction, sublimation, and intuition; and
v) Particularisation, concretisation, deduction and intellect.
C) Cardinal Stages in the Cycle:
i) Nadir
ii) Ascendent
iii) Zenith
iv) Descendent
9) Two things happen in re-entering the spiral:
• Observation and experiments are made to verify the validity of new deduced
laws;
• Further continuous observation and experiment lead to accumulation of new
empirical facts. So long as the deduced laws are verified empirically to be
true and the new empirical facts are found to be in conformity with the
implication of the fundamental laws, there is no further movement in the
spiral. As and when new empirical facts appear to contradict the new
fundamental laws, scientific method is applied and new cycle get into full
swing and carries the Spiral of Scientific Method further. The cycle is liable
to be repeated without end. This method is easily applied to natural sciences.
10) “Research Design is “the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived
so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.”
“The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables
to answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible.”
The purpose of research design is two fold: 1) to provide answers on research as
objectively, validly, accurately and economically as possible; and 2) to bring
empirical evidence (i.e. derived from or guided by experience or experiment) to
bear on the research problem by controlling variance.
11) The values of studying methodology are: To gain knowledge of the methods of
research for pursuing research studies in library and information science.
A good exposure to research methodology will enable professionals offer very
effective to the research community in their needs for information in their research
work. It can facilitate organizing thoughtful information services in general. 21
Fundamentals of
Research 1.12 KEYWORDS
Ascendant : A position of dominance, controlling influence, superiority or
preeminence.
Concept : A general notion or idea of something formed by mentally combining
all its characteristics or particulars.
Descendant : Something that is going down.
Hypothesis : A proposition or set of propositions set forth as an explanation for
the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena.
Nadir` : The lowest point in an activity.
Research : Systematic inquiry into a subject in order to discover or revise facts,
theories, etc.
Research : It is an arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
Design data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.
Scientific : A method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant
Method data gathered, hypothesis(es) formulated and the hypothesis(es)
empirically tested.
Spiral : Winding and advancing like a coil continuously
Theory : A coherent group of general propositions used as principles of
explanation for a class of phenomena.
Variable : The quality or quantity of a thing (abstract or concrete) that takes
different values.
Zenith : The highest point of an activity.
1.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Best, John W and Kahn James, V. (1999). Research in Education. 2nd ed. New Delhi:
Prentice Hall of India.
Busha, Charles H and Harter, Stephen H (1988). Research Methods in Librarianship:
Techniques and Interpretations. New York: Academic Press.
De Vaus, David (2001). Research Design in Social Research. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science (1978). Ed. by Allen Kent [et al.]
Research Methodology. V. 25. NewYork: Marcell Dekker.
Ghosh B N (1984). Scientific Method and Social Research. 2nd ed. Delhi: Sterling.
Goode, William J and Hart, Paul K (1981). Methods of Social Research. London:
McGraw Hill.
Kerlington, Fred. Ed.(1964). Foundations of Behavioural Research, Educational
and Psychological Inquiry. New York: Rinehart and Winston.
Hawkins, Clifford and Sorgi, Marco. How to Plan, Speak and Write about it?
Krishan Kumar (1999). Research Methods in Library and Information Science.
Edn.2 New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications.
Thakur, Devendra (1988). Research Methodology in Social Sciences. New Delhi:
Deep and Deep Publications.
Trochim, William M (2003). 2nd ed. Research Methods. New Delhi: Biztantra.
Young, P V (1984). Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New Delhi: Prentice
22
Hall of India Ltd.
UNIT 2 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Historical Research
2.2.1 Definitions
2.2.2 What is Not Historical Research?
2.2.3 What Constitutes Historical Research?
2.2.4 Advantages
2.2.5 Limitations
2.2.6 Purposes
2.3 Scope of Application

2.3.1 Applications in LIS
2.4 Types
2.5 Importance in LIS
2.6 Process of Conducting Research
2.6.1 Identification of Research Topic and Formulation of Research Problem
2.6.2 Collection of Background Information or Contextual Information
2.6.3 Formulation of Hypothesis (es)
2.6.4 Systematic Collection of Evidence or Data or Literature Review
2.6.5 Rigorous Evaluation of Historical Resources
2.6.6 Data Interpretation and Synthesis into a Narrative Account
2.7 Internet
2.8 Scientific Research
2.9 Problems
2.10 Summary
2.12 Keywords
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• describe as to what is history and who is a historian;
• explain what is historical research and scope of its application in library and
information science;
• understand its purposes and advantages;
• identify the research situations appropriate for application of historical research;
• explain the process of conducting historical research;
• describe the kinds of information sources available for research;
• follow the criteria for the evaluation of information sources and data; and
• identify the problems faced in conducting historical research. 31
Fundamentals of
Research 2.1 INTRODUCTION
What is History?
People constituting a society are the makers of history as well as the products that are
the result of history. In a modern society, howsoever we may try we cannot escape
history. It forms an integral part of life. It affects our day-to-day living at all times. In
taking a decision in daily life, we often base it on our past experiences.
History, “as commonly understood, may refer to events themselves or the record of
events” (Partner, 1997, vol 12, p.147). She further adds, “History may be interpreted
very broadly, to include nature as well as man. There is a history of the process of
evolution, as Darwin made clear, but in general usage history refers to the study of man
and what happened to him” (p147).
History is” the past experience of mankind. More exactly, history is the memory of that
past experience as it has been preserved, largely in written records” (Daniels, 1996,
p.226). Thus, it is the product of historians’ work in reconstructing the flow of events
derived from the sources of information putting it into a narrative account.
Scope
Subject matter of history constitutes “the significant past, meaning the institutions and
individual actions that affect the experience and development of whole communities”
(Daniels, 1996, p. 226). Traditionally, it focused in the action of governments, their
leaders, and the conflicts among them (named political and diplomatic history). However,
during the past one hundred years or so, scope of history has widened to also include
history of ideas, the patterns and trends in economic and social life, that influence our
society as a whole as well as characterise it.
Dimensions of History
History has two dimensions (Powell, 1991, p. 137-38) that are important for
interpretation of historical data. One dimension is historical time or chronology. It
takes into account the spacing of events and/ patterns. It is sometimes referred to as a
time line. The second dimension is historical space or geographical location of where
the events took place.
Historians
Historians are researchers who focus on study of individuals and societies regarding
their behaviours, motives, fears, hopes, aspirations, experiences etc. They carry out
their study on the basis of the close examination of information sources. They record
their observations and generate records that they pass on to future generations for
further research and record. They try too update history on continuous basis. Historians
provide systematic description and recording of events and trends, giving a narrative
account in a flowing and interesting style.
Historians record their observations on the basis of a large variety of data available to
them. From the large data, they select that data which is genuine and reliable. In spite of
their best efforts to achieve objectivity, bias creeps in their selection as well as in his
interpretation of data. This happens due to conditioning of their life and thinking being
exposed to a variety of influences consciously or unconsciously, from their nationality,
religion, beliefs, traditions, education, status (social, economic and political), environment
etc. However, a good historian reveals his biases in his narrative to bring objectivity in
32 his writings. This is always expected from an intellectually honest researcher.
Historical Research
2.2 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
2.2.1 Definitions
Historical research is “the systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related
to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of
those events which may help to explain present events and anticipate future events”
(Gay, 1981, p. 432).
According to Isaac and Michael, historical research involves reconstructing “the past
systematically and objectively by collecting, evaluating, verifying, and synthesizing
evidence to establish facts and reach defensible conclusions, often in relation to particular
hypotheses” (1981, p.44).
“True historical research, or historiography, is concerned with analyzing and interpreting
the meanings of historical events. It is the process by which a researcher is able to reach
a conclusion as to probable truth of an event in the past by studying objects available
for observation in the present” (Goldhor, 1972, p.98).
It may be considered, “as a scholarly attempt to discover what has happened” (Mouly,
1978, p.157).
Historical research is “the process of systematically examining past events to give an
account of what has happened in the past” (Johnson, chapter 12, p.1).
The above definitions are certainly useful ones. Gay points out the role of hypotheses.
Isaac and Michael emphasise the establishing of facts systematically and objectively.
Goldhor uses the term ‘true historical research’ and refers to probable truth of an event
in the past. Mouly gives a very simple definition, stressing on ‘a scholarly attempt’.
Thus, we may conclude from above that true historical research is a process of
reconstructing the past through systematically and objectively collecting, evaluating,
verifying and synthesising evidence relating to the past events to establish facts and
defensible conclusions, often in relation to particular hypotheses (if appropriate), to
arrive at a scholarly account of what happened in the past.
2.2.2 What is not Historical Research?
True historical research must be distinguished from chronology. Chronology is defined
as “simply the setting down of events in the order of their occurrence, a process similar
to the older concept of historical research” (Powell, 1991, p. 137). Chronology of
events is merely a first step in the process of historical research, providing data or
material for latter steps.
A description of past events is not considered historical research. It serves as background
for the researcher. It can be starting point for him.
A mere collection of facts including their description, does not constitute historical
research. Facts can serve as a base. Facts have to be related and a total picture drawn,
to become meaningful and contiguous one.
2.2.3 What Constitutes Historical Research?
“True historical research, or historiography, is concerned with analyzing and interpreting
the meaning of historical events. It is a process by which a researcher is able to reach a
conclusion as to the probable truth of an event in the past studying objects available for
observation in the present “(Goldhor, 1972, p.98). 33
Fundamentals of It is a flowing, dynamic account of past events, which involves an interpretation of these
Research events in an attempt to recapture the nuances, personalities, and ideas that influenced
these events. (Johnson lectures, Chap. 1)
From above, it follows that historical research constitutes of a narrative account of the
past events written on the basis of interpretation of those events, to recapture
personalities, ideas and environment of those times that shaped the events.
2.2.4 Advantages
There are some advantages of historical research as given below:
• The research is not physically involved in the situation under study;
• No danger of experimenter-subject interaction;
• Documents are located by the researcher, data is gathered, and conclusions are
drawn out of sight (Key, 1997, p.2-3);
• “Historical method is much more synthetic and eclectic in its approach than other
research methods, using concepts and conclusions from many other disciplines to
explore the historical record and to test the conclusions arrived at by other
methodologies”(Shiflett, 1984, p. 385). The author further adds, “Many methods
used alone or in conjunction with other supporting techniques of data collection
and analysis can adequately demonstrate that some particular situation or relationship
between variables exist in the present. But the persistence and permanence of
these conclusions will always be questionable without historical verification”
(shifted, 1984, p. 385-6); and
• Perhaps more than any other research method, historical research provides
librarians with a context. It helps to establish the context in which librarians carry
out their work. Understanding the context can enable them to fulfil their functions
in the society. The study of status of women in librarianship would require
understanding their historical roots in society as well as in the establishment of
librarianship as a profession. Similarly, investigation into the status of university
librarians in India would require establishing the context. It is only through the
understanding of the history that one can appreciate the environment in which
librarians take decisions or carry out their professional work. In case, we want to
find answers to questions like, why a particular service was started by a library or
why the library reclassified its collection from Colon classification to Dewey decimal
classification, then historical research can enable us to find the answers.
2.2.5 Limitations
The human past is the subject matter of historical research. It is to be noted that the past
can only be known through the relics that become available to the researcher. Thus, the
past can no longer be examined directly by him.
A researcher cannot re-enact the past but can only interpret it unlike experimental
research.
“Since history contains an inherent element of subjectivity, the final truth on any important
subject can never be written. Later historians will work with different frames of reference,
new interests, and new conjectures. They will ask new questions and often discover
new source material. Finally, because of the defects of the sources themselves, the total
truth of an important event can never be completely established. New generations and
34
other nationalities will always be ready to offer new insights and new interpretations of Historical Research
the past” (Daniels, 1996, p. 229). In ultimate analysis, one may conclude that there is
no possibility of final truth to be written.
2.2.6 Purposes
Historical research is carried out to serve the following purposes:
To reconstruct the past
A historian reconstructs the past systematically and objectively, reaching at conclusions
that can be defended.
To discover unknown events
There are some historical events that occurred in the past that are not known. A historian
seeks to discover these unknown events.
To understand significance of events
There may be significant events that may be responsible for shaping an organisation/a
movement/a situation/an individual being studied by a historian
To discover the context of an organisation/movement/the situation
In order to explore and explain the past, a historian aims to seek the context of an
organisation/a movement/ the situation being studied.
To find answers to questions about the past
There are many questions about the past, to which we would like to find answers.
Knowing the answers can enlighten us to develop an understanding of the past events.
To study cause – and effect relationship
There is a cause-and effect relationship between two events. A historian would like to
determine such a relationship.
To study relationship between the past and the present
The past can often help us to get a better perspective about current events. Thus, a
researcher aims to identify the relationship between the past and the present, whereby;
we can get a clear perspective of the present (Mouly, 1978, p.158).
To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, institutions and
other kinds of organisations.
Historians are greatly interested in recording and evaluation of the accomplishments of
leading individuals and different kinds of organisations including institutions and agencies
because these influence historical events.
To provide understanding of the immediate phenomenon of concern
A researcher may be investigating a phenomenon. Historical perspective can enable
him to get a good understanding of the immediate phenomenon of concern.
To understand the cultural context of libraries
Libraries as institutions form an important part of culture. Study of libraries enables us
to understand the culture responsible for the growth and development of libraries.
35
Research
1) Discuss what is historical research.
2) Enumerate the purposes of historical research.
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2.3 SCOPE OF APPLICATION

The historical method of research is applicable to all fields of study, including science
and technology, social sciences, the humanities etc. In any field, where the study involves
its origins, growth, development, impact, use, theories, personalities, crisis, etc, the
historical method is found to be applicable.
2.3.1 Application in Library and Information Service (LIS)
Historical research is very popular in the field of library and information science (L&
IS). At the same time, it is least understood. Often, it is considered less significant,
compared with other types of researches as the later deal with issues directly related to
practical problems faced by librarians. Librarians give greater importance to practical
problems of their direct concern.
A researcher can apply historical method of research to a vast range of topics such as:
Origins
Origins of public library movement in the princely State of Baroda (India)
Delhi Public Library: Origins and background
Origins of public library movement in Tamil Nadu
The Delhi University Library: A history of its beginnings, 1925-1947
Growth
Growth of college libraries in Punjab (India)
Growth of library profession in India
Development
Growth and development of reference librarianship in USA
Development of public libraries in South India
Development of library standards at the international level
Development of library equipment in USA during the last two decades
Development of methods for preservation of library resources
Study of development of university library buildings in India
36 Indian library development, 1947-1999
Impact Historical Research
Impact of technology on library services in UK during the last fifty years

Impact of information technology on cataloguing practices
Impact of information technology on acquisition of periodical publications
Use
Use of equipment in public libraries in Australia from 1991 to the present
Use of storage media for storing of pamphlets in special libraries
Personalities
Contribution of leading personalities to the development of library profession in USA
during twentieth century
S. R. Ranganathan: Father of Indian librarianship
Theory
From descriptive theory to dynamic theory of library classification
History of reference theories
Crisis
Decline of Sapru House Library: Story of rise and fall of a great institution
Indian librarianship on the crossroads: Root cause of the situation of crisis
History
History of information systems
History of libraries in India during nineteenth century
History of Delhi University Library
History of Indian Library Association, 1933- 1983
American library history, 1876-2000
History of Indian public library movement through 1947
University libraries in South Africa: Their history, condition and management
REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES
Dale, Doris C. (1968). The origins and development of the United Nations Library,
New York, Columbia University.
Hanson, E. R (1974). Cataloging and the American Library Association, 1876-1956,
University of Pittsburgh.
Holley, Edward G. (1961). Charles Evans: American bibliographer, Urbana, University
of Illinois.
Mahajan, S. G. (1984). History of public library movement in Maharashtra (erstwhile
Bombay Presidency), Pune, Shubhada-Saraswat Publications.
Nagar, Murari Lal (1983). Foundation of library movement in India, Ludhiana, Indian
Library Institute and Bibliographical Centre.
Ohdedar, A. K. (1966). Growth of libraries in India; 1498-1836, Calcutta, World
Press.
Paterson, Kenneth G (1968). The history of the University of California Library at
Berkeley, 1900-1945, Berkeley, University of California. 37
Fundamentals of Taher, Mohamed(2001). Libraries in India’s national developmental perspectives: A
Research saga of fifty years since independence, New Delhi, Concept Publishing
Whitehill, Walter M. (1956). Boston public library: A centennial history, Cambridge,
Mass., Harvard University Press.
2.4 TYPES
According to Hillway (1964, p.159), there are six types of historical research as given
below:
• Biographical research;
• Histories of institutions and organisations;
• The investigation of sources and influences;
• Editing and translating historical documents;
• Studying the history of ideas; and
• Compiling bibliographies.
The use of a particular type of research would depend upon the subject field of study
and the nature of inquiry being pursued. In actual practice, historians are adopting a
variety of approaches.
The approach of a researcher to collection and interpretation of data is influenced by
the fact as to which school of thought he belongs to, such as providential perspective,
new social history, narrative mode, etc. In new social history, social science–type analysis
is used. In narrative mode, emphasis is on how account is written.
2.5 IMPORTANCE IN LIS

It has contributed to the body of knowledge constituting library and information science.
According to Michael Harris, “a clear understanding of the historical definition of the
functions of libraries may well contribute to increased communication between libraries”
(1971, p.1)
History teaches us many lessons. It would contain description of many mistakes made
in different periods, in different libraries or library schools or by professional bodies. It
can help librarians, library educators and leaders of the profession to learn from the
past, so as not to repeat the mistakes of the past. Similarly, successes of the past have
many lessons to teach us.
Library history enables librarians to understand the present in the proper perspective.
This will help us to understand and appreciate the present situation.
The history of libraries produced by historians provides significant details about libraries,
how these originated and developed over a period of time. It also indicates the significance
of libraries. A study on building a great collection on organic chemistry, would provide
an understanding of the collection, its purpose and special features, and how it was
developed over a period of time. It will enable the library professionals working in the
library to realise a better appreciation of history of their own library.
Librarian historians through research make a great contribution to our understanding of
the development of the profession. Thus, fulfilling their professional commitment.
“History is a major research methodology in library and information science as measured
by the amount written, but its popularity has dramatically decreased in recent years.
38 This is evident in the types of research projects that are being accepted by doctoral
committees…There are undoubtedly many possible reasons for this, but the major one Historical Research
seems to be the pervasive belief of some doctoral committees and dissertation advisors
that historical research represents wasted effort. Research using methods adopted from
the more rigorous social sciences has become the modality of research in library and
information science” (Shiflett, 1984, p.387). This situation is true even today. Survey
method predominates in researches being carried out at Indian library schools. There is
no doubt that over a period of time, the quality of historical research in library and
information science has improved a great deal. It has become more rigorous than before,
involving scientific method at different stages of research. Depending upon research
questions to which the answers can be found in the past only or need arises for historical
verification of conclusions arrived at by other methodologies, then historical research is
found appropriate.
Library History
Often, historical research conducted in the field of library and information science is
called library history. It is a label “commonly applied to an account of events that have
affected any library or group of libraries, as well as to the social and economic impacts
of libraries on their communities” (Busha and Harter, 1980, p.93).
According to Shiflett, “Library history” is a rubric that covers a myriad of topics
associated with libraries and other information systems. Its major form consists of the
history of traditional library, but it also includes the history of any activity or event that
might be part of the domain of library and information science. The use and the users of
materials, the problems of governance and employment, the production of resources
collected and organized by the librarians, and the role of governments in support of
information activities are all legitimate concerns of library history- just as they are valid
objects of other forms of research” (1984, p. 388). It is an enumeration of a wide
range of the topics that are covered under library history.
At one time, library history was too often considered in a narrow sense just confined to
history of libraries. As it is apparent from the definitions given above that now its scope
has increased a great deal going beyond history of libraries, as well as history of books
(other media as well) and printing, history of the library as a social institution, history of
the use of documents of various types and libraries etc.
There is no doubt that in recent years, the quality of historical research in library and
information science has improved.
2.6 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH

The process of conducting historical research is the same as for other kinds of researches.
The process involves the following steps:
• Identification of research topic and formulation of the research problem;
• Collection of background information or contextual information about the research
topic;
• Formulation of the questions to be answered or formulation of hypothesis(es)
(if appropriate) to explain causal relationships between historical variables;
• Systematic collection of evidence or data or literature review;
• Rigorous evaluation of historical resources (the authenticity of the resources and
validity of their contents);
• Interpretation; and
• Synthesis into a narrative account. 39
Fundamentals of 2.6.1 Identification of Research Topic and Formulation of Research
Research
Problem
The researcher must first of all identify (define) a historical problem of significance that
needs to be solved or he can identify an area of knowledge that needs to be developed.
It may be a study of the present situation of a university library where understanding of
the past will enable the authorities to plan for the future.
In order to identify a historical problem, the researcher must have thorough knowledge
about the concerned library and also he needs to be interested in this area. In selecting
a topic, he must see to it that there should be a reasonable amount of evidence that is
readily available. He should also know how and where to access it. Availability of
adequate sources of information is a must for producing a good narrative.
Ideas for a historical research topic can be picked by a researcher from a variety of
sources of information such as:
• A report on library and information science education dealing with current issues;
• Review of national policy for library and information science (India);
• Impact of information technology on growth and development of university libraries
in UK; and
• Development of college libraries in Canada: A report along with a proposal for
their modernisation.
2.6.2 Collection of Background Information or Contextual
Information
After identification of a research topic (defining the topic) and formulation of the problem,
carry out survey of the available literature. This step deals with identifying, locating and
gathering information regarding the research topic, the kind of data to be gathered, the
procedure to be followed and where it is to be gathered, would depend upon the type
of the topic being investigated.
To gather enough background information or contextual information, generally start
with secondary sources, to find out how the previous researchers have done similar
research, what sources and research methodology they adopted. Every secondary
source of historical data would suggest other sources including bibliographic tools as
given below:
• Monographs, journal articles;
• Bibliographic tools: Library catalogues, bibliographies, indexing and abstracting
services, research guides, bibliography of bibliographies, etc.; and
• Reference sources: Encyclopeadias, dictionaries, yearbooks and annuals, etc.
History is primarily based on the study of written or printed sources, now there is a
flood of electronic sources, many of them available on the Internet. Typically, these are
classified as primary, secondary and tertiary sources. These may be published sources,
manuscripts (handwritten) or nonprint materials.
Primary Sources
A primary source is a document that contains the original statement on the topic being
investigated by the researcher. These contain evidence that is closest to the event under
investigation as recounted by observers and participants. Primary sources represent
“the data which lie closest to the historical event. They are considered to include the
40 testimony of eye-witnesses, or observations made with one or the other senses or by
some mechanical device. In most cases, primary sources are the written record of what Historical Research
the writer actually observed or the first-hand expression of his or her thoughts” (Powell,
1991, p. 139). Thus, it is the direct outcome of the event or the record of eyewitnesses.
It bears direct involvement with the event being studied, such as diaries, letters, speeches,
and an interview with the person who personally experienced the event, original map,
etc. It is not a copy, a repackage or summery of the original. The basic criteria to
identify a particular source as a primary document is, just ask, “Is it a firsthand account?”
These include the following:
• Documents generated by the events themselves such as archival records
(governmental, institutional, commercial, ecclesiastical, etc), internal letters and
memoranda (memos), speeches, summaries or minutes of conferences and meetings,
photographs of people, buildings and equipment, statistical information (such as
tally sheets and surveys), lists of holdings (goods, equipment, etc), and reports
and statements (mission statements, employees guidelines, rules and regulations
etc);
• Documents produced to record events immediately such as chronicles, diaries,
reports produced by journalists and interviews conducted by them, drawings and
photographs, motion picture films, tape recordings and video recordings;
• Documents in supplementary forms produced much later in the form of oral
sources, oral traditions and folklores, languages themselves, say fables, folktales,
folklore etc are a good source; and
• Artifacts or realia such as inscriptions, seals, coins, medals, drawings, pictures,
ruins of monuments.
Secondary Sources
A secondary source is the one derived or created from a primary source (that first
reported the event being studied). It reports events based on use of primary and other
secondary sources as bases of data collection. It contains information reported by a
person who did not directly observe the event, object, or condition (Key, 1997, p.1).
Thus, these report events by a person other than a direct observer or a participant in
the events. These are considered less useful than primary sources.
A secondary source may be one or more steps removed from the primary source
in terms of time, place or authorship. A source becomes a primary or secondary
source depending upon its proximity to the actual event under investigation (Powell,
1991, p.140).
Examples of secondary sources are given below:
• Textbooks
• Encyclopaedias
• Monographs
• Articles in magazines.
A copy of an original document is a secondary source as it may not be an authentic one.
In copying from the original document, certain errors or omissions can occur intentionally
or unintentionally. The original might get modified at the stage of copying through editing
or interpretation.
Tertiary Sources
These sources include bibliographies, catalogues and indexes that guide a researcher to
primary and secondary sources. 41
Fundamentals of Significance of Primary Sources
Research
Researchers consider primary sources more useful than secondary and tertiary sources
and they prefer to use these.
The use of primary sources:
Allows use of data based on testimony of eye-witnesses, or observations made with
human senses or by a mechanical device. Thus, these are original sources representing
firsthand account. These contain the original statement on the topic being investigated
by the researcher. These are sources that first reported the event being studied.
• Strengthens the reliability of the study.
• Provides a solid base for arriving at valid conclusions.
• Provides historical data that serves as raw material for historical interpretation.
• Ensures the integrity of the study.
Experience shows that most often, a historian cannot base his research entirely on
primary sources. According to Powell, “In fact, secondary sources may provide
important information and conceptual development not available elsewhere. But as
secondary sources do not represent “eye-witness” accounts, the researcher should
keep in mind their limitations and avoid an overreliance on such materials. Secondary
sources are perhaps best used for rounding out the setting or filling in the gaps between
primary sources of information” (Powell, 1991, p.140).
A secondary source may be one or more steps removed from the primary source in
terms of place, time or authorship. Just possible, a secondary source (a copy produced
from an original document) may not be an authentic one. In copying from the original
documents, certain errors can creep in through omission or commission. The original
may have been modified, through editing or interpretation.
Self Check Exercise
3) What are the steps involved in conducting historical research?
4) Why does a researcher not prefer secondary sources to primary sources of
information?
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2.6.3 Formulation of Hypothesis(es)
In the study of a historical event, there may be many questions that may arise about it,
to which we would like to find answers. Knowing the answers to these can enlighten us.
The event to be studied may be, “Public library movement in the State of Tamil Nadu
(India)”. The movement started around 1950. Why it got delayed? Was it due to lack
of political will? Was it due to lack of philanthropy? Was it due to lack of sufficient
42 literate population? Was it due to lack of sufficient published literature in the languages
predominantly used by the public? Was it due to lack of financial resources? Was it due Historical Research
to lack of awareness on the part of the public about their right to have access to free
public libraries?
Dr. S R Ranganathan was librarian, Madras University Library for over two decades.
He succeeded in building a great library. However, due to power politics, he was
forced to resign before his retirement. In a historical study of the contribution of
Ranganathan, some of the questions would arise.
These are given below:
• Why was he selected as a librarian over other candidates?
• What was the role of the then Vice-Chancellor of the University and the Chairman
of the library committee in his selection?
• What were his major contributions to the development of the University Library?
• How did he succeed in spite of dirty politics based on caste lines dominating the
academic environment?
• What were his major successes and failures?
• What were the events in the power politics that led to the resignation of
Ranganathan?
Use of hypotheses serves useful purposes as given below:
• It increases the objectivity of the investigation.
• It minimises researcher bias.
• A historian, often would have access to a large amount of data that may prove to
be difficult to handle unless he is able to decide which is relevant or which is not
relevant to his research. Hypotheses provide him guidelines for deciding which
data is relevant or not at each stage of collection, analysis and interpretation of
data. Thus, one can evolve strategies to collect data.
• It provides him a basis to identify various factors in relation to one another and
also to synthesise them into generalisations or conclusions (Mouly, 1978, p.160).
• It serves a useful purpose as an aid to conduct rigorous studies.
• The formulation (when appropriate) of hypothesis(es) to be tested to explain the
relationships among historical variables, is the central question(s) around which
the evidence is organised and also presented, to prove or disprove the hypothesis
(es). A researcher should not merely select and present only that kind of information,
which can prove the hypothesis(es), but rather make a conscious effort to examine
the total information available to him covering all aspects of the problem being
investigated.
Keep in mind that the hypothesis (es) will enable to draw the lines along which the
researcher needs to gather information, so as to avoid wasting efforts collecting
information that has no relevance to hypothesis (es). In case the formulation of hypothesis
(es) is not appropriate, then, one should formulate questions. The guidelines mentioned
above are equally applicable in case the questions instead of hypothesis (es) are
formulated.
There is no doubt that it is more difficult to test a historical hypothesis than in other
types of researches. This is due to the reason that historical research is considered ex
post facto in nature. The events being investigated have already taken place. Therefore, 43
Fundamentals of the researcher has no control over the variables. He cannot manipulate them. It is also
Research not possible for him to repeat or re-enact the event. He can merely interpret the available
data related to the event that occurred in the past. As a consequence, study of the
phenomenon of causality, though important becomes complex and difficult to deal with.
Consideration of causality forces takes the researcher forward beyond descriptive
study to consideration of as to why certain relationships between variables seem to be
there.
2.6.4 Systematic Collection of Evidence or Data or Literature Review
In order to produce a work of history, a historian undertakes steps consisting of selection,
evaluation, interpretation and synthesis of data into a narrative exposition. Here we are
concerned with collection of evidence or data. The gathering of primary-source (first
hand) evidence is the most difficult task.
Selection of sources is an essential step especially for recent history. Selection is done
taking into consideration, “the nature of the researcher’s particular problem and the
criteria of relevance and significance that drive from his hypotheses. Selection is facilitated
by the use of bibliographic aids and existing secondary works but the historian of a
recent topic must nevertheless be prepared to sift and digest masses of material, most
of which will not directly appear in the final work” (Daniels, 1996, p. 228).
Libraries are good at collecting and maintaining records of housekeeping statistics but
those records that are required to make library history meaningful and interesting are
often lacking. If a historian were looking for records for biographical treatment of Dr S
R Ranganathan at Madras University Library, where he was librarian for more than
two decades, then he would only find sketchy archives on him. Same is the case with
other libraries, especially with regard to archives of interest to library historians. Records
of such nature are either lost or not well maintained. Producing oral history interviews
of librarians and teachers of library and information science on topics of recent origin
can go a long way to fill up the gaps.
2.6.5 Rigorous Evaluation of Historical Sources
Data used by a historian is usually called evidence. Historical research is totally based
on evidence, which is always of the past. It is complex in nature and usually vast in
quantity. A historian spends tremendous amount of time in sifting relevant evidence. He
narrows it down, choosing it very carefully. Often, evidence presents surprises at each
stage of sifting.
The quality of historical sources varies a great deal, especially Internet sources. Every
information source must be evaluated for authenticity and accuracy before being used
for evidence as these are affected by a variety of factors like economic, political, ethical
and social environment as well as personal likes and dislikes, prejudices. The published
sources like books and periodicals usually go through filtering process. This may involve
peer review and editing. However, most of the information available on the Internet is
unfiltered. This poses a danger. The question arises as to whether or not the information
source being used by him is appropriate for his research work. Before using sources,
he must evaluate these irrespective of whether the resource is Internet source or any
other one.
A researcher would like to know if the sources being used by him are:
• Relevant to his research (that is appropriate for his research work),
• Worthwhile (substantial enough to serve his purpose), and
44 • Competent (genuine, accurate and trustworthy).
Approach 1 Historical Research
For evaluation, one may use the following criteria:

• Authority,
• Scope,
• Uptodateness,
• Reliability, and
• Objectivity.
Authority
Who is the author or developer of the source? What are his qualifications and experience
in the field concerned?
Who is the publisher or producer of the site? What is his reputation?
Find out how the information has been documented, giving footnotes and / or a
bibliography? Examine the documentation, to determine the quality of sources covered.
Scope
What topics have been covered? What is the extent of coverage of topics (in depth or
broadly)?
Uptodatedness
How up to date is the content of the source? Has the date of publication been given
clearly?
In case of an Internet source, it may indicate, the date of writing or when it was updated
last or when the database was activated.
Reliability
How far information is reliable and free from errors? Internet sources are not usually
verified by editors or evaluated by referees. Thus, there is a great possibility of
inaccuracies taking place.
Objectivity
Find out, if there is bias in the presentation of information? Is there an attempt to influence
the opinion of the readers towards certain ideology or school of thought?
Conclusion
A researcher must use a variety of sources, including traditional printed resources as
well as Internet ones. However, he must apply the criteria described above to all kinds
of sources used by him.
Approach 2
As mentioned above, in the process of gathering historical evidence, a researcher is
required to continually evaluate documents being used for their authenticity and accuracy.
Another approach used by historians for determining the authenticity and accuracy of
historical documents constitutes of textual criticism. Textual criticism consists broadly
of two groups, namely external criticism and internal criticism. Any document used for
historical research must pass tests of both external and internal criticism. Historical
criticism enables a historian to expose forgeries, identify inherent defects (such as
deliberate bias or deception, errors of judgment or memory, incompleteness of evidence)
in historical sources. 45
Fundamentals of External Criticism
Research
This involves determination of “validity, trustworthiness, or authenticity of the source”
(Johnson lectures, chap12, p.5). This is concerned with examining the historical document
from outside, so as to establish its authenticity. The question to be asked, “Is it what it
purports to be?”At times, this can be done through analysis of handwriting or carrying
out carbon 14 test used for determining the age of the paper. Carbon 14 test is not
applicable for Internet resources.
In order to establish the authenticity of the evidence, the researcher checks the
genuineness or validity of the source. The question to be asked is it really, what it
appears to be or claims to be? Can we use it as evidence?
To establish the genuineness of a document or relic, the following questions may be
asked (Key, 1997, p.2):
• Does the language and writing style conform to the period in question and is it
typical of other works done by the author?
• Is there evidence that the author exhibits ignorance of things or events that man of
his training and time should have known?
• Did he report about things, events, or places that could not have been known
during that period?
• Has the original manuscript been altered either intentionally or unintentionally by
copying?
• Is the document an original draft or a copy? If it is a copy, was it reproduced in the
exact words of the original?
• If manuscript is undated or the author unknown, are there any clues internally as to
its origin?
To assess the authenticity of a source, a researcher may use the following techniques:
• Bibliographical technique (bibliographical analysis),
• Techniques taken from auxiliary disciplines such as linguistics, epigraphy (textual
analysis), these can help trace the origin of the document.
• Techniques of physical sciences, such as chemistry (chemical analysis of paper
and ink). Carbon 14 test is used on paper to determine the age of paper used in
the source. Chemical analysis is not applicable for Internet sources.
The use of above techniques would indicate to the researcher with a reasonable degree
of confidence whether or not a particular source is authentic. However, one may be
unable to prove its authenticity.
Internal Criticism
After the source has been authenticated, then it is tested for accuracy (in other words
plausibility and consistency). Internal criticism involves determination of reliability or
accuracy of the information contained in the resource. It is concerned with accuracy of
the document involving “the competence and integrity of the author, and the occasion of
origin of the document” (Goldhor, 1969, p. 103). The purpose being to determine
whether or not the author was competent, honest, and objective(unbiased). How long
after the event happened, it was reported? Does the account reported by the witness of
the event agree with accounts given by other witnesses?
Internal criticism is carried out using positive and negative criticism. Positive criticism
46 consists of assuring that statements made or meaning conveyed in the sources is clear
enough to be understood. There may uncertainty in the words and phrases employed Historical Research
in the source. Sometimes, connotation of terms can change over time. On the other
hand negative criticism refers to the process of establishing the reliability or authenticity
and accuracy of the contents of the sources (Johnson lectures, chap 12, p.5) this involves
judgment on the part of the investigator which is quite difficult. The primary sources
containing firsthand accounts by witnesses of an event are considered reliable and
accurate.
To determine the accuracy of a document, a historian should ask the following questions
(Goldhor, 1969, p.103-104):
• What do you know about the author?
• Was he generally sincere or was he biased?
• Was he knowledgeable and competent?
• Was he even in a position to know the truth, and did he have access to reliable
sources of information?
• Does he demonstrate ability to report accurately, clearly, and dispassionately?
• What was the purpose or reason for the preparation of the document?
• Is there any basis for believing that the record was influenced by public opinion,
literacy motives, bias, prejudice, vanity, or other such factors?
The above test is very strict. Not many documents concerning library history will pass
the above test in a satisfactory manner. However, the document must indicate no bias,
no ignorance, and no personal motive (self-interest) of the author.
In the process of gathering historical evidence, a researcher may ask the following
questions to evaluate the sources for their authenticity and accuracy (Losee and Worley,
1993, p.157):
• Did the person claimed, produce at the time and the document, and was it distributed
and used as claimed?
• Did any person who produced data (written and spoken) have any possible motive
or bias in choosing what to communicate and what not to communicate?
• How reliable is an informant?
• Is information complete, and if not is there a possible reason for what is present
and what is missing?
Approach 3
Very often, historians employ three heuristics for establishing authenticity and accuracy
of information sources, namely corroboration, sourcing and contextualisation.
Corroboration involves comparing documents on the same events to find out whether
or not they provide the same information. Sourcing consists of identifying the author
(full name, dates of birth and death, status, etc), place and date of creation of the
source. Contextualisation refers to identifying of the place and date or period when the
event of concern took place. Using these three techniques together can help a historian
to establish authenticity and accuracy of an information source.
2.6.6 Data Interpretation and Synthesis into a Narrative Account
Data synthesis includes selecting, organising, and analysing the data in terms of topical
themes and central ideas or concepts. Then, these themes and central ideas are put
together to form a narrative account that is contiguous and meaningful whole.
47
Fundamentals of “Synthesis of historical data is the most difficult step of all. A conceptual scheme must
Research be developed around which the facts are to be organised, with an appropriate logical
sequence of topics and points. Then a detailed outline is prepared. Finally, the narrative
is composed with due concern for balanced presentation and the leavening of
generalization with illustration” (Daniels, 1996, p.228).
A good historian makes an effort to:
• give the most meaningful representation of reality,
• fill up gaps wherever those exist, giving necessary explanations,
• reconcile inconsistencies in the data,
• carefully conjure up an intelligent guess, where facts are lacking but admits honestly
that he is using an intelligent and educated guess, and
• provide footnotes and bibliography, citing original sources and scholarly authorities,
used by him to arrive at the conclusions.
A good historian employs lucid and logical expression to present his findings along with
supporting evidence to his intended audience consisting of knowledgeable critics and
scholars. In presenting a report, the following guidelines should be kept in view:
• The evidence and conclusions should be presented (written) in a way whereby
these can be communicated to the concerned readers effectively.
• The researcher should use his intelligence, imagination and sense of discrimination
just like a good detective, to provide a narrative exposition that is both contiguous
and meaningful.
• The write up should be interesting, graceful and flowing narrative using readable
but scholarly style, with emphasis on clarity and continuity of thought.
• All aspects of the topic as well as the problem must be covered.
• He must accurately describe the past, incorporating historical evidence, blending
it into the account. He must be careful to not to simplify or misrepresent.
• Historical research due to its very nature often is subjective in nature. Thus, relatively
speaking, it is susceptible to researcher bias. In any case, he must avoid bias or
misjudgment. However, a historian should follow a style of presentation that is
objective but not lacking in feeling or colour. In case a researcher feels that he has
a known bias, as an honest researcher, he must state the same clearly, so that the
reader can form his or her own judgment regarding the interpretations and
conclusions drawn by the author.
• The evidence must be analysed and interpreted so that it supports the hypotheses
(if any) and conclusions.
• The conclusions arrived at and the supporting evidence should be presented in a
clear and unambiguous prose.
• Complex ideas need to be explained in a simple style without being simplified.
• A good historian is one who accepts the fact that his conclusions are tentative and
should always be willing to revise or reject his conclusions in the light of new data
that may become available later on. At times, skepticism is necessary and serves a
useful purpose.
• Facts and interpretation should be presented along with documented evidence:
(a) whereby the readers can evaluate the conclusions reached at by the researcher.
48 In other words, readers can critically examine the documented sources to find out
whether or not, they would have arrived at the same conclusions as drawn by the Historical Research
researcher, (b) documented evidence can also enable other researchers to replicate
the study, resulting in greater scientific accuracy, This is how knowledge advances.
• Above all, a researcher must display intellectual honesty.
2.7 INTERNET
In recent years, Internet has become a significant resource for research, a revolutionary
communications delivery system. This is due to the growth of World Wide Web, an
Internet interface having sound, graphical and video facilities. Many academic,
professional, commercial and government organisations have established their web
sites providing valuable data and information. There are libraries that have set up
digital libraries, such as National Digital Library of Library of Congress, New York
Library Digital Library etc. Lot of useful data is available along with trash and propaganda
material.
A historian should know how to sift through data to cull out useful data. Subject directories
and search engines are useful in finding history sources. There are thousands of primary
sources relating to history available on the web and gopher FTP files. The problem with
many of these web sites is that often the basic information required by a historian to
evaluate the accuracy, completeness and genuineness of the sources is missing, such as
purpose of the website, the location of the manuscript or printed source used for
preparing the online document. Sometimes, the material is written from a particular
point of view, or the facts may be misinterpreted to serve a particular end. More often,
web sites set up by academic bodies and governments are considered more authoritative.
Very often, it takes too much time to load the page. To have a fast search, one would
require a computer with a fast processor and a modem. It is much more difficult to
search Internet for secondary sources than primary ones.
Searching is full of problems. Each search engine uses its own methodology for searching.
On a particular topic (based on search of words and phrases), it may provide such a
large number of documents that the searcher may have to spend too much of time to
select the relevant ones, thereby losing patience, However, one must remember that
more time is consumed, if one were to go to a library personally to locate the required
document. It may or may not be available on the shelf. It could be in the hands of a
reader or borrowed out. In case, the library has to get a document on inter- library
loan, then it would take a few days or weeks to get it.
In searching information, one comes across some serious problems as given below
(Griffin, 1999, chap 12, p.2):
“One very frustrating problem: sometimes when you select a link, a message informs
you that the server (computer) on which the material resides somewhere in the world is
not accepting your request and suggests that you try again later. (An immediate retry
sometimes gets results, sometimes not.) At times you will get a message stating that the
site does not have a DNS number. (Sometimes an immediate retry proves the message
wrong!) From time to time you will find that the material you want is available but, for
one or more reasons, you have to wait a long time for it to load”. “A related problem,
and one far more serious, is that links lead one to messages stating that the material
requested is “not found,” meaning probably that, the link, when created, was good, but
the document or directory is no longer on the Internet or has a different address.
Sometimes this difficulty can be overcome by using a search engine to do a title search,
sometimes not”. 49
Fundamentals of A historian must keep in view that Internet is an additional resource beside the libraries.
Research At present, only few sources of information of interest to a library historian are available
on the Internet. But increasingly more sources are becoming available, thanks to
digitization projects undertaken by various agencies including libraries as well as
individuals. A great benefit of Internet is that it provides tons of information and also
guidelines about how to carry out historical research effectively and efficiently.
2.8 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

According to Busha and Harter, “application of scientific method to the conduct of
inquiry is not limited to experimental and survey research. The scientific approach can
also be used in historical inquiries. History is both a science and an art. Good historians
make use of scientific methods when they collect, verify, and analyze information; the
art of writing creative and interesting prose for historical narrative reports complements
the scientific approach.” (1980, p.91). They further point out that some historians believe
that scientific method can not be applied to historical research due to lack of “ rigorous
analytical precision and precise explanations” (1980, p.91). A similar view has been put
forward by Powell, who mentions, “ a number of researchers, including some historians,
have argued that historical research cannot be considered true scientific research because
it does not permit enough precision and objectivity.” (1991, p.137).
This is not exactly true. The fact of the matter is that it is difficult to apply it. It does not
have the rigour of research methods like experimental and survey methods as it is not
able to meet the standards of enquiry laid down in other methods. Historical research is
ex post facto in its nature and usually; historical events are complex phenomena, where
it becomes difficult to arrive at conclusions that can meet high level of confidence.
There are others who argue that historical research can meet the same standards of
inquiry as do other methods (Mouly, 1978, p.157) A good historian always tries to
adapt scientific approach to the best of his ability. He uses scientific method of inquiry at
different stages of research process, such as, formulation and testing of hypothesis,
collection, analysis, interpretation and synthesis of data, writing of the narrative. He
adopts systematic approach at all stages. Systematic (that is systematic way or approach)
is the key word in his investigation of the historical event of his concern. These are the
distinguishing features of true historical research. However, there is no doubt that in
spite of its limitations, historical research has made an important contribution in the field
of library and information science. Historical knowledge has helped in the advancement
of this area of study.
Self Check Exercise
5) Describe the process of data synthesis in historical research.
6) Why is scientific method difficult to apply in historical research?
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50
Historical Research
2.9 PROBLEMS
Data
Amount of Data: Often, it is difficult to decide as to how much data is sufficient to
reach meaningful conclusions.
Selection of Data: A historian must avoid improper or faulty selection of data. This
may happen due to relying too heavily on some data, ignoring some data, etc. This can
result in a bias in the study.
Evaluation of Historical Data and their Sources: Inadequate evaluation of data and
their sources, can lead to misleading results.
Synthesis of Data into a Narrative Account: Due to the very nature of historical
research, it becomes most fruitful, if a researcher is able to successfully synthesize or
integrate the facts into meaningful generalizations. Thus, a failure on the part of a researcher
to interpret data adequately is considered a serious setback.
There are four problems at the stage of synthesis and in report preparation as given
below:
1) Trying to infer causation from correlated events is the first problem. Just because
two events occurred together does not necessarily mean that one event was the
cause of the other.
2) A second problem is defining and interpreting key words so as to avoid ambiguity
and to insure that they have the correct connotation.
3) A third problem is differentiating between evidence indicating how people should
behave and how they in fact did behave.
4) A fourth problem is maintaining a distinction between intent and consequences. In
other words, educational historians must make sure that the consequences that
were observed from some activity or policy were the intended consequences.
(Johnson lectures, chap 12, p.8)
Historical synthesis and interpretation are considered an art, which is subjective in nature.
This raises a serious problem of subjectivity. “Historical synthesis is necessarily a highly
subjective art. It involves the intuitive perception of patterns and relationships in the
complex web of events, as well as the art of narrative writing. Explanations and judgments
may be called for that will involve the historian’s own personality, experience, assumptions,
and moral values. Inevitably there are personal differences among historians in this
respect, and prolonged academic disputes among historians of different schools or
nationalities have arisen over practically every event. The initial reduction of complex
events of the recent past to comprehensible pattern is particularly difficult and
subjective…” (Daniels, 1996, p.228). Since the very process of writing a narrative is a
human one, therefore, total objectivity is almost impossible. As a consequence, bias,
distorting of facts to fit preconceivesd notions or ideas are not unusual. It may also be
kept in mind that historical conclusions are conditioned by place, time and as to who is
the author. In order to overcome, some of these inherent weaknesses, the writer must
clearly indicate, the underlying assumptions in his approach. In case, he belongs to a
particular school of thought, the same must be stated clearly.
Sources
Heavy Use of Secondary Sources of Information: In case of research into events that
occurred in a period earlier than the recent ones, a researcher often has to depend
heavily on secondary sources due to lack of primary sources. 51
Fundamentals of Broad Area or Problem
Research
Broad Problem: In case one is concerned with a broad area of study or problem, then
very often the historical issues involved become too complex to study.
Presentation
Style: The writing style should be attractive and also aim to inform the reader. This is not
an easy task.
Scholarship: It should make a significant contribution to new knowledge and reflect
scholarship.
2.10 SUMMARY
True historical research employs application of scientific research at all stages of the
research process including formulation and testing of hypothesis (es), collection, analysis,
interpretation and synthesis of data and writing of the narrative. Systematic (that is
systematic way) is the key word used at all steps. Thus, historical conclusions arrived at
by the historian can rightly claim to have logical validity that is somewhat comparable
to those in other social sciences. However, true historical research must be
distinguished from chronology or just description of events. These merely constitute
steps in the research process. It is to be noted that, it is the application of scientific
research that distinguishes true historical research from mere chronology or just
description of events.
A good historian always tries to adapt scientific approach to the best of his ability
One must admit that there are certain limitations of historical research. These include
ex-post facto nature of historical research, where the historian works from available
evidence back to the event, complexity of the phenomenon being investigated, problems
in studying causality within a relationship of factors involved and impossibility of replicating
the past events. Besides, historical research is a highly subjective art. The process of
writing a meaningful narrative is a human one, where total objectivity can never be
achieved. There is always a possibility of a researcher bias, leading to distortion or
suppressing of facts to serve preconceived notions, affecting the objectivity of the
conclusions. Thus, it becomes difficult to arrive at conclusions with any high degree of
confidence.
The job of a historian is quite difficult. Often, he has to deal with events, for which there
may be only very few primary sources of information. Thus, he is forced to rely more on
secondary sources. At times, the problem being investigated may be too broad, where
the environment for the historical event may be too complex, involving a large number
of factors or variables. In some studies, the data gathered by the researcher may be too
vast, requiring a great deal of sifting. This can be a big headache for him. Here deciding
what is relevant and what is not relevant can be really difficult.
There is no doubt that in spite of its limitations, historical research has made an important
contribution in the field of library and information science. Library history (historical
research done in library and information science) has grown as a separate area of study
generating its own literature. Those who specialize in this area are called library historians.
Library history is growing day by day. There are separate organizations to serve the
cause of library historians. IFLA (International Federation of Library Associations and
Institutions) has a separate section on Library History. American Library Association
52 has created Library History Round Table.
A good library history cannot be written without adequate sources of information. Library Historical Research
history not only lacks adequate records but those available in libraries are not always
easily accessible. Therefore, librarians must give a high priority to acquiring, organizing
and making them accessible. Through oral history projects, based on interviews of
leading library educators and librarians, records can be generated to serve the purpose.

1) Historical research is a study and analysis of the past events to predict the future.
It involves systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past
events. Merely collecting data related to the past events and presenting a
chronology is not historical research.
2) The purposes of historical research are:
• To reconstruct the past;
• To discover unknown events;
• To understand significance of events;
• To discover the context of an organization /movement/the situation;
• To find answers to questions about the past;
• To study cause – and effect relationship;
• To study relationship between the past and the present; and
• To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, institutions and
other kinds of organizations
• To provide understanding of the immediate phenomenon of concern
• To understand the cultural context of libraries
3) The steps involved in conducting historical research are:
• Identification of research topic and formulation of the research problem
• Collection of background information or contextual information about the
research topic
• Formulation of the questions to be answered or formulation of hypothesis
(es) (if appropriate) to explain causal relationships between historical variables
• Systematic collection of evidence or data or literature review
• Rigorous evaluation of historical resources (the authenticity of the resources
and validity of their contents)
• Interpretation
• Synthesis into a narrative account
4) A researcher does not prefer secondary to primary sources of information because
these report information concerning an event, object, or phenomena not directly
observed by the author/ compiler. As a result, the authority of these sources is less
compared to those of primary sources.
53
Fundamentals of 5) Data synthesis involves collecting, organizing, analyzing and presenting the data
Research systematically. It is important that the presentation is coherent. Therefore the
researcher should plan the presentation regarding how the topics have to be
sequenced from general to specific. There should be adequate diagrams supporting
the narrative.
6) It is difficult to apply scientific method to historical research due to lack of precision
and objectivity. Historical method of research lacks the rigour of survey and
experimental methods. It is post- facto in nature handling complex phenomena
where it becomes difficult to apply scientific method.
2.12 KEYWORDS
Historical Research : Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data
relating to past events concerning causes, effects or
trends of those events to explain present events and
predict future events
Library History : Historical research conducted in the field of library and
information science

Busha, Charles H. and Harter, Stephen P. (1980). Research Methods in Librarianship.
New York: Academic Press.
Daniels, Robert V. (1996). History. In Encyclopedia Americana. Vol 14. Danbury,
Connecticut: Grolier.
Gay, L. R. (1981). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and
Application. 2nd ed. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
Goldhor, Herbert (1972). An Introduction to Scientific Research in Librarianship.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library Science.
Griffin, Roger A. (1999). Using the Internet as a Resource for Historical Research:
Prospects and Problems. (available at http://www.austin.cc.tx.us/history/
inres00title.html) (accessed on Dec 10, 2004).
Harris, Michael H., (ed). Reader in American Library History. Washington, D.C.:
NCR Microcard Editions.
Hillway, Tyrus (1964). Introduction to Research. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Houghton,
Mifflin.
Isaac, Stephen and William B. Michael (1981). Handbook in Research and Evaluation,
2nd ed. San Diego: CA, Edits Publishers.
Johnson lectures, chapter 12 (available at http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/
johnson/lectures/ch12.PDF) (accessed on Dec 10, 2004).
Key, James P. (1997). Research Design in Occupational Education: Module R 11.
(available at www.okstate.edu/org) (accessed on Nov 26, 2004).
Losee, Robert M. and Worley, Karen A. (1993). Research and Evaluation for
Information Professionals. San Diego: Academic Press.
54
Mouly, George J. (1978). Educational Research: The Art and Science of Investigation. Historical Research
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Partner, Nancy F. (1997), History. In Collier’s Encyclopedia. New York: Collier’s.
Powell, Ronald R. (1991). Basic Research Methods for Librarians. 2nd ed. Norwood,
NJ: Ablex.
Shiflett, Orvin Lee (1984). Clio’s Claim: The Role of Historical Research in Library and
Information Science. Library Trends. 32(4), 385-406.
55
UNIT 3 SURVEY RESEARCH
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Library Survey
3.2 Data Collection

3.2.1 Sampling
3.3 How to Conduct a Survey
3.4 Problems
3.5 Instruments of Survey Research

3.5.1 Observation
3.5.2 Questionnaire
3.5.3 Telephonic Surveys
3.5.4 Electronic Surveys
3.6 Some Exercises for Survey Research
3.7 Summary
3.9 Keywords
3.0 OBJECTIVES
• define and understand the nature of survey research;
• identify situations where it is suited; and know the research areas which can be
answered by survey research;
• know the various techniques and instruments of survey research with advantages
and disadvantages of each; and
• prepare a survey research design.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A survey research is undertaken to study and describe the ground realities or current
state-of-the art of a situation, group of persons or institutions. The answers sought are
what, when and where by gathering the facts and verbal data. Descriptive surveys
pertain both to qualitative and quantitative research. It may also be used to collect huge
data to be used later for multiple purposes. Decennial census of India is one such
example. It requires collection of primary data from the whole field. It could also be
collection of data by a sample survey to solve a research problem, study relations
56 between two variables by statistical methods, or to provide scientifically collected
facts and figures to draw theory based conclusions. Trend started with long and vast Survey Research
social surveys to collect data for planning policies and actions.
3.1.1 Library Survey
A library survey is interpreted as a systematic collection of data concerning libraries,
their activities, operations, services, staff, use, and users at a given time or over a given
period. Surveys are by nature large, overviewing and spread over to a sizeable
population/subjects or area. For example, study of a circulation system of a library is
not a survey, but if extended to all the libraries of a whole city or region will by definition
constitute a survey. A survey of public libraries in Haryana is another such example.
In library and information management survey method has been quite popular due to
its suitability. It can be easily applied to many library procedures, services and use.
Surveys are simple, easy to conduct though time taking.
3.2 DATA COLLECTION

Survey basically involves data, facts or textual/verbal information or opinion gathering
by formal and systematic method. There are many techniques and instruments to do
so:
• by direct but stand aside observation.
• by observing as one of the participant of the activities.
• by making door to door survey or meeting individual informants for asking specific
questions.
This individual survey could be done by:
• by a formal and structured printed questionnaire.
• by telephone, or through email or website.
3.2.1 Sampling
Universe of entities is a set of whole gamut covering the whole field under study, e.g.:
University libraries in India; Post-graduate library users; A survey of reading habits of
non-working married women in Mumbai, etc. If the population under study is small or
manageable then the data should be collected of each item or entity under study. But
this is rarely the situation in a survey research. Sampling is required if the universe of
population under study is too large. A sample may be defined as a representative
subset or cross section of the population in miniature. It should homogeneously represent
the entire field. Validity of research results much depends upon the quality of the sample
drawn. There are scientific, logical or statistical techniques for formulating a sample.
Some of the techniques are common sense methods to ensure that the sample is
homogenous and a true and fair miniature of the entire population under study. If the
sample is biased or lopsided then the results cannot be trusted or generalised. It can be
formulated by the following two methods:
Probability Sampling
It is a random sampling which defines the chances of every element to be included in
the sample. For example, if we decide to include one entity out of every one thousand
then the chance of every entity to be included in the sample is 1/1000. For random
collection first of all the researchers will divide the whole population into groups of
1000 each as they occur in the natural state. Then from each group the researcher may
pick up, say, every 5th member or for that say ever 20th member. This is random
57
Fundamentals of sampling, and sample-formed will be a correct one. But still some error, technically
Research known as “Margin of Error”, cannot be avoided. It can be calculated statistically and
accounted for in the results.
Non-Probability Sampling
It is a non-structured sample and items are included in the study due to some convenience
of the researcher, or as the researcher simply stumbles upon them. This sampling is
convenient, takes less time and is handy. But it may be lopsided, loaded with biases,
and has higher margin of error. Sampling is discussed in detail in Unit 6, Measurement
of Variables.
Self Check Exercise
1) What is a library survey?
2) Discuss the purpose of a library survey.
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3.3 HOW TO CONDUCT A SURVEY

To begin with, the problem must be clearly and strictly formulated by defining its inclusion
and exclusion parameters. The geographical area or conceptual constituency of the
survey must be focused. Research question should be clearly defined.
• Target population should be demarcated and must be accessible in case of human
beings, and measurable in other cases.
• Types of scales and instruments to be used and mode of survey should be
determined depending upon the kind of study and nature of population.
• Questionnaire should be carefully prepared and pretested on a small population.
• Respondents should be approached with due tact, courtesy, humility, and should
be fully explained the aim and purpose of research. No embarrassing questions
should be asked. Give them free hand to answer pre-set questions.
• In case of verbal answers or interviews the information should be faithfully recorded,
howsoever contrary it may be to the researcher’s wishes or expectations. Views
of the respondents must be respected. Accept the opinions of others in too.
Researcher should be neutral, detached or disinterested in the outcome of the
research.
• Respondents must be thanked for the cooperation and valuable time they gave.
3.4 PROBLEMS
Survey research though easy to design is difficult to conduct due to many factors ranging
from non-cooperation, no-response to deliberate wrong information. Some of these
are explained below.
58
Non-cooperation Survey Research
Many persons are not interested in filling the questionnaire or giving time to the researcher
for a meeting or interview. It may be due to many personal or administrative reasons
due to:
• lack of time;
• lack of interest due to many such requests from all types of academic and
market researchers;
• fear of divulging such information which may not make the respondent or the
institution any proud of achievements; or
• a political, tactical or business necessity to not to reveal some information
asked for.
Getting information from the target population has become a matter of personal obligation.
Every survey researcher has a bagful of woeful tales to tell. Usually it requires lot of
patience, persuasion and skill to motivate the respondents to make them give the requested
information or opinions. Therefore, persons who are not very social or do not have
persistent attitude even in face of humiliation are not very suitable for this kind of research.
Outsourcing data collection
If it is vast field to be surveyed then some commercial but professional agency may be
employed to collect data on your behalf. This is called outsourcing data. But it has its
own problems.
• Data collected may not be reliable even could be cooked.
• You are deprived of the experience of ground realities. In the field apart from
collecting raw data the researcher self experiences and learns many more extraneous
realities that helps him/her to see the problems in many unimagined perspectives.
Personally meeting and talking to the respondents is an invaluable experience. It
may even change attitude and pre-conceived notions of the researcher.
Low response rate
Apart from delays, excuses, despite many reminders it is always time taking to get and
collect data. Often the researchers have to advance deadlines – as these are not met.
Return or response rate may be low. It has obvious negative impact on the validity of
the research findings. Forty percent return rate is sufficient, though not high.
Deliberate wrong information
Most of the respondents usually do not give true and frank information. This could be
on two accounts:
• Question put may be ambiguous or wrongly interpreted by the respondents. For
example, to the question “Is your library automated”, many librarians says “yes”
even if their computer is being used for clerical purpose only. As another example,
many librarians answer it in affirmative that they provide “CAS” services, when in
reality they publish a list of new arrivals. Wrong answer may be deliberate though
appearing innocent.
• It is a natural human weakness or tendency to show only the ideal or bright side of
one self. Many university teachers do not visit the library regularly, but when asked
they answer that visit is “often”. Some may be more diplomatic. Some may even
lie blatantly. They seem to say proverbially “Ask me no questions, I will tell you no
lies”. It requires a very aware, experienced and mature person to dig out the
realities from such wrong or ambiguous answers. 59
Fundamentals of Unclear answer
Research
If the question is open ended then human beings have the habit of answering in an
ambiguous way – which may have double meaning. Qualitative answers are always a
source of ambiguous results.
Cooked up data
Official record is often manipulated or cooked up. It is to show high performance than
the actual one. Performance is sexed up, they say. For example a library under theat of
closure due to low readership may fabricate data and manipulate to show more number
of users than the real numbers. When officials manipulate record for the media, authorities
or the researchers, the researcher using this data uncretically or unchallenged will not
reach the right conclusions. Results will be far from reality. Making practical use of such
findings will be harmful. However, questioning or cross verification may somewhat correct
the situation – one should not be pessimistic about the false or half answers. You need
to be alert.
Self Check Exercise
3) List the steps involved in data collection.
4) Enumerate the problems of survey research regarding data.
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3.5 INSTRUMENTS OF SURVEY RESEARCH

As said in section 3.2, core work in a survey research is data collection by direct
method. Data should be primary and obtained by direct observation or from original
and reliable sources. For this major methods are:
• Observation
• Interview
• Questionnaire or
• Any combination of these.
These jobs may be done by manual methods, or electronic instruments may be used.
For example, we may use cameras or tape recorders openly or hiddenly; questionnaires
may be served personally or through email or website.
Observation: Every mode of data collection in a survey research reduces to observation.
It is the most obvious and reliable method of data collection. This again can be divided
into two categorie
3.5.1 Observation
In this method the researcher observes an activity and notes down the information/data
standing from a close distance. This could be done again in two ways:
a) by informing the informants.
60 b) in a hidden or secret way.
The observer could use notebooks, pre-designed proformas cameras or tape recorders Survey Research
in both the cases. First category is an easy method and the people under observation
are cooperative, even sometime enthusiastic. But problem is that people are not really
natural when being observed. Their behaviour could be a self distorted or manipulated
for good or bad. People are not natural when conscious of being observed by outsiders.
To avoid the above situation the observer may observe the participants in a secret
manner without their information. To some extent it is possible. For example, you may
sit in a corner of a library and see what reference sources the library users consult or
how they use the catalogue. It also involves, in some cases, the question of ethics and
legality. Also distant observation may not be correct.
Participant observer
To avoid the above problem of unnatural behaviour or ethical question the researcher
may become a member of the group under observation. This method is useful when
observations required are multiple, minute and for a long time. This method has worked
wonders in anthropological studies when the researchers have actually joined and
lived with a commune as an ordinary member sharing their routine tasks, joys and
sorrows. This method has given birth to many classic studies. But this method is
applicable in limited fields of social, cultural and anthropological studies.
3.5.2 Questionnaire
It is a traditional and all pervasive instrument to collect and record data. It is structured
and formally written list of questions to be put to the respondents en mass. It is easy
and handy, and can be administrated in many ways depending upon the convenience
of the researcher and respondent.
Qualities of a Questionnaire:
To facilitate response it should have the following qualities:
• Questions whether close or open ended, should be brief, clear, and to the point.
• Irrelevant or unnecessary questions which may irritate the respondent, or may
not be of any relevance to your research should be avoided.
• Questionnaire should not be too lengthy. Return rate of lengthy questionnaire is
low; and respondents always take more time in filling them. Length repels the
respondents.
• Anonymity should be promised and honoured, if desired by the respondent. They
should also be assured that information will not be used for any other purpose
than the declared one.
• Copy of the research results/report should be promised to the respondents, if
asked for.
3.5.3 Telephonic Surveys
Now a days due to fast and cheaper telecommunication services telephones are being
increasingly used to get data and opinions for social surveys form the willing respondents.
These are ultimately economic in terms of time and money. If the field of survey is vast
and respondents are scattered geographically or live in remote or inaccessible areas,
then the telephone has hardly any substitute.
Advantages
• It is interactive, and not frozen like a printed questionnaire.
• Clarifications can be sought and given in case a question is not clear. 61
Fundamentals of • Many people prefer to speakout than give something in writing.
Research
• Interviews can be conducted at a mutually convenient time.
• Response rate is high.
Problems
There cannot be detailed discussions, as in a face-to-face meeting. These have to be
concise. There is no check if later the respondent denies having said so. For the latter
problem telephonic conversation may also be tape-recorded.
3.5.4 Electronic Surveys
New technology affords to solve problems of conventional instruments of survey
research. The Internet and emails have advantages of both the conventional (print) and
telephonic surveys. It is still more economic. Above all these can be interactive; detailed
and yet very economic. As said earlier the answered data may be easily downloaded
into a data process software package (say in SPSS) and processed directly. Even
otherwise electronic data is easily collected, classified without any clerical errors in
transferring data and information.
Advantages and limitations: Due to convenience both for the researchers and the
respondents web-based surveys are getting popular. These almost cost nothing and
can be answered by the respondents at any convenient time. Whereas in case of
telephone the time should be convenient to both the researcher and the information.
There can be mass or bulk emailing of a questionnaire. These are extremely economic
and convenient.
Digital divide comes in the way of the use of email or web-web based surveys. Older
generation or laypersons have difficulty using the Internet or have no access to it even
in advanced countries. Digital divide is wide and deep. Email ids of the respondents
may be difficult to procure, as no such directories are available. This problem, however,
can be solved with the help of newsgroup, or list serves – this is a group of professionals
sharing a common interest and interacting primarily through emails.
Self Check Exercise
5) Discuss the advantages of electronic surveys.
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3.6 SOME EXERCISES FOR SURVEY RESEARCH

Survey research does not require any laboratory or high setting. If it is small and local,
it may not even cost anything to the researcher. For the students following research
exercises are suggested:
Make a survey of the buildings of the government secondary school libraries of your
62 town.
Prepare a survey report of the reading habits of children upto 18 years where one of Survey Research
the parent is graduate at least.
Make a survey of the information needs and sources of male villagers engaged in
modern farming.
Study the use of non-book print literature by mathematics scholar in a university.
Make a survey of the circulation methods of books and other documents in special
libraries in Delhi.
Similarly, there can be many other such topics that may strike you while reading this
unit, and other related literature. However, work experience is the best and reliable
source for research problems.
3.7 SUMMARY
Most of the research in social sciences is a survey research. Results of social surveys
have amply demonstrated the validity of scientific method of research to study social
problems. Survey research mostly implies inductive logic for results and conclusions.
This can also be used to study the relations between two variables. Survey data collection
may be complete in itself to be later used by other researchers, business decision
makers, planners, policy makers to take high decisions. For academic purpose, it is a
complete research process in itself. In library and information management most of the
on-going and past research has used survey method. For example, A survey of public
library services in Tamil Nadu, A survey of the information needs of soil scientists; A
survey of the use of IT in academic libraries in North India. Basic work in a survey
research is data collection by direct method. It can be carried out by observation of or
by participation in the event. Questionnaire is an all pervasive instrument. Telephonic
and electronic surveys are also handy tools to collect data or elicit opinions of the
population. Electronic data collection has an additional advantage of directly
downloading and processing the data in a computer. Questionnaire should be brief and
simple; and no too personal or irrelevant questions should be asked. Data should be
collected, classified, statistically processed to draw inferrences, as done in other methods
such as experimental or historical research. For social sciences computer package
SPSS (Software Package for Social Sciences) is available.

1) Library survey is the process of collecting information concerning the collection,
processes, services, staff or users of libraries. It is done in a systematic way using
standard techniques and tools.
2) The purpose of a library survey is to know and present such information about
libraries of certain types or in certain regions. It helps in knowing the state of
development of libraries as well as to evaluate them for further improvement.
3) The steps involved in data collection are:
l Size and the nature of population must be clearly known;
l Deciding the sampling techniques to be used and the sample size;
l Deciding about the tools for data collection to be used;
l Selecting scales for measurement;
l Properly framing the questionnaire/ interview schedule taking care of the
validity and reliability;
63
Fundamentals of l Conducting a pilot survey and improving the questionnaire/ interview schedule
Research based on the feedback; and
l Administering the data collection tool to the population.
4) The problems of survey research regarding data are:
l Non- cooperation from respondents;
l Low response rate;
l Deliberate wrong information;
l Unclear answers; and
l Cooked up data provided by respondents.
5) Electronic surveys are useful in that they are economic. Any number of
questionnaires can be mailed. The analysis is also simple as it saves on coding,
tabulation and further testing of data.
3.9 KEYWORDS
Inductive Reasoning : Logical reasoning based on long drawn facts and
observations. Sun will rise from the east tommorrow
is inductive reasoning.
Informant : A person part of the population under study, who gives
information or opinion to the researchers.
Margin of Error : Degree of deviation of sample from being a true
representative of a population drawn by random
sampling. In practice 0.5% Margin of Error is
acceptable or normal. It means the sample is 95%
approximation of the whole population.
Questionnaire : A formal and structured list of questions prepared by
the researcher to be asked.
Random Sample : A sample drawn by probability technique in which
every element of population has equal and independent
chance of inclusion in the sample.
Sample : A formulated subset of population to represent in
miniature the whole population to be researched.
Survey Research : It is a type of descriptive research to study a particular
situation, or setting, to know its whole state of the art
condition or any particular aspect to answer what,
where when and who types of questions. Some times
a huge databank creation is the only immediate motive
of survey research. In social sciences it is the most
popular method.
Validity : It means either accuracy of observation and
measurement; and the correctness of generalization of
research results for other situations.
64
Survey Research
Krishan Kumar: Research Methods in Library and Information Science, New Delhi:
Vikas, 1992. Pp. 39-51.
Kumar, P.S.G. Research Methods and Statistical Techniques Delhi: B.R. Publishing,
2004. Pp. 243-248.
Sharma, Pandey S.K. University of Knowledge and Research Methodology. Delhi:
Ken Publication, 1990. Pp. 103-107.
Singh, S.P. Research Methods in Social Sciences : A Manual for Designing
Questionnaires. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers. Pp. 268.
Williamson, Kristy: Research Methods for Students and Profesionds: Information
Management Systems. Wagga Wagga, Australia: Centre for Information Studies,
Charles Sturt University, 2000. Pp. 71-92.
65
UNIT 4 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Experimentation
4.2.1 Concept and Definition
4.3 Hypothesis
4.4 Research Procedure
4.4.1 Sampling
4.4.2 Experimental and Control Groups
4.5 Example
4.6 Validity
4.6.1 Internal Validity
4.6.2 External Validity
4.7 Design of the Experiment

4.7.1 Randomisation
4.8 Another Example

4.9 Limitations of Experimental Method
4.10 Ethics of Research
4.11 Some Problems for Research
4.12 Summary
4.14 Keywords
4.0 OBJECTIVES
• define experimental research and explain key concepts associated with it, such as
variables, experimental group, cause-effect relation, validity;
• formulate a research design for experimental method and chalk out its various
stages, and know its various methods;
• data generation and collection, data analysis; interpolation and drawing inference
to prove, disprove or modify a hypothesis; and
• Identify situations where it is applicable in social sciences with special focus as

66 library and information sciences.
Experimental Research
4.1 INTRODUCTION
There was a time when research connoted only experimental research in a laboratory.
Indeed the first impression of a scientific method is somewhat laboratory work or trial.
Scientific method of research itself is synonymous with experimental work. Though
scientific method has wide range and includes many other methods such as survey, or
historical methods, but still many students and researchers confuse it with only the
experimental and laboratory methods.
Scientific method of research was first advanced by the English philosopher and statesman
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) in his book Novum Organum (1620). This consists in
direct and systematic observation, interpolation of facts and generalization to formulate
theories by deductive logic. His emphasis was on direct observation and verification
rather than to accept without questioning prevailing views of religion or secular (e.g. of
Aristotle) authorities.
4.2 EXPERIMENTATION
The literal meaning of experiment is to do sometime new or first time, to test something
or put something on trail. For example, a government may start a scheme on experimental
basis to know its viability. We do many things first on experimental basis to study their
effectiveness and defects.
But strictly speaking the experimental method is central to scientific method or positivist
approach to discovery of knowledge. It is to study cause-effect relation between two
entities (called variables) by direct observation and measurement. The cause - effect
relation can be studied under controlled conditions, so a laboratory provides an ideal
place for such studies. It is not to say that experimental work cannot be carried out
outside a laboratory in natural situations. For example, a chemist may work in a laboratory,
but an astronomer will have to observe natural and uncontrolled phenomena when it
occurs while sitting in his observatory.
4.2.1 Concept and Definition
Experimental method of research is employed to establish and quantify cause-effect
relationship between two known variables. Variable is an element, which is under study
in phenomena. Broadly speaking these is of two types: independent (casual) and
dependent (effected) variables.
Types of Experimental design: In fact there are three stages of experimental research
design:
• Pre-experimental design
• Quasi-experimental design
• True experimental design
Most appropriate type of research design depends upon the type of problem under
investigation; how much it is liable to be kept under control by the experimenter; and
whether the phenomena can be simulated or replicated with due authenticity.
In nutshell experimental method allows hypothesis formulation on the basis of long
observation and literature survey (inductive logic), and then to use deductive logic to
apply to particular instances.
67
Research
1) Define experimental method. Explain what do you understand by a variable.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
4.3 HYPOTHESIS
It is an informal or educated guess or a hunch on relation between two variables conceived
on the basis of sufficient knowledge of ground reality i.e. by some long observation of
a phenomena whether social or natural, i.e., by inductive logic.
Null Hypothesis
To empirically study correlation between two variables a null hypothesis is formed. A
null hypothesis is an assumption that no difference exists between two variables. In
other words there is no statistically difference between experimental and control groups.
Self Check Exercise
2) What is hypothesis? Describe null hypothesis.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
4.4 RESEARCH PROCEDURE

To study the co-relation between two variables in an observed phenomena, a sample is
formulated of the population/entities or situation under study.
4.4.1 Sampling
Sampling is necessary if the population under study is too large to be experimented
upon. A sample is a homogenous and representative of this population under study. It
has to be formed carefully by a statistical method. If the sample is not homogeneously
representative of this population with an error margin of 5%. It is an acceptable margin.
4.4.2 Experimental and Control Groups
The sample in divided into two randomly formed groups as follows:
Experimental Group
Group or entity which is exposed or treated to study and subsequently to measure
68 changes in the dependent variable.
Control Group Experimental Research
It is a similar group which is left in natural condition. It is not given any treatment or
exposure. Changes in the experimental group are compared and contrasted with the
static or controlled group. Diagrammatically we can put it as:
Factors
Constants Unknowns Variables
Independent Moulding Dependent
Fig. 4.1: Factors affecting Research
4.5 EXAMPLE
Let us take the example “Impact of weather on the use of the traditional (print) library”.
In this case weather is the independent variable, and library use is a dependent variable.
Null hypothesis is “weather has no effect on the library use”. Independent variable is
weather as it cannot be manipulated but the researcher chooses the days with varying
weather conditions. Equal number of normal weather days is taken to form a control
group. Number of users is dependent variable. Dependent variable is the factor that is
effected and measured to draw inference.
There may be unknown variables, which may effect the dependent variables. This hidden
or intervening element is not measured but does effect the dependent variable. That is
to say in real situation and complex phenomena there cannot be one to one relation. In
our case it could be a day of a festival or some other attractive event in the town where
people are likely to throng and thus may cause a low attendance on the library. Thus
varying weather conditions may not be all which account for the variation in the number
of library users. In a laboratory setting or controlled condition these is high possibility of
minimizing this confounding or intervening variable. In natural setting it cannot be
controlled. In our case due care will have to be taken to eliminate this variable and
select the days of otherwise having equal chances of being visited by the users.
4.6 VALIDITY
Literally it refers to logical soundness and consequent acceptability of an entity or
research results. In experimental research it is of two types:
4.6.1 Internal Validity
It refers to the accuracy of observation and measurement of the dependent variable
only under the impact of independent variable. Internal validity is high when all the
confounding variables are identified and kept under control. Laboratory research is
high in internal validity as the independent variables can be controlled effectively while
changes in the dependent variable can be measured minutely; and intervening variables
can be kept under check.
4.6.2 External Validity
It refers to use generalisability of the results i.e. the degree of their universality. Laboratory
experiments are low in external validity whereas field experiments are high in external
validity. 69
Research
3) Define validity. What are its different types?
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
4.7 DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT

In any experimental research the independent variable is divided into two groups refer
back to the example “on the impact of the weather on the use of library” as given in
section 4.6.
This observation or experiment may be repeated on different days to collect more data.
O1 and O2 are number of visitors on these days.
Users on Normal
R Weather days O1
Users on Normal
Weather days O2
4.7.1 Randomisation
It refers to the sample selection as a pure chance. As a necessary precondition, both
the good and bad weather days should be selected randomly to ensure that both these
days should be selected and otherwise are at equal footing to attract users. It is to
provide level ground to both the groups i.e. experimental and control.
The whole population or the sample is divided into two equivalent groups to study the
difference in the conditions of the two equivalent groups: that is one put to experiment
and the other control group left free or in natural state.
To get valid results the experiment may be repeated with different groups (in our case
different libraries of the city or in different cities), or on different days in a same library.
This will ensure better external validity of results. For each experiment observations are
recorded and compared; and inference is drawn of the relation between cause (weather
condition) and effect (number of users). This way causal relation between two vari-
ables can be studied. Statistical tests are applied to results, and conclusions are drawn
regarding the effect of bad weather on the number of users visiting the library. To make
the results generalizable we should have more than one experimental groups and, con-
trol group or we can have repeated or different control groups as follows:
X1 O1
R X2 O2
X3 O3
70 Not-X O4
Bad X1 Experimental Research
Bad X2
Bad X3
Normal weather Not-XI
Normal weather Not-X2
Normal weather Not-X3
In this case bad weather days should be of equally bad weather.
4.8 ANOTHER EXAMPLE

In library situation we can study the comparative retrieval power of different classification
systems say CC and DDC as applied to a given collection, say sociology. In this case
we will classify this collection both by CC and DDC and will try retrieving documents
on randomly selected topics of sociology. Retrieval is dependent variable while
classifications are independent variables. Hidden variable may be the efficiency of the
classifier in correct classification of documents.
4.9 LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

An experiment conducted in a laboratory under artificial conditions may not truly represent
a situation. It is too simplistic to consider that there are only two variables. In natural
sciences it works where other variables can be kept under control. In behavioural or
social sciences the situation is too complex as best put by John W. Best (p. 92).
Despite its appealing simplicity and apparent logic, it did not provide an adequate method
for studying complex problem. It assumed a highly artificial and restricted relationship
between single variables. Rarely, if ever, are human events the result of single causes.
They are usually the result of the interaction of many variables, and an attempt to limit
variables so that one can be isolated and observed proves impossible.
Hence, there are many limitations and suppositions when applied to social situations
including library and information management. Human beings cannot be put to
experimentation on many psychological and ethical grounds. Human beings when under
a test or observation can easily manipulate their natural behaviour. They cannot be put
in test tubes and titrated like chemicals. Then a human being experimenter has naturally
inherent biases (likings and dislikings) when other humans are concerned. They tend to
take sides in heart of hearts. Hence observations and conclusions may not reflect the
objective reality.
4.10 ETHICS OF RESEARCH

A researcher has to observe some cautions, courtesies and moralities when human
beings and animals are under study:
• It is necessary to take prior permission from them when an individual human being
is under study. Purpose and aim of research must be further explained to them,
along with any risk factor involved.
71
Fundamentals of • Their right to privacy must be respected. Information collected from them should
Research be used only for the purpose of research. It must not be passed on to someone
else.
• Animals should not be subjected to any cruelty.
• As per his/her own conduct is involved, the researcher must not manipulate data to
prove some thing. Objectivity and selflessness must be above all. Data may be
made available to peers and reviewers, if under any suspicion or question.
Self Check Exercise

4) Enumerate the limitations of experimental method.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
4.11 SOME PROBLEMS FOR RESEARCH

You could do research on the following problems by experimental method in the area
of library and information management.
1) Investigate the relation between retrieval of information on the Internet and level
of IT training of the researchers.
2) Study the correlation between library orientation course and effective use of the
library.
In this case parameters of “effective library use” must be defined. To design this
research, make two groups of users formed randomly. One group may be given a
library orientation course of stipulated duration, and other group of freshers is not
subjected to any such training. Design a scale to measure effectiveness of the library
and see if there is any difference between the two groups.
4.12 SUMMARY
Experimental method of research is to study the correlation between two variables
under controlled conditions. It investigates how one variable (independent) effects the
other (dependent) variable. This is known as hypo-deductive method which is a classic
method of research. On the basis of some observation and literature survey a hypothesis
is formed. In testing the hypothesis under controlled conditions and observation of
data the thesis is supported or not supported i.e. decision are based probability rather
than certainty. However this method has limitations in social sciences as in such situations
there is a highly complex interplay of multiplicity of tangled variables. Two social variables
cannot be easily isolated and studied. Human biases cannot be avoided; nor humans
can be titrated like chemically in a lab. Emotions are always overriding and results can
72
be easily manipulated by the investigators.
A researcher has to observe some ethics. Objectivity of data collection and true Experimental Research
publication of results is foremost. If human beings are under study their prior and explicit
permission must be taken. No body should be intimidated, bribed or exploited to get
their consent. Animals should not be but to physical cruelty or mental harassment.
Sources of data must be made to others when asked or questioned.

1) Experimental method is central to scientific method or positivist approach to
discovery of knowledge. It is to study cause-effect relation between two entities
(called variables) by direct observation and measurement under controlled
conditions generally in a laboratory. It can also be carried out outside the laboratory
also.
2) A hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome,
a tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. Null
hypothesis states a relationship between two variables where there is no significant
difference between the experimental and control groups.
3) Literally it refers to logical soundness and consequent acceptability of an entity or
research results. In experimental research it is of two types viz. internal and external
validity. It refers to the accuracy of observation and measurement of the dependent
variable only under the impact of independent variable. Internal validity is high
when all the confounding variables are identified and kept under control. Laboratory
research is high in internal validity as the independent variables can be controlled
effectively while changes in the dependent variable can be measured minutely; and
intervening variables can be kept under check. It refers to use generalisability of
the results i.e. the degree of their universality. Laboratory experiments are low in
external validity whereas field experiments are high in external validity.
4) Limitations of experimental method are in creating a control group. This is
particularly true of social sciences where the population is human beings. Other
limitation lies in validity of the observations in social sciences as human beings may
not be observed exactly.
4.14 KEYWORDS
Control Group : Group/population/subjects not exposed to any treatment.
It also forms independent variable.
Experimental Group : Group of population/subjects exposed to treatment and
observation to measure the change. It is dependent vari-
able.
Empirical Knowledge : Knowledge based on objective observation and experi-
ence as contrasted from intuitive or authority centered
knowledge.
Hypothesis : A statement, based on an informed guess, predicting rela-
tions between two or more variables. Every experimental
research starts with a hypothesis to prove or disprove it.
Randomisation : It is a statistical process of sample formation to ensure
natural and representative membership in a sample of the
whole population. Generalization of results depends much
upon the randomization. 73
Fundamentals of Sample : A representative population under study formed in case
Research the field of research is too vast to be studied wholly.
Validity : A measure of accuracy of results and their generalization
to other situations.

Best, John W. (1978). Research in Education. 3rd ed. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India. Pp. 1-17; 90-115.
Busha, Charles H. and Harter, Stephen P. (1980). Research Methods in Librarianship:
Techniques and Interpretation. Orlando, N.Y.: Academic Press.
Goldhor, Herbert (1972). An Introduction to Scientific Research in Librarianship.
Urbana Champaign, IL : University of Illinois Graduate School Library Science.
Gorman, G.E. and Clayton, Peter (1997). Qualitative Research for Information
Professionals: A Practical Handbook. London: Library Association Publishing.
Krishan, Kumar (1992). Research Methods in Library and Information Science.
New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
Lynch, Mary Jo (ed.) (1990). Academic Libraries: Research Perspectives. Chicago:
ALA.
McClure, Charles R. and Harnon Peter (1991). Library and Information Science
Research: Perspectives and Strategies for Improvement. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex
Publishing.
Sharma, Pandey S.K. (1990). Universe of Knowledge and Research Methodology.
Delhi: Ken Publications.
William, Kristy (2000). Research Methods for Students and Professionals.
Information Management System. Wagga, NSW, Australia; Charles Strut University.
74
UNIT 5 FUNDAMENTAL, APPLIED AND
ACTION RESEARCH
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Scientific Method
5.3 S. R. Ranganathan’s Spiral of Scientific Method
5.3.1 Structure of the Spiral
5.3.2 Working of the Spiral
5.4 Types of Research

5.4.1 Basic Research
5.4.2 Applied Research
5.4.3 Action Research
5.5 Approaches to Research

5.5.1 Descriptive Research
5.5.2 Comparative Research
5.5.3 Exploratory Research
5.5.4 Diagnostic Research
5.5.5 Social Research
5.6 Summary
5.8 Keywords
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will know:
• the essentials of scientific methods of research;
• theory, terminology and working of the spiral of scientific method as proposed by
S.R. Ranganathan;
• about the two main streams of research: basic and applied research;
• the definition, purpose and technique of action research;
• what is social (survey) research and what is its importance; and
• different approaches to some research methods, namely, descriptive, comparative,
exploratory and diagnostic.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This is a composite Unit to cover and explain different aspects and methods of research.
These are some assorted topics not necessarily having any common thread running
through them. Some methods, such as spiral of scientific method are purely theoretical
while others such as action research come from other fields but have the possibility of
their applications to library and information systems. 75
Fundamentals of
Research 5.2 SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The term seems misleading as every objective and verifiable method to discover new
knowledge is always scientific in nature. Any new knowledge is valid only if it is
discovered by scientific method. Commonly it means the methods used by the (pure
and applied) scientists in their research, laboratory work and writings. Essentially any
method of objective research, which attempts to investigate cause-effect relations
between two entities, is scientific one. Research methodology, if it does not use the
scientific method is not research at all. It means the other methods of research namely,
survey, descriptive, case study, historical and of course the experimental method, are
essentially scientific methods. Methods of research in social sciences and humanities
are also scientific. Commonsense but rational approach used by a layperson in solving
day-to-day problems is research. This could be best-applied scientific method to life
and society. That is why it is rightly said by a philosopher that every man is a scientist.
A crime investigator getting clues from the crime sites coupled with circumstantial evidence
can easily reach the criminals. So a systematically and rigorously organised objective
method of observation and co-relation of cause-effect between two entities is a scientific
method. It is a standardised procedure for generalisation of data to formulate theories
or to solve a problem.
Steps in Scientific Method
• Identification and formulation of the problem based on preliminary observations
or data; or by doing an exhaustive literature survey on a topic.
• Formation of hypothesis, which requires lot of imagination and fertility of mind. (If
it is a status or descriptive research then there is no need of any hypothesis).
• Collection of data, information or verbal opinions by any means (described in
survey research)
• Collation, tabulation and classification of data and drawing of inferences in light of
the general theory.
• Generalisation of facts and testing of hypothesis, and formulation of a further theory.
Objectivity or verifiability of the data or method is the rule of the game. Everything is
transparent and open to questioning. The aim is to discover or create new knowledge,
or to correct the existing facts or theories; or to generate a theory of cause-effect
relation between two variables. Research may also be undertaken to generate information
for decision making or solving a local problem. It may be warned that on the surface
research, which seems a mechanical and straight process, in reality is complex,
complicated and confusing requiring lot of hard work and ingenuity.
5.3 S. R. RANGANATHAN’S SPIRAL OF

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
To demonstrate that librarianship is a science S.R. Ranganathan (1892-1972) in the
second edition of his classic Five laws of library science (1957) added a chapter
entitled “Spiral of Scientific Method” to silence or convince the skeptics of the scientific
nature of library science discipline. It is an overview and visual presentation of the
method of science, which he says, moves like a spiral. That is it moves clockwise in a
circle yet keeps moving onto new places. It means science is always progressive scaling
new heights and discovering new knowledge. It accounts for the continuous growth of
76 knowledge.
5.3.1 Structure of the Spiral Fundamental, Applied
and Action Research
To show each sequential step and their movement the spiral is divided into four
quadrants by two lines perpendicular to each other intersecting at the centre. This also
results in four cardinal points.
II
A D
Fig. 5.1: Spiral of Scientific Method
• The spiral moves forward in clockwise direction.

• Lowest end of the vertical line is called nadir – literally means the lowest point.
• Upper end of the vertical line is called Zenith –the highest point.
• Left end of the horizontal line is called Ascendency i.e., going upwards.
• Right end of the horizontal line is called descendent – means going downwards.
Four sections thus formed by the interesting lines are called quadrants. First quadrant
is on lower-left side (i.e. South-West). Moving clockwise this way the fourth quardrant
is on the lower-right (i.e. South-East).
5.3.2 Working of the Spiral
At the nadir is the problem to be solved. In this first quadrant (called empirical phase)
data is collected empirically and the problem may be refined further. Data may be
collected by any means described in section 3.2 of the unit on descriptive research. In
experimental method the data is collected by means of many meters, scopes and other
instruments. Data may be qualitative or quantitative. In the second quadrant (called
hypothesis phase) the data is collected, tabulated, classified and analysed. It is known
as data processing. From the analysed data cause-effect inferences are drawn or state-
of-the-art i.e. ground situation is assessed. Here hypothesis is drawn by using inductive
logic and intuition. In the third quadrant (called deductive phase) laws are deduced with
the help of deductive logic. The fourth quadrant is also known as the verification phase.
Here the laws formulated in the third quadrant are tested and verified; and further some
higher generalisation may be drawn. Statistical techniques may be used for verification
and to support or disprove the hypothesis. Chart from Pandey S.K. Sharma is
reproduced with certain modifications: 77
Fundamentals of Table 5.1: Ranganathan’s Spiral (Source: Sharma, 1990)
Research
Quadrant Span/Situation Phase of Research Method/Tool
I N –A Empirical Experience and ob
South-West servation/
literature survey
II A-Z Hypothesizing Intitution & Imagi

North-West nation
III Z-D Deductive Intellection/ Logic/

North-East Statistics
IV D-N Verification Applications/ Math

South-East ematics
The spiral is not anyhow to do it method but a highly generalised and overview of the
research process as observed from a distance. This mostly pertains to research in a
major discipline rather than to any individual research problem. In actual practice there
cannot be clear dividing lines, as the researcher has to run to and fro many times during
the lengthy and mazy process. This however proves that scientific method is equally
applicable to social problems. This is to say that scientific method is objective transparent,
replicable to solve problems by discovering new information than any specific area of
application. Any knowledge discovered by this procedure is scientific. Librarians have
successfully applied this method to create library and information science as proved
by Pierce Butler in 1930s.
5.4 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Traditionally on the basis of immediate purpose research is of three types:
• Basic Research
• Applied Research
• Action Research
5.4.1 Basic Research
This is also known as pure, fundamental or even theoretical research. It is research for
knowledge sake; aim is new knowledge irrespective of any use at the moment of
discovery. There may not be any immediate need or application of the new knowledge
thus produced; nor it is conducted for any immediate gain or problem solving. It may
be done out of curiosity, or to build a theory. Greatest research experiments and
expeditions fall in this category of research. Why the man went to moon? In our field
the five laws of library science by S. R. Ranganathan were formulated as a theoretical
research. It is mostly conducted in academic and related research centres.
5.4.2 Applied Research
Research conducted to solve any immediate problem of theory or practice at hand is
known as applied research. It is of practical nature. Example are “Action research”
“Case Studies”, “Clinical Research”, “Research and Development”, popularly known
as R&D. Most of the research in industry, business, military and government departments
78 is of applied or practical nature. For example,
• To design a system to record the receipt of periodicals and to automatically Fundamental, Applied
send reminders when due for more than a month. and Action Research
• To diagnose the very low use of a certain collection in a library.

• To find solution to the decreasing space problems in libraries in 1960s.
Library and information management is a fertile field for applied research.
Pure versus Applied Research
Whatever be the motive or nature of research the demarcation between the two is
superficial, illusory and temporary, if at all it is there. History of science shows that no
fast line can be drawn between the two for a longer time. If knowledge is power as
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) said long ago, then all knowledge is utilitarian. Both the
basic and applied research employs the same methods and techniques.
Moreover experience has shown that only line between the two is of time. What today
seems purely theoretical having no direct use (thus dubbed useless by some) may find
many applications tomorrow. Look at the history of many discoveries and inventions.
X-ray’s discovery was accidental and had no use then; now its practical applications
are in thousands in every walk of life. Telephone and movies were invented not out of
any necessity but for curiosity, if not fun. Thomas Alva Edison could never have thought
that invention of moving pictures will bring a revolution to influence the society, and a
billion dollar film industry would be based on it. They are an integral part of our culture
now. Even the most basic laws such as Newton’s laws underpin all astronomical,
aeronautical and space expeditions and research. Every research from laboratory
ultimately reaches the industry later or sooner. At home we can say the same about the
five laws of library science. In the words of Professor Pauline Atherton (Cochrane)
these laws put knowledge to work. Every theory finds applications that is why it is
paradoxically said that the theory is the most applied knowledge just as every action
originates from the thinking in mind i.e. thought is the mother of all actions. Distinction is
also hazy in the sense there is always an interaction and alteration of theory and practice.
Many problems for theoretical research emerge from practical failures. Similarly a
practical research may generate a new theory or modify the existing one. Whatever be
its source knowledge is always utilitarian, ultimately.
Self Check Exercise
1) Define the features of scientific method of research.
2) Explain the movement of research enquiry in the spiral of scientific method.
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5.4.3 Action Research
Developed in 1930s in education, action research is a form of interpretive research to
study human actions and social practices with the participation of the researcher. It is
an applied research, which is focused on immediate application, not to develop any
theory for general applications. Emphasis is on a local problem, which involves the
researcher and takes the librarian to jointly seek and find a solution to a library problem.
For example, the problem could be as simple as “How to improve upon the existing 79
Fundamentals of circulation of periodicals among the research scientists in the research institution.” Its
Research purpose for our field may be to improve library management and use; and ultimately to
improve the skill of the librarian i.e. to change the ways to do things more effectively. It
requires identification of practices that need change to meet the needs of the changing
use pattern of libraries or meeting new demands of users and to take better decisions.
Simply speaking it is common sense and good management, and not any genuine research.
It is applied research whose aim is to provide practical benefits to the client. The
researcher is expected to do so methodologically, it is cyclic research to solve problems
and generate new knowledge simultaneously. Majola J.H. Oosthaizen gives the following
equation and diagram to show its nature:
Action research = Action + Research (knowledge generated). It is to bring out

progressive and incremental improvement in practice as it goes through different cycle
after cycle.
Characteristics: Action research is usually focussed on a single situation, say on a

single library:
• It is carried out in a series of cycles one improving upon the previous.
• It is mostly reflective and audit like or evaluative.
• It is concerned with real practice to examine if the practice needs change.
• In each cycle a hypothesis is proposed, tested and next action is planned.
• Method is refined in each cycle by using different method of observation and

interpretation.
• It involves many people such as informants, interpreters, planners, administrators

and researchers – the list is not exhaustive. Therefore, it also requires communication
skills and conflict management. Each cycle may use a different method. In such
case the action research may take the following form:
Action
→ →
Plan Result
→ →
Reflection
Fig. 5.1: The Cycle of Action Research
• It is like a heuristic method as the next action is based on the previous result. It is
not any series of pre-planned methods as it happens in other types of research
methods.
Techniques: Techniques used range from interviewing, Delphi, face to face

dialogue, dialectics, evaluation and feedback analysis. It is a shared vision. To
conclude, it is a methodology that is concerned with knowledge and improvement
of human action to develop theory and solution in a cyclic manner based on practical
experiences. There is no pre conceived plan or stable pattern as the next action
80 emerges from the previous one.
Fundamental, Applied
Self Check Exercise and Action Research
3) Define action research and the technique it employs.

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5.5 APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

Research approaches are research methods as distinguished from research techniques.
Methods are: Descriptive, Comparative, Exploratory, Diagnostic, Experimental and
Historical. These approaches to research are applicable in different situations depending
upon the problem. In some cases a combination of two or more approaches may be
used. In this section we will study the definition, nature techniques and application of
these methods especially in library and information field.
5.5.1 Descriptive Research
It is a sort of survey research at a given time to study, understand and report the status
of a current situation. In simple words it is concerned with answering the questions.
What, Who, When and Where.
It is to collect data by simple or common sense techniques then collate and tabulate it.
In a descriptive research hypothesis formation and testing may or may not be involved.
In library science in India most of the research is of descriptive type, e.g.:
• A survey of reference service in children libraries in Tamil Nadu.
• A survey of the reading habits of housewives in Dakshin Karnataka.
• A survey of the information needs of geo-scientists in CSIR laboratories.
Its techniques are direct observation and measurement, or through a questionnaire, or
interview. Its stages are:
1) Area of research is conceived broadly.
2) Literature research is done to know the work already done, problems being faced
and to concisely formulate the problem.
3) What is to be surveyed is clearly demarcated.
4) Data is collected, collated, tabulated, and inferred.
5) Conclusion is drawn, and reporting is done.
The method is not as simple or straight as it looks.
5.5.2 Comparative Research
In essence it is another survey type of research describing two or more entities of the
same nature, which are compared and contrasted in terms of certain predefined
parameters. Motive may be to isolate best features and shortcomings of each entity 81
under comparison.
Fundamentals of
Research The ultimate aim is to compare, contrast and design an idea, system or plan having the
best available features after correcting the shortcoming of others. The comparison is
mostly descriptive.
For comparison the two entities must belong to the same class. For example, we can
make a comparative study of public libraries in two or more cities. Not much purpose
will be served by comparing a public with an academic or industrial library. It will be
absurd to compare classification with circulation.
Uses and Limitations: Comparative research is an applied research, which may lead
to improvement of the existing systems under comparison, and may help create a model
having best of both the worlds. Comparison leads to better understanding and acquaints
you of different models and perspectives. In social life it helps to increase tolerance of
other viewpoints or methods. Comparative religion has played a great role in social
peace and harmony. In our field S.R. Ranganathan’s classic Prolegomena to library
classification (1967) makes a comparative study of some library classifications to
propose an ideal theory of classification. Regarding limitations, it is often said that
comparison are odious. Every entity exists in different environment, and its features
may not work outside of that, no good drama could be created by comparing Bernard
show with Shakespeare or for that reason even with Kalidas.
Self Check Exercise
4) Define comparative research and its uses in society.
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5.5.3 Exploratory Research
Research cannot be done in one go as a single piece. Before a project is undertaken
finally, it is always wise to explore the possibility of its successful conclusion. In many
cases an idea or problem may initially strike as very interesting to pursue. But soon after
starting, the researcher may feel struck due to many reasons as mentioned below:
• dearth of literature and other guiding sources;
• lack of data; and
• serious problem in quantifying or measuring data.
In such situations the researcher simply gropes in the dark. Formally or informally viability
of the problem first conceived has to be explored. Exploration may be mental, silent or
visible. It is matter of commonsense otherwise researcher may be plunging in the dark,
and running the risk of wasting time and money. It is a safeguard against the future
failure and frustration.
Before the use of scientific method it is essential to make an exploratory study of the
situation. At this stage the researcher has absolute freedom to run his imagination wild,
unchecked and move seemingly aimlessly. It is then to follow some seemingly gainful
82 leads exercising ingenuity and some concrete evidence of leading the exploratory research
to some fruitful and tangible conclusion. Indeed, the researcher has to be very judicious. Fundamental, Applied
Apart from checking the viability, exploratory research provides more ideas, and and Action Research
alternative techniques. At that stage the problem may be modified. It thus helps to
make the problem more concrete, concise and formally worded to finalise and proceed
to the real investigation. That is why it is also known as formulative studies. It is to pave
the way, see what is there than to predict. A research investigation is a constant process
of reformation and alteration, a sort of heuristic approach, till one arrives at some
problem for pursuit.
Steps
It should undergo the following steps:
1) Preliminary review of literature;
2) Consulting colleagues and experts to make use of their experience and wisdom;
3) Let the problem brew or mature in mind for sometime;
4) Make some rudimentary studies by survey or experimental method and identify
the variables;
5) Cultivate only insights into the hypotheses; do not test them or prove them; and
6) Delimit the area, if required.
Such steps may help researchers to follow and discard many ideas and problems which
may not materialise in the long run. Negative power is a forceful aid to lead researchers
to the right problem. It is important to consider that it is an initial step in a long and
tedious research process. Exploratory research is simply to untangle and pave the way;
or to map the way for future safe and uninterrupted travel to reach the destination
without going astray or stumbling at roadblocks.
5.5.4 Diagnostic Research
It is a fact-finding aspect of clinical practice. It represents the most typical and simple
problem solving strategy. Its method includes screening to attain insights into the problem.
It consists of the following phases:
• Emergence and identification of the problem;
• Diagnosis of its roots and causes;
• Formulation of possible ways to treat the problem; and
• Suggesting a possible solution.
Data Collection: Diagnosis can yield data in four major ways:
1) Case history or interviews;
2) Clinical observation;
3) Informal testing; and
4) Formal standardised testing.
Case study/Interview: Here the purpose is to understand the life cycle of an individual
with focus on the problem and other life events that have influenced not only the individual
but the whole family and previous generation. The unit of study may be a person,
83
family, commune or an institution. Adequate data is required for clarifying, sorting and
resolving controversial issues.
Fundamentals of
Research It requires a skillful but sensitive interview to elicit maximum data without offending the
client.
Clinical Observation: It is observation of behavior by formal or informal methods.
Diagnostic tests provide a microscopic view of the component of some areas of
performance. Collected data is employed for causal thinking. By manipulating causes
we can vary dependent variables. This method is mostly applied in psychology and
other behavioural sciences. In library science it can be used to study the reading habits,
bibliotherapy, and user behaviour in the library.
5.5.5 Social Research

Social research or surveys are a kind of assessment and evaluation studies to gather
data from a large number of cases at a particular time. It is not concerned with individuals
as individual but as a part of a large whole. It is cross-sectional. Each statement in the
survey portrays a prevailing condition at a given time. These are large or wholesale in
nature; huge and vast in size. Purpose is to discover occurrence, distribution and
interrelationships of sociological, economic or attitudinal variables in a large segment of
population. The scope of surveys can be widened to include economic, religious,
anthropological or habitual; or to study the distribution of economic activities. In analysing
political, social or economic or consumer preferences or attitudes data is to draw a
picture of the conditions prevailing or emerging at that time. It requires expert and
careful planning, accurate analysis and imaginative interpretation of the huge mass of
data.
Social survey has been made since the beginning of the last century. For example,
Alfred Kinsey made two separate but comprehensive surveys of American male and
female sexual behaviour of 12,000 respondents each time. These two reports are still
considered classic surveys.
These surveys have now been extended to what are called opinion and exit polls to
predict the results of general elections. In many cases these surveys make remarkably
accurate prediction of the results. These have now also been extended to market and
consumer surveys. Business houses now make a survey of consumer preferences
regarding particular consumer goods before producing and launching them in the market.
Such a type of research has contributed significantly in understanding social attitudes,
preferences, traits opinions and composition of a community.
There is no reason these surveys cannot be extended to library surveys. Librarians
conduct (social) surveys of the information needs of a particular professional segment
of society. These include large-scale survey of libraries, their collection, client services,
and technical procedures.
Reading habits of people are a joint field for surveys by librarians, educationist, and
literacy experts.
Method
Social research can be conducted by personal interviews, door-to-door surveys, and
oral opinions or by mailed (electronic or postal) questionnaires. These are quite extensive
and expensive. Even a small error in sampling may lead to wrong results thus making a
negative impact. These require astute planning careful conducting, accurate processing
and imaginative interpretations. For this purpose, apart from the researchers you need
84 a very informed and aware population of respondents who understand the question
and their responsibility for correct answer. Fundamental, Applied
and Action Research
Self Check Exercise

5) Write brief notes on Diagnostic method of Research.
6) What are social surveys; how these can be applied to library studies?
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5.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we studied that scientific method is any objective, transparent and repeatable
method to discover new knowledge. Every research is essentially scientific. S.R.
Ranganathan’s spiral of scientific method is a visual picture of the four phases of research,
namely, Empirical (data collection) Hypothesising (Inductive logic), Deductive (Deduction
of laws) and Verification (Testing of results). Basic research is to discover laws or for
simply new addition to knowledge. Applied research is for immediate problem solving.
But ultimately distinction is temporary and not real. Every pure or basic research after
some time becomes practical. And quite often some theory or laws emerge from practical
or applied research. Action research is a sort of applied research to improve prevailing
practices. It is conducted jointly by the researcher and the practitioner. Descriptive
research is a survey and spatial description of an entity or situation. Comparative method
is again descriptive of two or more entities of similar nature to discover their similarities
and differences. Aim may be to produce a model. Exploratory research is a preliminary
or rudimentary work to gauge and study the viability and pre-test the successful
conclusion of research. Diagnostic research is mostly of clinical nature to find facts and
to know the root causes of a problem. Social research means longitudinal surveys of a
large social segment to study conditions, habits, preferences, attitudes and opinions.
Social research can contribute significantly in planning and policy making. It is also
useful for market surveys and opinion polls.

1) Scientific method of research is basic to any research. It implies that research
follows a systematic and organised approach to conducting research. Data
collection is done to establish relations between variables and explain the cause
and effect relation. It is further generalised to develop theories.
2) The Spiral of Scientific method is divided into four quadrants. The lowest point is
called nadir where lies the problem to be solved. In the first quadrant, data collection
is done followed by classification, tabulation and analysis of data in the second
quadrant. The cause- effect relations are established in the second quadrant and
85
hypotheses are drawn using inductive logic. In the third quadrant deductive logic is
Fundamentals of used to formulate laws. These laws are verified in the fourth quadrant and further
Research generalizations are done.
3) Action research is applied research done to immediately improve upon an existing
situation. Mathematically stated, action research = action + research (knowledge
generated). It is useful for libraries where research needs to be done to improve
upon the existing services for the benefit of users.
4) Comparative research is a survey research comparing two entities, phenomena,
or processes with a view two design and provides a new one having the best
features of the two compared. In social life, it helps to create an understanding of
different viewpoints. Comparative religion is one of the examples that have helped
to create an understanding and respect towards different religions.
5) Diagnostic research is a problem solving study involving pinpointing the reasons
for the problem and suggesting solutions for the same. The steps involved in it are:
1) Emergence and identification of the problem.
2) Diagnosis of its roots and causes.
3) Formulation of possible ways to treat the problem.
4) Suggesting a possible solution.
6) Social surveys are descriptive cross- sectional studies done to know the present
status of the different aspects of the society. These may cover sociological,
economic, political, religious, anthropological, or attitudinal aspects. These may
be done in libraries also to present, and evaluate the status of libraries. It may be
with regard to the collection, services, staff, or users, etc.
5.8 KEYWORDS
Action Research : A type of practical and collaborative research to
improve a method of practice.
Applied Research : Distinguished from basic or pure research, any
research undertaken to solve immediate or practical
problems.
Basic Research : Distinguished from applied research, any research
undertaken purely for sake of knowledge without
any immediate gain or use.
Comparative Research : A type of descriptive research to compare two or
more similar entities to highlight similarities and
differences. Ultimate utility may be to prepare a
model with best features.
Data Processing : The act of collating, tabulating, classifying and drawing
inferences from the gathered data.
Descriptive Research : A spatial survey of an entity or a family of entities to
study the existing status and state-of-the art.
Diagnostic Research : A type of clinical method to investigate the root causes
of a problem.
86
Exploratory Research : A rudimentary or preliminary work to study the
viability of the research problem for its successful
completion and useful results. Fundamental, Applied
and Action Research
Nadir : The lowest point on the spiral of scientific method

where the problem for research is identified and
formally formulated.
Quadrant : One of the four equal sectors or areas into which
the spiral of scientific method is divided. There are
in all four quadrants produced by two intersecting
lines drawn through the centre of the spiral. In each
quardrant an important phase of research is
completed.
Scientific Method : Any objective, transparent and repeatable method
based on direct and systematic observation of
phenomena to study cause-effect relation between
two or more variables.
Social Research : Large scale social surveys from a large number of
cases to discover the distribution and
interrelationships of social and attitudinal variables.
Spiral of Scientific Method : A visual path of the research process through its
various phases starting from data collection to
formulation of theory.
Zenith : Highest point in the spiral of scientific method.

Best, John W. (1978). Research in Education, 3rd ed. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall
of India. Pp.119-121.
New Delhi: Vikas. Pp. 90-105.
Kumar, P.S.G. (2004). Research Methods and Statistical Techniques. Delhi: B.R.
Publishing. Pp. 243-249.
Sharma, Pandey S.K. (1990). Universe of Knowledge and Research Methodology.
Delhi: Ken Publications. Pp.109-121.
Williamson, Kirsty. (2000). Research Methods for Students and Professionals:
Information Management and Systems. Wagga Wagga, NSW, (Australia): Charles
Sturt University. Pp.141-158.
87
UNIT 6 MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Variables
6.3 Measurement of Qualitative Data
6.4 Census versus Sample Survey
6.5 Sampling Procedure
6.6 Types of Sampling
6.7 Summary
6.9 Keywords
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
• define a variable;
• distinguish between various types of variables;
• measure ordinal variables through scaling techniques;
• distinguish between census and sample survey;
• explain the steps involved in carrying out a sample survey; and
• distinguish between various types of sampling.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
During the course of research you come across situations where you have to measure
various characteristics. These characteristics could be of various types, viz., age, height
or income level of visitors to a library; educational qualifications, social status or reading
habits of a person; gender, religion, or area of interest of a library user. Note that all
these characteristics are not similar from the point of measurement. While age, height
or income can be measured in quantitative terms (in number of years, in centimetres, in
rupees) religion or gender can be put to certain categories only. In this Unit we discuss
the issue of measurement of qualitative variables, particularly the scaling techniques.
Another issue discussed in the Unit pertains to collection of data on the basis of sample
survey. Very often it is not possible to survey all the units bearing the characteristic
under study. The constraints could be inadequate funds, time limit, and manpower. In
such situations we survey only a subset of the population, called sample. We discuss
various concepts associated with sampling procedure.
We begin with the types of variables and their measurement. 91
Measurement of
6.2 TYPES OF VARIABLES Variables
Let us begin with the concept of a variable. It is a characteristic of the sample or the
population that we intend to measure. Thus age of the reader is a variable, so is gender,
educational level or mother tongue. As we have mentioned earlier all variables are not
similar.
Variables can be of two types: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative variable is one
that cannot be expressed in numerical terms. For example, marital status is a qualitative
variable. Here we can have two categories: married and single. Of course, if you want
a more detailed categorisation you can further divide single in to widow/widower, divorcee
and never married. Similarly, gender (male or female), mother tongue (Hindi, Bengali,
Oriya, Tamil, Urdu, etc.), subject categories (economics, history, physics, medicine,
etc.), religion (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, etc.) are examples of qualitative
variables. Here we study an attribute or quality that cannot be quantified, but can be
divided into various categories. Moreover, we cannot say that one category is higher or
greater than another category. Such variables are also called nominal variables.
There is another type of qualitative variable where we can divide the observations into
various categories and also say that one category is higher or greater than another
category. An example could be the educational qualification of a visitor to a library.
Here we can divide the visitors on the basis of their educational qualification into
categories such as ‘secondary’, ‘senior secondary’, ‘graduate’ and ‘post-graduate’. In
this case, obviously, the category ‘Senior Secondary’ is higher than the category
‘Secondary’ in terms of number of years of schooling and expected mental maturity. In
this case we arrange the categories in an ascending or descending order. This sort of
variables are called ordinal variables.
In the case of nominal variables we cannot perform any mathematical operations (such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,) or logical operations (greater than,
less than) across categories. We can simply count the number of observations in each
category. In the case of ordinal variables we can say that one category is greater than
another category. But we cannot quantify the difference between categories. For
example, we cannot express numerically the difference between two categories (say
secondary and senior secondary). Also we cannot say that the difference between two
categories (say secondary and senior secondary) is the same as the difference between
two other categories (say graduate and post-graduate).
A quantitative variable can be expressed in numerical terms. Hence it is also called
numerical variable. Examples of numerical variable could be age, income, weight, height,
distance travelled, etc. This category of variables can be subjected to various mathematical
and logical operations. Thus we can express the monthly income of a librarian in Rupees
and also say by what percentage it exceeds the salary of a library assistant.
Numerical variables can be of two types: discrete and continuous. Discrete variable is
one where the observations assume values in complete numbers. For example, the
number of children in family can only be whole numbers; it cannot be fractions. On the
other hand, continuous variables can assume any value in an interval. For example,
weight of a person can be measured to any precision and thus can take any value in
between two points.
Let us distinguish between variable and data. We obtain data by measuring a variable
(qualitative or quantitative) on certain individuals or units. For example, suppose we
measure the height of 50 employees in a library. Here height is the variable and we 89
obtainfor
Tools 50 Research
observations. These 50 numerical values that we obtain are our data. Thus
we have discrete data or continuous data depending upon whether the variable is discrete
or continuous.
Similarly there are primary data and secondary data. Primary data refers to data collected
by the researcher by undertaking a field survey. On the other hand, secondary data
refers to collection of data from published sources, e.g., census, budget, handbooks,
etc. Thus when you undertake a field survey, collect data, analyse the results and present
it in some forum, it is primary data. But when I use that data for further analysis it
becomes secondary data for me.
6.3 MEASUREMENT OF QUALITATIVE DATA

The measurement of quantitative data does not pose problems as these are expressed
in numerical terms. Measurement of qualitative data, however, is a complex issue and
needs to be discussed further. There are two types of variables that are usually measured:
i) social behaviour and personality, and ii) cultural and social environment. The purpose
is to study socioeconomic status and its impact on various issues, attitude towards a
particular event or behaviour, participation in certain activity, etc.
In order to measure these types of issues no readymade scale of measurement is available.
Secondly, there is a lot of ambiguity and inter-personal variability in the definition of
these qualities. However, attempts have been made to construct ‘attitude scales’ to
measure these qualities. These scales are in the form of equal-appearing intervals. Such
scales are widely used in sociology, psychology, education and administration apart
from other branches of study.
In designing such scales we should keep one thing in mind that it should be ‘valid’ and
‘reliable’. In other words, i) it should measure what we intend to measure, and ii) it
should yield the same consistent results when applied under the same conditions.
In designing attitude scales we form a number of statements and ask the respondents to
react to these statements. The statements should be brief, unambiguous and relevant. It
should be expressed in such a form that it could be endorsed or rejected in terms of
definitely expressed attitude.
A widely used scale is ‘Likert Scale’ which is also referred to as ‘technique of summated
ratings’. The basic steps in construction of Likert scale are given below:
A series of propositions representing attitudes are compiled. The attitudes of persons
towards these propositions could range from extremely negative to extremely positive.
The statements or propositions express values rather than facts. Each statement indicates
the position of a person towards the issue concerned. For example, a statement could
be ‘there should be separate reading rooms for boys and girls in a library’. The response
to such a statement could range from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ depending
upon the attitude of the respondent towards the issue.
Each statement is so formulated that the response of persons can be given in any of the
five terms such as i) strongly approve, ii) approve, iii) undecided, iv) disapprove, v)
strongly disapprove. Many times expressions such as i) strongly agree, ii) agree, iii)
cannot say, iv) disagree, v) strongly disagree are also used. Although a five-point
continuum is common, there can be three-, four-, or six-point continuum also. For
example, a seven-point continuum could be i) always, ii) almost always, iii) frequently,
iv) occasionally, v) rarely, vi) almost never, vii) never.
90
Weights are assigned to each response for a statement. For example,Measurement
in a five-point
of
Variables
continuum the weights that we attach to each response could be 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. These
weights indicate the intensity of the attitudes of a respondent.
When we have a number of statements, we can arrange the statements according to
their relative intensity. Also groups of individuals can be arranged in a rank order on the
basis of scale scores. Moreover, the scale scores can be used to predict any outside
variable.
Self Check Exercise
1) State the type of variable (nominal, ordinal and numerical) for the following:
a) tribes in India
b) height of children
c) number of books
d) accession number of books
e) subject codes
2) With an example explain the use of Likert scale.
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6.4 CENSUS VERSUS SAMPLE SURVEY

There are quite a few methods for collection of data that we will discuss in detail in
Block 3 (questionnaire method, personal interview, participatory observation, etc.). An
important issue is whether we should collect data on all units present or only a part of it.
For example, if we wanted to know the reading habits of economics students of
Sambalpur University and for that purpose we designed a questionnaire. We found that
there are 800 economics students and it would not be possible to survey all the students
due to time and money constraints. Thus, we decided to administer the questionnaire to
100 students only.
In formal statistical language we distinguish between ‘population’ and ‘sample’. Since
our objective is to study the reading habits of economics students in Sambalpur University,
all 800 economics students qualify to be studied by us and thus constitute our population.
If we decide not to collect data on all students but study only 100 students, these
selected 100 students constitute our sample.
Thus, population is a collection of individuals or objects having the desired characteristics
we are interested in a sample which is a part of the population. Obviously we can draw
more than one sample from the same population. If you go to Sambalpur University on
a different day and select 100 students your sample may be different from what another
person had selected.
91
Collection
Tools of information on all units of a population is called census. On the other
for Research
hand, collection of information on a sample is called sample survey. The process of
selection of a sample is called ‘sampling’. The advantages of sample survey are:
• Sample survey is less expensive than a census.
• Sample survey requires lesser time and manpower than a census.
• Sample survey can be monitored closely and more accurate information can be
colleted than in census.
• Many times we do not require information on all units. For finding out the
effectiveness of a new medicine we do not have to test it on all patients; only a
representative sample will do.
In sampling we are surveying only a part of the population. Remember that we do not
know the exact population characteristics, as we do not survey the population. But
there are scientific methods by which we can estimate a population characteristic (called
parameter) on the basis of sample characteristic (called statistic). This topic will be
covered in Unit 17 while dealing with estimation and hypothesis testing.
There are two types of errors in a survey: sampling error and non-sampling error.
Sampling error is due to the fact that only a part of the population is being surveyed. It
is the difference between the parameter and the statistic. It can be reduced by adoption
of scientific sampling procedure, specifically probability sampling so that a random
sample is selected. Non-sampling error is due to errors in measurement, non-response
by the selected units, wrong recording of data, and personal bias of the investigators.
Thus, non-sampling error is present in both census and sample survey. In a census,
however, many investigators are involved and large number of units are to be surveyed.
So non-sampling error could be very high. On the other hand, in a sample survey
greater care can be taken in collection and recording of data since lesser number of
units are surveyed. Thus non-sampling error can be minimised in a sample survey. The
total error is the sum of sampling and non-sampling errors. It may so happen that the
non-sampling error in a census is more than the sampling and non-sampling errors in a
sample survey! In such cases sample survey would give better results than census.
Self-Check Exercises
3) What are the advantages of sampling over census?
4) Distinguish between sampling error and non-sampling error.
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6.5 SAMPLING PROCEDURE

While carrying out a sample survey there are certain steps that we should follow. These
are as follows:
92
Specification of objectives: The objectives of carrying out samplingMeasurement
is the first and
of
Variables
foremost step in sampling procedure. Because all other steps will follow from this
objective.
Definition of population: In this step we define the units that should be included in the
population. Many times there are certain border cases where proper definition is
important. For example, if you want to survey the library personnel, it has to be decided
whether you should include part-time employees in the population or not.
Preparation of ‘sampling frame’: Once you have defined the units to be included in
the population, the next step is to prepare a list of the units from which the sample is to
be drawn. Many times problems come up because the sources from which you want to
prepare the sampling frame may be incomplete or obsolete.
Identification of sampling procedure: Sampling procedure refers to the method of
selecting the sample. There are quite a few sampling procedures available. We should
select a method that: i) gives us a representative sample, ii) is feasible to carry out
keeping in view our constraints, and iii) is cost effective. There are broadly two types of
sampling: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. We will discuss these types
in the next Section.
Determination of sample size: The next step is the determination of sample size. The
factors that influence sample size are i) population size, ii) variance of units, iii) desired
precision level, iv) response rate, and v) availability of resources. The sample size should
be relatively larger if population size is larger, variability among units is higher, more
precise results are required, and lesser is the response rate. However, we should settle
for smaller sample size if there are constraints such as availability of funds or manpower
or time. Sample is considered to be large if its size is greater than 30. If sample size is
less than or equal to 30 it is considered as small sample. The procedures of drawing
inferences (See Unit 17) for large and small samples are different.
Selection of sampling units: Once you have decided on the sampling procedure and
the size of the sample, the next step is draw the sampling units (that is, units included in
the sample) from the sampling frame.
6.6 TYPES OF SAMPLING

As mentioned earlier there are two types of sampling: probability and non-probability.
In probability sampling some element of randomness is involved in selection of units, so
that personal judgement or bias is not there. Here we have simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and multistage sampling.
Remember that the word ‘random’ here does not mean haphazard or unsystematic,
rather it implies lack of bias or control in selection. In non-probability sampling we have
judgement sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.
Simple Random Sampling (SRS): It is the basic sampling procedure where each unit
in the population gets an equal chance of being included in the sample. There are two
commonly used methods to draw a simple random sample, viz., i) lottery method, and
ii) random numbers selection method. In both the methods we assign a unique number
to each unit in the sampling frame. In lottery method we mix up the numbers very well
and draw the numbers one by one. In random number selection method we refer to
‘random number tables (RNT)’ available from various sources (including the Internet)
and select the units which are there in the RNT. Simple random sampling should be
used with a homogeneous population. That is, all the units in a population possess the
93
same attributes that the researcher is interested in measuring. The characteristics of
homogeneity
Tools may include age, sex, income, social status, geographical region, etc. If
for Research
the population is not homogeneous then we need a larger sample size to obtain a
representative sample. But we can divide the population into various homogeneous
strata and obtain a stratified random sample. A limitation of the simple random sampling
is that if the population size is too large, selection of the sampling units is time consuming.
These days, of course, computer has been very useful in selection of random numbers
and reduced time spent in selection process.
Systematic Random Sampling: In this case we select the units in a fixed interval.
For example, in a library you have to check the quality of maintenance of books. For
this purpose you decide take physical verification of 100 books out of the 5000 books
available in the library. Here population size is 5000 and sample size is 100. In systematic
random sampling procedure you take a random starting point and then select the 50th
subsequent unit. Thus if 12th book is the starting point, then you go on checking books
located at the positions: 62nd, 112th, 162nd, …… and so on. This procedure is useful
when preparation of sampling frame is difficult or not possible.
Stratified Random Sampling: This procedure is practiced when the population is
not homogeneous but can be divided into various homogeneous groups (called ‘strata’).
Here we select sub-samples from each stratum and add them together to obtain our
desired sample. Therefore, the stratified random sampling procedure is a better
representative of the population and sampled units reflect the population characteristics
more accurately. The steps we should follow are:
• Divide the population into strata based on some characteristic chosen by you
(example, Rural/Urban, Male/Female, etc.)
• The number of units taken from each stratum is proportional of the relative size of
the stratum and standard deviation of the characteristic within the stratum. If stratum
size is then a larger sub-sample should be taken. Similarly if you find that variability
among units is more in a stratum than other strata, then you should take a larger
sub-sample from that.
• Choose the sub-sample from each stratum using simple random sampling.
Multistage Sampling: As the name suggests, sampling procedure in this case is divided
into two or more stages. Let us take an example of a two-stage sampling. Suppose
you have to survey the aptitude of college students, who can be categorised into three
streams: arts, science and commerce. Here in the first stage you divide colleges according
to geographical regions and you select specified number of colleges from each region
on the basis of random sampling. In the second stage you select students by a random
sampling method from the colleges selected at the first stage only, not from all colleges.
Let us try to explain the difference between two-stage sampling and stratified sampling.
In stratified random sampling you divided the population (all college students) into
there strata: arts, science and commerce. From each stratum you selected a sub-
sample by simple random sampling procedure. The selected students can be from any
college and you cannot rule out a visit to any college. In two-stage sampling you are
excluding certain colleges at the first stage itself, which may prove to be economical.
Judgement Sampling: It is a non-probability sampling procedure. It is also called
purposive sampling, where the researcher selects the sample based on his/her judgment.
The researcher believes that the selected sample elements are representative of the
population. For example, the calculation of consumer price index is based on judgment
sampling. Here the sample consists of a basket of consumer items and other goods
94
and services which are expected to reflect a representative sample. The prices of
these items are collected from selected cities that are viewed as typical cities with
demographic profiles matching the national profile. The advantage of judgment sampling
Measurement of
Variables
is that it is low cost, convenient and quick. The disadvantage is that it does not allow
direct generalisations to population. The quality of the sample depends upon the
judgment of the researcher.
Quota Sampling: In this procedure the population is divided into groups based on
some characteristics such as gender, age, education, religion, income group, etc. A
quota of units from each group is determined. The quota may be either proportional or
non-proportional to the size of the group in the population. Do not confuse the quota
sampling with stratified random sampling discussed earlier. In stratified random sampling
you select random samples from each stratum or group whereas in quota sampling the
researcher/interviewer has a fixed quota and selection of units is based on judgement.
Quota sampling has the advantage that cost and time involved in selection of units is
reduced considerably. However, it has many disadvantages also. In quota sampling,
the samples are selected according to the convenience of the investigator. Therefore,
the selected sample may be biased.
Snowball Sampling: In this procedure you begin by identifying someone who meets
the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who
they may know who also meets the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to
representative samples, there are times when it may be the best method available.
Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying to reach population that are
inaccessible or hard to find. For example, if you are studying the homeless or people
suffering from a particular disease you are may not be able to find good lists respondents.
However, if you identify one or two, you may find that they know others in a similar
condition.
Self Check Exercise
5) What are the important steps in carrying out a sample survey?
6) Explain the procedure of drawing a stratified random sample.
7) Explain the following concepts:
a) Systematic random sampling
b) Parameter and statistic
c) Multistage sampling
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6.7 SUMMARY
A variable is a characteristic that we are interested in analysing. It can be nominal,
ordinal or numerical. Numerical variable can be discrete or continuous. While numerical
variable is amenable to mathematical and logical operations nominal and ordinal variables
95
are not. In certain cases it is difficult to measure ordinal variables because we do not
have standard
Tools of measurement. In such cases we need to construct a measurement
for Research
scale. In this we discussed one such scaling techniques, that is summated rating.
Another issue that we covered in this Unit relates to sampling techniques. Because of
inadequate resources or infeasibility we often resort to sampling instead of census of all
the units in the population. There are two broad types of sampling procedures: probability
sampling and non-probability sampling. In probability sampling we have simple random
sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and multistage
sampling. On the other hand, non-probability sampling procedures are judgment
sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling.

1) a) Nominal, b) Numerical, c) Numerical, d) Nominal, and e) Nominal
2) Example of the use of Likert Scale: Show your agreement with the following:
Libraries will ever remain important for the advancement of the society
Strongly Agree; Agree; Undecided; Disagree; Strongly Disagree
3) Sampling is advantageous over statistic in that it saves cost and time to be
devoted to the survey. It involves fewer personnel to be deployed and also results
in more precision in the results.
4) Sampling error is due to the faulty sample selected. It may be due to non- probability
sampling techniques adopted. Non- sampling errors are due to the errors in data
measurement or analysis methods.
5) The steps to be followed in carrying out a sample survey are:
specification of objective, preparation of sampling frame, identification of sampling
procedure, determination of sample size, and selection of sampling units.
6) The procedure of drawing a stratified random sample is:
l Divide the population into strata based on some characteristic chosen by you
(example, Post graduate/ Under graduate, Male/Female, etc.)
l Decide the number of units to be taken from each stratum proportional to the
relative size of the stratum and standard deviation of the characteristic within
the stratum. If stratum size is then a large a sub-sample should be taken.
Similarly if you find that variability among units is more in a stratum than other
strata, then you should take a larger sub-sample from that.
l Choose the sub-sample from each stratum using simple random sampling.
7) a) Systematic random sampling is a type of random sampling where the bias is
minimised. Here the random sample is selected in a systematic way, e.g., in
case a sample of 100 is to be selected from a population of 1000, and then
we may select the first member of the population and every subsequent 20th
member.
b) Parameter is a summary value of the population while statistic is that of the
sample.
c) Multistage sampling is sampling done in two or more stages. In case we have
to survey reading habits of users in public libraries, we may first take a random
sample on the basis of geographical regions and then further take a sample
96 on the basis of age groups. This is an example of multistage sampling.
Measurement of
6.9 KEYWORDS Variables
Convenience Sampling : It refers to the method of obtaining a sample that is

most conveniently available to the researcher.
Judgement Sampling : In this sampling procedure the selection of sample is
based on the researcher’s judgement about some
appropriate characteristics required of the sample units.
Multistage Sampling : The sample selection is done in a number of stages.
Parameter : It is a measure of some characteristic of the population.
Population : It is the entire collection of units of a specified type in a
given place and at a particular point of time.
Quota Sampling : In this sampling procedure the samples are selected on
the basis of some parameters such as age, gender,
geographical region, education, income, religion, etc.
Sample : It is a sub-set of the population. Therefore, it is a
collection of some units from the population.
Simple Random Sampling: This is the basic sampling procedure where all units in
the population have an equal chance of being included
in the sample.
Snowball Sampling : It relies on referrals from initial sampling units to generate
additional sampling units.
Statistic : It is a function of the values of the units that are included
in the sample. The basic purpose of a statistic is to
estimate some parameter.
Stratified Random : In this sampling procedure the population is divided
Sampling into groups called strata. Subsequently sub-samples
are selected from each stratum using a random
sampling method.
Systematic Sampling : In this procedure the units are selected from the
population at uniform interval (in time, order or space).

Bhardwaj, R. S. (1999). Business Statistics. New Delhi: Excel Books.
IGNOU Study Material (2005). EEC-13: Elementary Statistical Methods and Survey
Techniques, Block 6.
Kothari, C.R. (1985). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi:
Wiley Eastern.
Young, P. V. (1988). Scientific Social Surveys and Research, Prentice Hall of India:
New Delhi.
97
UNIT 7 DATA PRESENTATION
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Preparation of a Table
7.3 Tabular Presentation
7.3.1 Nominal and Ordinal Data
7.3.2 Numerical Data
7.4 Graphical Presentation

7.4.1 Line Graph
7.4.2 Histogram
7.4.3 Frequency Polygon
7.4.4 Frequency Curve
7.4.5 Bar Diagrams
7.4.6 Pie Chart
7.5 Summary
7.7 Keywords
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
arrange discrete data in a tabular form;
identify class intervals and arrange continuous data in tabular form;
present data in the form of histogram and frequency curves;
arrange data in the form of bar diagrams; and
represent data in the form of pie chart.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us imagine a situation where you have to collect data on the number of visitors to
a library and their age, income level, gender, education level and areas of interest.
Your objective is to revamp the library policy. For example, you may like to decide on
a membership fee keeping in view the ability to pay of users, or to build stock of
books depending on the age profile and interest of users, or to increase the sitting
capacity on the basis of the number of visitors, or to provide for separate facilities on
the basis of gender. In order to carry on such a project you requested each
member visiting the library to enter the above particulars on a register and compiled the
same on a daily basis. No doubt you end up with a large volume of data very soon.
Unless these data are subjected to statistical analysis it would not be of much help in
policy formulation. 101
Tools for Research Once data collection is completed, your efforts should be geared towards bringing
these raw data into a presentable form. You may think of presentation of the data in the
form of a table or a chart. The task before you is to decide on the structure of the table
or the shape of the graph. Let us look in to the options available.
In the previous Unit we had classified variables into nominal, ordinal and numerical
types. Let us begin with tabulation of data pertaining to different types of variables and
later on we will move on to graphical presentation. The first step in the analysis and
interpretation of data is its classification and tabulation. The process of arranging data
into groups according to their common characteristics is known as its classification. On
the other hand tabulation implies a systematic presentation of data in rows and columns
according to some salient features or characteristics.
In this Unit we will first discuss tabulation of data pertaining to discrete and
continuous variables. Subsequently we will take up graphical presentation. There are
basically three forms in which data can be presented: i) graphs such as line graph,
histogram, frequency polygon and frequency curve, ii) bar diagrams (single bars,
component bars, multiple bars), and iii) pie charts. We explain each of these through
appropriate examples.
7.2 PREPARATION OF A TABLE

There are certain things we should take care of while preparing a table.
It is required to give a table number for identification of the particular table.
There should be a title of the table that indicates the type of information contained
in the table. Title should be brief and precise. Avoid expressions like ‘Table
presents…’ or Table contains….’
If necessary give a head note. It should be given in parentheses and should

appear on the right side top just below the title. See, for example, the
expression (in Rupees) given in Table 7.4.
Stub head describes the nature of stub entry, e.g., ‘class interval’ in Table 7.4
Stub entries describe the rows.
Caption describes the nature of data presented in columns followed by column

heads and sub-heads. In certain tables it may not be necessary to give sub-
heads.
The main body of the table contains numerical information.
Below the table there may be footnote. The purpose of footnote is to caution
the readers about the limitations of the table.
Source of the table may be the last component. It is quite important in the case
of secondary data. It provides opportunity to the readers to check the data if
they desire and get more of it.
Remember that you have to design your own table, keeping your requirements
in view. In Table 7.1 we have summarised different parts of a table.
102
Table No. 7.1: (———————TITLE————————) Data Presentation
(Head note)
Stub Head ←——————— Caption ———————→
Column Head I Column Head II
Sub-head Sub-head Sub-head Sub-head
MAIN BODY OF THE TABLE
Stub Entries
Totals
Footnote:
Source:
7.3 TABULAR PRESENTATION

7.3.1 Nominal and Ordinal Data
You may recall that nominal and ordinal data can be classified into categories. Thus we
can count the number of observations in a category, note them down and present in a
table. Such an arrangement of data is called ‘frequency distribution’ because we are
counting the frequency with which each category is repeated.
Let us take a concrete example. Suppose, in order to collect data on areas of interest
of visitors to the library you identified 5 subject areas, viz., economics, history, political
science, sociology and public administration. Thus there are five categories. Very often
the number of observations may be large enough. In such situations we use tally bars. In
this method all the categories (in our example, five) are written in a column. For every
observation, a tally bar denoted by ( | ) is noted against its corresponding category.
Every fifth repetition is marked by crossing the previous four bars as ( ). In this way,
we get blocks of five, which simplify counting at the end. Thus a category repeated
fourteen times will be marked as ( ).
Table 7.2: Frequency Distribution of Areas of Interest of Visitors
Area of Interest Tally Sheet Frequency
Economics 15
History 12
Political Science 22
Public Administration 18
Sociology 23
Total 90
In Table 7.2 we have constructed a frequency distribution of 90 visitors to a library
according to their area of interest. Here we have given the tally sheet also. But while
making the final presentation we delete the second column, that is the tally sheet, and
provide only the first and third columns so that the table does not look cluttered.
At times we are interested in ‘relative frequency’. In this case the percentage share of 103
Tools for Research each category is given in addition to actual frequency. For example, for the data given
in table 7.2 we obtain relative frequency by dividing each frequency by the total and
15
then multiplying by 100. For economics we obtain relative frequency as 100 =
90
16.7. The total of all frequencies is 100. Relative frequency gives the percentage share
of each category in the total.
Table 7.3: Relative Frequency Distribution
Area of Interest Frequency Relative Frequency (%)
Economics 15 16.7
History 12 13.3
Political Science 22 24.4
Public Administration 18 20.0
Sociology 23 25.6
Total 90 100.0
7.3.2 Numerical Data

In the case of numerical data we have two types: discrete and continuous. The frequency
distribution of discrete data is not much different from the method discussed above for
nominal and ordinal data. Here we make a list of all possible values that the characteristic
is likely to assume and count the frequency of occurrence for each value. In place of
categories in Table 7.2 we write down the discrete values and construct a similar table.
For example, if you have to prepare a frequency distribution of ‘number of books
issued’ to 100 members of the library you may obtain a frequency distribution as given
in Table 7.3.
Table 7.4: Books Issued to Borrowers

Number of books issued Number of borrowers
0 10
1 23
2 25
3 17
4 15
5 10
Total 100
In the case of continuous data preparation of a frequency distribution is somewhat

different because of the following: i) Recall that an observation can assume any value
(implies infinite number of values) within a range in the case of continuous data. Hence
it may not be possible to list out all the possible values. ii) Repetition of the same value
for two or more observations may be a rare coincidence.
In order to resolve the above issue we divide the range of values that is the difference
104
between the highest and the lowest values, into certain ‘class intervals’. In each class
interval we count the number of observations and report it. For example, let us consider Data Presentation
the monthly expenditure on purchase of books by 175 persons. We find that the lowest
monthly expenditure is Rs. 135 and the highest is Rs. 750. Thus the range is Rs. 750 -
Rs. 135 = Rs. 615. We divide this range into 7 class intervals and prepare a frequency
distribution as given in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5: Monthly Expenditure on Purchase of Books (in Rupees)
Class Interval Frequency Relative Frequency
100-200 21 12.00
200-300 32 18.29
300-400 49 28.00
400-500 33 18.86
500-600 23 13.14
600-700 12 6.86
700-800 5 2.86
Total 175 100.00
At this point two questions may be shaping up in your mind:
How many class intervals should be taken?
What should be the width of each class interval?
Let us discuss some of the issues that we should be careful about.
Number of class intervals: There is no hard and fast rule regarding the number of
class intervals. However, it should not be too small, neither too large. If the number of
class intervals is too small, then there is a chance of losing valuable information due to
grouping. For example, in Table 7.5, we do not know the exact amount spent by the 21
persons whose monthly expenditure is between Rs. 100 and Rs. 200. Note that when
we have lesser number of class intervals, the width of class intervals will increase. On
the other hand, if the number classes is very large, the distribution may appear to be too
fragmented and may not reveal any pattern of behaviour. Based on experience, it has
been observed that the minimum number of classes should not be less than 5 and in any
case, there should not be more than 20 classes. A decision on the number of class
intervals should also take into account the number of observations - higher the number
of observations, higher the number of class intervals.
Width of Class Intervals: As far as possible, all the classes should be of equal width.
However, when a frequency distribution, based on equal class intervals, does not reveal
a regular pattern of behaviour, it might become necessary to re-group the observations
into class intervals of unequal width. By a regular pattern of behaviour we mean that
observations should not be distributed among classes in an erratic manner. In other
words, there should not be situations where frequency is zero in one class and very high
in the adjoining class.
Open-ended Class Intervals: In many cases a few observations may be very high
or very low in value. For example, in Table 7.5, suppose one person has a monthly
expenditure of Rs. 1150 while others have less than Rs. 800. Here if we provide four
extra class intervals, namely, 800-900, 900-1000, 1000-1100, and 1100-1200, then
the frequency in the classes 800-900, 900-1000, 1000-1100 classes will be zero each 105
Tools for Research and in the class 1100-1200 will be one. In order to manage such cases we often resort
to open-ended class intervals. In Table 7.5, instead of having class limits for the last
class as 700-800 we may modify it as ‘more than 700’. This class may include any
observation above Rs. 700. There may be another situation where we need to
modify the first class interval as ‘less than 200’ if one or two observations are lees than
Rs. 100.
Mid-value of a Class: If we look into Table 7.5 we find that for each class, there are
two class limits - lower limit and upper limit. We assume that the observations are
uniformly distributed within the class. Thus we can say that the average value of the
observations in a class is equal to the mid-value of the class. In Table 7.5 the mid-value
of the first class (100-200) is 150 while that of the second class (200-300) is 250 and
so on. Remember that class limits are usually kept as multiple of 5 or 10 so that it is
convenient to locate the mid-value of a class.
You may observe that in Table 7.5 the upper limit of the second class - interval (200-
300) is equal to the lower limit of the third class interval (300-400). In which class
interval do you include a person having monthly expenditure of exactly Rs. 300? We
should note that the second class - interval is defined as ‘monthly expenditure of Rs.
200 or more but less than Rs. 300’. Similarly, the third class interval is defined as
‘monthly expenditure of Rs. 300 or more but less than Rs. 400’. Naturally Rs. 300
would be included in the third class interval (300-400) and not in the second class -
interval (200-300).
As in the case of nominal data, we can present the relative frequency for each class
interval. It is obtained by presenting the frequencies as percentage of the total so that
total frequency is 100 percent (or equal to 1).
Self-Check Exercise
1) Define the following terms.
a) Class interval
b) Open-ended class
c) Frequency distribution
2) What are the factors one should keep in mind while preparing a frequency
distribution for continuous data?
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106 ..........................................................................................................
Cumulative Frequency Data Presentation
Many times we are interested to know the number of persons below certain value. For
example, for the data given in Table 7.5, we are interested to know the number of
persons whose monthly expenditure on books is less than Rs. 500. We obtain it by
adding the frequencies of preceding classes and find it to be 21 32 49 33 135 .
Table 7.6: Cumulative Frequency (monthly expenditure in Rupees)
Class Interval Frequency Cumulative Frequency
(less than type)
Less than 200 21 21
Less than 300 32 53
Less than 400 49 102
Less than 800 5 175
Total 175
We can construct cumulative frequencies for the number of persons having a monthly
expenditure of more than a particular value. For example, suppose we have to find out
the number of persons having monthly expenditure of more than Rs. 400. We can
obtain it by adding the frequencies of the succeeding classes and find it to
be . Similarly, you can find out cumulative frequency for other
classes.
33 23 12 5 73
7.4 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
Collected data are very often presented through graphs and diagrams for greater clarity.
7.4.1 Line Graph
Suppose you are provided with data on number of books issued in a library (month-
wise for the year 2004) as given in Table 7.1.
Table 7.4.1: Number of Books Issued in a Library
Month Number of visitors Month Number of visitors
January 76 July 105
February 85 August 108
March 86 September 110
April 90 October 115
May 82 November 118
June 98 December 106
Line graph is appropriate when we need to present the movement or variation in a
variable. It is quite simple to draw and indicates the increase or decrease in a variable
over time or across observations. Line graphs can be used for discrete data. Recall that
in the case of continuous data we assumed that the average value of each class is its
mid-point. Thus we can plot the frequencies for each class against its mid-point and
join these points to obtain a line graph. 107
Tools for Research
Fig. 7.1: Number of Books Issued in a Library
In Fig. 7.1 we take the variable ‘months’ on x-axis and the number of books issued on
the y-axis and plot it as line graph. You may observe that the number of books issued
has increased over time except for the months of May and December.
7.4.2 Histogram
Histogram is a rectangular diagram where the area of each rectangle is proportional to
the frequency of the respective class. Remember that histogram is appropriate for
continuous data arranged into class intervals. It is not used for discrete data.
The steps followed are:
On a graph paper we mark class intervals such as 100-200, 200-300, etc. on the
horizontal axis.
Similarly we mark frequencies on the vertical axis.
We draw rectangles as shown in Fig. 7.2.
When class intervals are equal the height of rectangles are equal to the frequency
of classes.
When class intervals are not equal the frequencies are adjusted so that area of
rectangle is proportional to class frequency. For example, if the interval of one
class is double that of other classes, then we need to divide the frequency of the
former by two.
Let us construct histogram for the data given in Table 7.5.
30
25
20
15
10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 X

108
Fig. 7.2: Histogram
7.4.3 Frequency Polygon Data Presentation
It is obtained from a histogram by joining the mid-value of the top of the rectangles with
the help of straight lines as shown in Fig. 7.3. Remember that the area under the frequency
polygon should be same as the area under the histogram. Hence, we draw two additional
class intervals, one on each end of the histogram. For the histogram given in Fig. 7.2 we
follow the steps given below.
Draw two class intervals, viz., 0-100, and 800-900.
Take the frequency for these two classes to be 0.
Join the mid-values of all the classes, including 0-100, and 800-900.
The frequency polygon obtained is as given in Fig. 7.3.
30
25
20
15
10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Fig. 7.3: Frequency Polygon
7.4.4 Frequency Curve

It is obtained from frequency polygon by smoothening the edges of the frequency
polygon as shown in Fig. 7.4.
30
25
20
15
10
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
109
Fig. 7.4: Frequency Curve
Tools for Research Self Check Exercise
3) Construct a more than type cumulative frequency distribution for the data given
in Table 7.5.
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7.4.5 Bar Diagrams
Diagram is a visual form of presentation data. Diagrams can be bars, squares, circles,
maps and pictures. In this section we discuss the procedure of drawing bar diagrams.
Bar diagrams are more appropriate for nominal data where certain categories are
distinguished.
A bar is defined as a thick line, often made thicker to attract the attention of a reader.
The height of the bar highlights the value of the variable. Remember that width of the
bars does not mean anything. Moreover, bars are separated from each other with equal
gaps. Thus it is different from histogram, which is more appropriate for quantitative
data and area of the bars is important. Finally, in histogram the bars are always vertically
placed whereas in bar diagram they can be placed both vertically as well as horizontally.
Let us take a simple example to demonstrate the construction of a bar diagram.
Table 7.4.2: Number of Students in a College
Stream Number of students
Arts 800
Science 460
Commerce 520
The bar diagram of the above data is drawn in Fig. 7.5. To make the bar diagrams
beautiful we can either fill in colour in the bars or shade them in different ways. This is
left to the aesthetic taste of the investigator.
110 Fig. 7.5: Simple Bars

Component Bar Diagram Data Presentation
A component bar diagram presents the components of a phenomenon so that a

comparison can be made. It is more appropriate for qualitative data. The bars
corresponding to each category is divided into various components. The portion of the
bar occupied by each component denotes its share in the total.
Suppose we have additional information on the number of boys and girls admitted in a
college (Table 7.9). We present component bar diagram for such data in Fig. 7.6.
Remember that the sub-divisions of different bars must always be done in the same
order and these should be distinguished from each other by using different colours or
shades.
Table 7.4.3: Number of Students in a College
Boys Girls
Arts 400 400
Science 260 200
Commerce 350 170
Fig. 7.6: Component Bar Diagram
Multiple Bar Diagram

It is used when comparisons are to be shown between two or more sets of data. A set
of bars for a period or place or a related phenomenon is drawn side by side without
gap. Different bars are distinguished from one another by different shades or colours. A
multiple bar diagram for the hypothetical data given in Table 7.10 is drawn in Fig. 7.7.
Suppose our purpose is to show the changes in the number of girl students admitted to
different of a college over the years.
Table 7.4.4: Number of Girls Students during past three years
Stream/Year 2001 2002 2003
Arts 130 135 125
Science 45 57 65
Commerce 20 26 30
111
Tools for Research
Fig. 7.7: Multiple Bar Diagram
7.4.6 Pie Chart

Pie chart is widely used to show share of different components in a variable. For example,
expenditure of a library on different heads can be shown in the form a pie chart. Suppose
for the financial year 2004-05 you have budget data of a library as given in Table 7.11.
Recall that a circle has 3600. This area is divided into different components according
respective share. Therefore, we first calculate the share of each component and convert
it to degrees.
Table 7.4.5: Heads of Expenditure in a Library
(in Rs. Thousand)
Heads of Expenditure Budget Ratio of the Degrees
component
Salary 246 0.24 86.30
Purchase of books 325 0.32 114.00
Purchase of journals 175 0.17 61.40
Purchase of furniture 200 0.19 70.20
Maintenance 50 0.05 17.50
Contingency 30 0.03 10.50
Total 1026 1.00 3600
112
Fig. 7.8: Pie Chart
Steps to be followed in the construction of Pie diagram: Data Presentation
Find the total of all components (in this case =1026).

Find ratio of each component to total. For example, for ‘salary’ the ratio is
246
0.24 .
1026
Multiply the ratio of each component by 3600. For example, for ‘salary’ it is
0.24 360 0 86.3 0 .
Draw a circle of a suitable size.

Use protractor to draw the angles you have obtained. Preferably start with the
largest one.
Shade the different segments with different colours.
Identify the colour or shade for different components on the right hand side.
At times we write down the share of each component inside the circle.
Self Check Exercise
4) Draw a simple bar diagram for the data given in Table 7.3.
5) For the data given in Table 7.3 draw a pie chart.

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7.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed the method of presentation of data. We began with preparation
of frequency distribution for qualitative and quantitative data. Also we prepared relative
frequencies and cumulative frequencies for numerical data.
Data can be presented in the form of tables and graphs. There are certain parts of a
table that we should mention while preparing a table. Graphs can be in the form of
histogram, frequency polygon and frequency curve. Diagrams could be in the form
simple bar, component bar, multiple bar or pie chart.

1) a) The difference between the upper limit and the lower limit of a class is
called the class interval.
113
Tools for Research b) A class with no upper limit is called an open- ended class.
c) A tabular presentation of nominal or ordinal data as classes along with the
frequency of their occurrence is called frequency distribution.
2) While preparing frequency distribution we should be keep in mind: number of
class intervals, their width and whether they have to be closed or open.
3) The ‘more than’ type cumulative frequency is given below.
More than 100 21 175
More than 400 33 73
More than 500 23 40
More than 600 12 17
More than 700 5 5
Total 175
4) Bar Diagram
30
Number of
Visitors
20
10
0
Econ Hist PolSc. PubAd
Area of Interest
5) 17%
26%
Econ
Hist
13%
PolSc
PubAd
Socio
20%
24%
7.7 KEYWORDS
Bar Diagram : It is often defined as a set of thick lines corresponding
to various values of the variable. It is different from
histogram where width of the rectangle is important.
Class and Class Limits : It is a decided group of magnitudes having two ends
114 called class limits or class boundaries.
Class Range : Also called class interval is the difference of two Data Presentation
limits of a class. It is equal to upper limit minus lower
limit. It is also called class width.
Continuous Frequency : A continuous frequency distribution in formed

Distribution where the variable can take any value between two
numbers like height and weight, income,
temperatures, etc.
Exclusive Type Class : A class interval which includes all observations

Interval that are greater than or equal to the lower limit but
less than the upper limit.
Frequency Polygon : It is a broken line graph to represent a frequency

distribution and can be obtained either from a
histogram or directly from the distribution.
Frequency Curve : It is a smoothened graph of a frequency distribution

obtained from frequency polygon through free hand
tracing in such a way that the area under both of
them is approximately the same.
Inclusive Type Class : A class interval in which all observations lying

Interval between and including the class limits are included.
Discrete Frequency : A discrete distribution or discrete series is formed

Distribution where the variable can take only discrete values
like 1,2,3,..... Number of children in a family,
number of students in a university, etc. are examples
of discrete variable.
Open-end Class : A class in which one of the limits is not specified.
Mid-value : It is the average value of two class limits. It falls

just in the middle of a class.
Relative Frequency : It is frequency distribution where the frequency of

Distribution each value is expressed as a fraction or a percentage
of the total number of observations.
Histogram : It is a set of adjacent rectangles presented vertically

with areas proportional to the frequencies.
Simple and Sub-divided Bar : In the case of simple bar diagram only one diagram
variable can be presented. A sub-divided bar
diagram is used to show various components of a
phenomenon.
Pie Chart : It is a circle sub-divided into components to present

proportion of different constituent parts of a total.
It is also called pie chart.
115
Tools for Research
Chase, Clinton I. (1988). Elementary Statistical Procedures. 3rd ed. New York:
McGraw Hill.
Elhance, D.N. (1988). Fundamentals of Statistics. Allahabad: Kitab Mahal.
Gupta, C.B. (1985). An Introduction to Statistical Methods. Delhi: Vikas.
Hraglin, David C. [et.al.] (1985). Exploring Data Tables, Trends and Shapes. New
York: Wiley.
Simpson, I.S. (1988). Basic Statistics for Librarians. London: Library Association.
116
UNIT 8 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Measures of Central Tendency
8.2.1 Arithmetic Mean
8.2.2 Median
8.2.3 Mode
8.3 Measures of Dispersion

8.3.1 Range
8.3.2 Variance
8.3.3 Standard Deviation
8.3.4 Coefficient of Variation
8.4 Correlation
8.4.1 Scatter Diagram
8.4.2 Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation
8.4.3 Spearman’s Rank Correlation
8.5 Regression Analysis

8.5.1 Linear Regression
8.5.2 Properties of Regression Coefficient
8.5.3 Non- linear Regression
8.5.4 Prediction
8.6 Time Series Analysis

8.6.1 Components of Time Series
8.6.2 Measurement of Secular Trends
8.6.3 Measurement of other Components
8.7 Summary
8.9 Keywords
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit you should be in a position to:
explain various measures of central tendency such as arithmetic mean, median and
mode;
explain various measures of dispersion such as range, variance, standard deviation,
and coefficient of variation;
explain correlation and regression techniques; and
analyse time series data. 117
Tools for Research
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit we explained the methods of presenting data in the form of tables
and graphs. However, many times we need a single summary value that would describe
a series. For example, we have data on the number of visitors to a library on a daily
basis. Such data can be presented in the form of a table or in the form of a line graph.
But if we want a single summary figure, arithmetic mean would give us the average
number of visitors to the library.
Statistical techniques are more suitable for quantitative data although certain techniques
do exist for qualitative data also. Recall that quantitative data can be of two types:
discrete and continuous. We will explain various techniques for both types of variables.
We begin with measures of central tendency.
8.2 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Measures of central tendency provide us with a summary that describes some central
or middle point of the data. There are five important measures of central tendency, viz.,
i) arithmetic mean, ii) median, iii) mode, iv) geometric mean, and v) harmonic mean.
Out of these the last two measures, viz., geometric mean and harmonic mean, have
very specific uses and thus less frequently used. Therefore, we will discuss the first
three measures in this Unit.
Before dealing with these measures let us be familiar with certain notations that we will
use. The standard notation is: X is a variable that takes values X 1 , X 2 , X 3 L X N . Let
us consider the data given in Unit 7, Table 7.3 on the number of books issued to
borrowers. You know that it is a discrete variable and the number of books that can be
issued to each borrower varies between 0 and 5, viz., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The
corresponding frequency for each observation is: 10, 23, 25, 17, 15 and 10.
In the above example, we denote the variable ‘number of books issued’ as X and the
values assumed by it as X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , X 4 , X 5 , X 6 . The corresponding frequencies
are f 1 , f 2 , L , f 6 . We call a typical observation as the ith observation and denote it
as X i with frequency f i . In the example on the number of books issued i ranges
between 0 and 5.
In the case of continuous variable we take the mid-values of class intervals as
X 1 , X 2 , X 3 L X n and the corresponding frequencies as f 1 , f 2 , L , f N .
8.2.1 Arithmetic Mean

Arithmetic mean is also called ‘mean’ or ‘average’. It is denoted by a bar above the
variable being averaged. It is defined as the sum of all observations divided by the
number of observations.
Let us calculate arithmetic mean for observations arranged in a frequency distribution.
If X 1 , X 2 , X 3 L X N are the observations and the corresponding frequencies are
f 1 , f 2 , L , f N then arithmetic mean is given by X (Read it as ‘X-bar’) and defined
as
1
X f1 X 1 f2 X 2 L fn X n .
118 N
Statistical Techniques
1
It can be abbreviated as X = fi X i …(8.1)
N
where N is the total number of observations and is equal to f i . The symbol (read
it as ‘sigma’) denotes the sum of a variable.
When observations are classified into class intervals, in the case of continuous data,
individual observations within a class interval are not separately identifiable. To avoid
this difficulty, it is assumed that every observation falling into a class interval has a value
equal to the mid-value of the class interval.
Example 8.1
Calculate the average number of books issued to borrowers on the basis of the following
data.
Number of books issued Number of borrowers
0 10
1 23
2 25
3 17
4 15
5 10
Total 100
We prepare a table for calculating arithmetic mean.
Number of books Number of fi X i

issued ( X i ) borrowers ( f i )
0 10 0
1 23 23
2 25 50
3 17 51
4 15 60
5 10 50
Total f i =100 f i X i =234
1
Secondly, we fill in the values from the table in the formula (8.1) that is X fi X i .
N
Here N = 100, and f i X i = 234.
1
Therefore, X 234 2.34
100
Thus, the average number of books issued to borrowers is 2.34.

119
Tools for Research Example 8.2
Given below is the monthly expenditure in Rupees on purchase of books by 100 persons.
What is the monthly average expenditure?
Class Interval Frequency
100-200 12
200-300 18
300-400 28
400-500 19
500-600 13
600-700 7
700-800 3
Total 100
In the case of continuous data we have to find out the mid-value of the class intervals
and then apply formula (8.1).
Class Interval Mid-value Frequency fi X i

100-200 150 12 1800
200-300 250 18 4500
300-400 350 28 9800
400-500 450 19 8550
500-600 550 13 7150
600-700 650 7 4550
700-800 750 3 2250
Total f i = 100 f i X i = 38600
By applying the relevant values from the above table in (8.1), that is,
1
X fi X i
N
Here N = 100, and f i X i = 38600.
1
Therefore, X 38600 386
100
Thus the average monthly expenditure on purchase of books by the groups of individuals
is Rs. 386.
8.2.2 Median
Median gives us with the middle-most observation in a series so that half of the
observations remain on each side of the median. For example, if you have 5
observations, viz., 2, 5, 9, 14 and 20, then 9 is the middle observation and 2 observations
120 remain on both sides of it. Thus median of the above series is 9. Let us consider
another series where there are 6 observations: 3, 8, 15, 25, 35, and 43. In this case the Statistical Techniques
median could be any number between 15 and 25 because 2 observations will remain
on both sides. Conventionally we take the average of the middle-most two numbers.
15 25
Here it would be 20 . Thus in this case the median is 20.
2
However, when the number of observation is too large or data is arranged in a frequency
distribution, it is not that simple to locate the median. If there are N observations the
median observation should correspond to the th observation. We first find out the
cumulative frequency of the distribution (see Unit 7) and secondly find out the class
N
interval in which the th observation lies. This class interval is our ‘median class’.
2
Thirdly, we apply the following formula to get the median value.
N
C
Md lm 2 h, …(8.2)
fm
where
lm is the lower limit of the median class, i.e., the class in which median lies,
N is the total frequency,
C is the cumulative frequency of classes preceding the median class,
fm is the frequency of median class, and
N
2 h is the width of median class.
Example 8.3
For the data given in Example 8.2 above, find out the median monthly expenditure on
purchase of books.
To solve the above problem we go by the following steps:
1) calculate the cumulative frequency distribution
2) find out the median class
3) apply formula (8.2)
100-200 12 12
200-300 18 30
300-400 28 58
400-500 19 77
500-600 13 90
600-700 7 97
700-800 3 100
Total 100
121
Tools for Research There are 100 observation. So the median value corresponds to 50th observation,
which lies in the class interval 300-400. Therefore, median will remain somewhere
between 300-400. Thus the median class is 300-400. In this case
lm =300, C = 30, N = 100, fm = 28, h = 100,
By applying (8.2) we obtain the median value as
100 2 30
Md 300 100 = Rs. 371.43
28
8.2.3 Mode
Mode is the observation with the highest frequency. For discrete data it is easier to find
out the mode. But in the case of continuous data we have to identify the ‘modal class’,
that is the class interval having highest frequency. We have to see that the width of the
classes is the same. Otherwise, large class intervals are likely to include large number
of observations and smaller class intervals are likely to have few observations. Mode is
computed by the following formula:
1
Mo lm h, …(8.3)
1 2
where
lm is the lower limit of the modal class, i.e., the class in which mode lies,
1 fm fm 1 is the difference of the frequencies of the modal class and its

preceding class,
2 fm fm is the difference of the frequencies of the modal class and its

1
following class, and
h is the width of modal class.
Example 8.4
Calculate the mode for the data set given in Example 8.2. The steps involved are
1) Identify the modal class. This is the class interval with highest frequency. In this
case the modal class is 300-400.
2) Calculate lm, 1 fm fm 1 , 2 fm fm 1 , and h
3) Apply formula (8.3)
1
We find that mode is M o lm h 300
1 2
= 352.63
Note that mean, median and mode assume different values for the same data. In the
case of data relating to monthly expenditure on purchase of books given in Example
8.2, we find that mean, median and mode are Rs. 386, Rs. 371.43 and Rs. 352.63
respectively.
122
8.3 MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Measures of central tendency provide us with a summary figure for the data set. However,
in many situations these measures do not represent the distribution of data. For example,
look into the following three sets of data:
1) Set A: 2, 5, 17, 17, and 44.
2) Set B: 17, 17, 17, 17, and 17.
3) Set C: 13, 14, 17, 17, and 24.
Calculate the mean, median and mode for all three sets and you will find that they are
the same, that is, 17 in all three sets. Still these sets are so different! While in Set B all
the observations are equal, in Set A they are so dispersed. Definitely we need another
measure, which will account for such dispersion of data.
The word dispersion gives the degree of heterogeneity in the data. It is an important
characteristic indicating the extent to which observations vary amongst themselves.
The dispersion of a given set of observations will be zero, only when all of them are
equal as in Set B given above. The wider the discrepancy from one observation to
another, the larger would be the dispersion. Thus dispersion in Set A should be larger
than that in Set C. A measure of dispersion should capture such variability in data.
There are quite a few measures of dispersion. We will discuss range, mean deviation,
variance and standard deviation in this Section.
8.3.1 Range
Range is defined as the difference between the largest and the smallest observations.
Thus for the data given at Set A, the range is 44 - 2 = 42. Similarly, for Set B the range
is 17 - 17 = 0 and for Set C it is 11. In the case of grouped data individual observations
are not identifiable. In such cases we take the difference between two extreme boundaries
of the classes.
8.3.2 Variance
Variance is the most widely used measure of dispersion. It is denoted by the symbol
2 (read as ‘sigma-squared’) and is defined as
2 1
Variance = (X i X )2 …(8.4)
N
In the case of frequency distribution variance is given by
2 1
fi (X i X )2 …(8.5)
N
where N f i , the total number of observations.

i 1
In order to simplify calculation we use the following formula
2 1
f i X i2 X2 …(8.6)
N 123
Tools for Research Remember that we obtain the same value whether we apply (8.5) or (8.6).
8.3.3 Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is another widely used measure of dispersion. It is defined as the
positive square root of variance and denoted by . Remember that standard deviation
cannot be negative.
Example 8.5
Given below is the range of marks obtained by students in a class. Find out the standard
deviation.
Marks Number of students
15-25 8
25-35 12
35-45 20
45-55 10
55-65 6
65-75 4
Total 60
In order to calculate the standard deviation we go by the following steps:
1) calculate the mid-values of the classes
2) calculate arithmetic mean
3) Apply formula (8.5) or (8.6) to find out variance
4) Prepare a table with the required columns. We have prepared one for applying
(8.5).
5) Find out variance
6) Find out the positive square root of variance
Marks Number of Mid-value Xi (X i X) (X i X )2 fi (X i X )2

students fi Xi
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15-25 8 20 160 -21 441 3528

25-35 12 30 360 -11 121 1452
35-45 20 40 800 -1 1 20
45-55 10 50 500 9 81 810
55-65 6 60 360 19 361 2166
65-75 4 70 280 29 841 3364
124 Total 60 2460 11340
In the above table we first find out the arithmetic mean, which is 41. Next we find out Statistical Techniques
variance as
2 1 1
fi ( X i X )2 = 11340 189
N 60
Hence standard deviation is
189 = 13.75 marks

Remember that standard deviation is always expressed in the unit of measurement. It is
not a pure number. The difficulty with variance is that it is expressed in the square of the
unit of measurement, which does not have any meaning.
8.3.4 Coefficient of Variation
Many times we have to compare the variability among different series of data. If the
units are measured in different units we obtain different values for standard deviation.
For example, let us compare the economic status of households in two villages. The
summary figures of monthly calorie intake of households are given below for the two
villages.
Village A Village B
Number of households 817 561
Mean calorie intake 2417 2235
S. D. of calorie intake 418 232
The problem is to identify the village that has more inequality as far as calorie intake is
X
concerned. We find that village A has higher mean calorie intake but has larger standard
deviation and larger number of households compared to village B. Thus village A may
actually have more number of poorer households than in village B. In order to compare
such situations we use the coefficient of variation (c.v.). It is defined as percentage
standard deviation per unit of mean, i.e.,
c.v. = 100 …(8.7)

X
Since and have same unit of measurement, c.v. is a pure number and it is not
affected by the choice of unit of measurement.
418 232
For village A, c.v. = 100 = 17.29 and for village B, c.v. = 100 = 10.38.
2417 2235
Since the coefficient of variation in village A is greater than the coefficient of variation in
village B, the inequalities are greater in village A compared to village B.
8.4 CORRELATION
So far we have dealt with a single characteristic of data. But, there may be cases when
we would be interested in analysing more than one characteristic at a time. For example,
you may like to study the relationship between the age and the number of books a
person reads. Such data, having two characteristics under study are called bivariate
data. One of the measures to find out the extent or degree of relationship between two
variables is correlation coefficient. 125
Tools for Research An analysis of the co-variation of two or more variables is usually called correlation. If
two characteristics vary in such a way that movement in one is accompanied by
movement in the other, these characteristics are correlated. For example, there is
relationship between price and supply, income and expenditure, etc. With the help of
correlation analysis we can measure in one figure the degree of relationship existing
between two variables.
8.4.1 Scatter Diagram
If we are interested in finding out the relationship between two variables, the simplest
way to visualise it is to prepare a dot chart called scatter diagram. Using this method,
the given data are plotted on a graph paper in the form of dots. For example, for each
pair of X and Y values, we put a dot and thus obtain as many point as the number of
observations. Now, by looking into the scatter of various dots, we can ascertain whether
the variables are related or not. The greater the scatter of the plotted points on the
chart, the lesser is the relationship between the two variables. The more closely the
points come to a straight line, the higher the degree of relationship. Here are some
illustrations of some correlations between two variables.
Fig. 8.1: Perfect Positive Correlation r = 1
Fig. 8.2:Perfect Negative Correlation r = -1
Fig. 8.3: No Correlation r = 0

126
You see that the scatter diagram gives a rough idea of the degree of relationship between Statistical Techniques
two variables.
As we are considering a relationship between the two variables here, there might be a
relationship between more than two variables. In case of 10 variables, we can plot the
points on a two-dimensional graph paper, i.e., on a space with x and y axes. But the
scatter diagram has the limitation that it cannot be plotted where more than two variables
are involved. Secondly, it does not give an exact figure on the degree of relationship
between variables.
To reach an exact figure on the extent of relationship between variables and also to
overcome the limitation of considering more than two variables at a time, we calculate
the correlation coefficient.
Fig. 8.4: High Degree of Positive Correlation
Fig. 8.5: High Degree of Negative Correlation
8.4.2 Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation

Of the several methods of measuring correlation, Pearson’s Product Moment correlation
is mostly used in practice. It is denoted by the symbol r.
The formula is
Another formula for correlation coefficient is:
Where x
is the standard deviation of X and y
is the standard deviation of Y. 127
Tools for Research When we get value of r = +1, it means there is perfect positive correlation between
variables. When r = -1, there is perfect negative correlation and when r = 0, it means
that there is no correlation between the two variables. Correlation coefficient can take
any value between +1 and -1, i.e., it cannot exceed +1 and cannot be less than -1.
Usually, in real life analysis, we get values, which lie between +1 and -1 such as +0.6,
-0.5 etc. The above formula of r can be transformed into the following form, which is
easier to apply.
n
X iYyii
i 1
n n
r= 2
X i2 Yyii2
i 1 i 1
Where xi (Xi X ) and yi (Yi Y )
Steps necessary for calculating Coefficient of Correlation are:

i) Take the deviation of X from the mean X and denote this by
ii) Square this deviation and obtain the total, i.e.
iii) Take the deviation of Y from the mean Y and denote this by n
iv) Square this deviation and obtain
v) Multiply x and y obtain the total i.e.
2
vi) Substitute the values of xi yi xi and in the above formula.
Remember that correlation indicates the degree of association between variables X

and Y. It merely shows whether the variation in one variable is accompanied by the
variation in the other or not. Correlation coefficient does not indicate a cause and effect
relationship between the variables. We cannot say X causes Y or vice versa. Second
thing to remember is that a r = +0.6 does not imply greater relationship than r = 0.6 The
positive or negative sign indicates the direction of relationship. If r = +0.6, then it is very
likely than an increase in X is accompanied by an increase in Y. On the other hand, r =
-0.6 indicates the inverse relationship between X and Y. Thirdly, correlation coefficient
is neutral to change in scale and origin. This means that in illustration -8, for example, if
we divide the X variable by any figure, say, 5 and variable Y by 2 (or any other figure),
we get the same value for r-value. This is called a change in scale. For instance, when
you convert the height in cm. To that in inches, the correlation coefficient does not
change. Similarly, if you change the origin, i.e., deduct or add certain figure to all the
observations, the correlation coefficient does not change. You may find this out yourself
by deducting 10 from X and 5 from Y and then calculating the correlation coefficient.
Fourthly, correlation coefficient indicates the linear relationship between the variables.
For higher order relationships, correlation coefficient does not reflect the proper degree
of relationship. For example, for two variables, X and Y, if X = Y2 for every value of Y
then r may turn out to be zero. But this does not mean that X and Y are not related. So
that we can say is that when two variables are independent r = 0, but from the mere
knowledge of r = 0 we cannot infer that the two variables are independent.
Let us take an illustration and find out the value of r.
128
Illustration 11 Statistical Techniques
The following table shows the data on height and weight of 10 children. Find out the
product moment correlation coefficient.
Height (in cm) Weight (in Kg) Height (in cm) Weight (in Kg)
110 26 140 38
110 21 135 30
125 22 130 30
130 24 140 40
145 36 135 43
Let the height (in cm.) be termed X and weight is Y
Yi xi (Xi X) yi (Yi Y ) xi yi xi 2 yi 2
110 26 -20 -5 100 400 25
110 21 -20 -10 210 400 100
125 22 -5 -9 45 25 81
130 24 0 -7 0 0 49
145 36 15 5 75 225 25
140 38 1 7 70 100 49
135 30 5 -1 -5 25 1
130 30 0 -1 0 0 1
Xi
140 40 10 9 90 100 81
135 43 5 12 60 25 144
1300 310 645 1300
8.4.3 Spearman’s Rank Correlation

In the previous Unit, while mentioning the types of data, we had distinguished between
ratio scale and ordinal scale of measurement. Pearson’s product moment correlation
coefficient can be applied only when the data are measured in the ratio scale. But when,
instead of actual magnitude of the observations, we have only the ranks, the Pearson’s
‘r’ becomes inapplicable. In such cases the Spearman’s rank correlation (rs) is used.
The method of calculating r, is quite simple. The first step is to identify the rank or the i
th
observation in X and Y in their respective series of n items. The second step is to find
out the difference between the rank in X and the rank in Y. Let this difference be termed
D1. The third step is to apply the following formula.
n
6 Di 2
rs 1 i 1
2
n( n 1)
The Spearman’s rank correlation also ranges from +1 to ---1. Thus, positive values
indicate direct relationship between the variables, while negative values indicate inverse
relationship. The value r = 0 indicates absence of association between the variables.
129
Tools for Research One note of caution is that, Spearman’s rank correlation should not be used just because
it is easier to compute than Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient..r, is less
interpretive than r. We cannot strictly say that the change in X is associated with
proportionate change in Y because equal differences in ranks do not imply equal
differences in the characteristics.
Illustration 12
The following data give rank of 12 journals by two different methods used to compute
rank correlation coefficient.
Sl. Rank according Rank according Di Di 2

No. to the No. of to the No. of
publication X citation Y
1 1 12 -11 121
2 2 9 -7 49
3 3 6 -3 9
4 4 10 -6 36
5 5 3 +2 4
6 6 5 +1 1
7 7 4 +3 9
8 8 7 +1 1
9 9 8 +1 1
10 10 2 +8 64
11 11 11 0 0
12 12 1 +11 121
D2 416
Here
Therefore, rs = 1 - 1.454 = 0.454

Self Check Exercise
1) Find out the standard deviation of the following data.
Marks in statistics No. of students
0-20 5
20-40 10
40-60 15
60-80 8
130 80-100 2
2) The following table shows the marks obtained by 10 students in statistics and Statistical Techniques
mathematics. Find out the correlation coefficient.
Sl. No. of Students Marks in Statistics Marks in Mathematics

1 52 48
2 60 40
3 45 38
4 38 28
5 35 42
6 62 65
7 68 53
8 28 25
9 50 28
10 62 33
3) Write the formulae for the following concepts:
a) Standard Deviation
b) Variance
c) Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
d) Rank Correlation
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8.5 REGRESSION ANALYSIS

In the previous Unit it has been noted that a correlation coefficient does not reflect
cause and effect relationship. The regression analysis, to be discussed in this Unit,
seeks to dwell on such a theme. It assumes that one variable is the cause and other(s)
the effect. In general terms, we can say, variables are of two types: independent
variables and dependent variables. Independent variable is the cause and dependent
variable is the effect.
131
Tools for Research Regression analysis is a statistical tool, which helps understand the relationship between
variables and predicts the unknown values of the dependent variable from known values
of the independent variable.
Let us assume that the number of books in circulation, in a library is related to the
number of users. For example, it can be postulated that as the number of users increases,
the number of books in circulation also increases. Here, the number of users is the
independent variable and the number of books in circulation is the dependent variable.
Let us denote the dependent variable as Y and the independent variable as X. In
regression analysis, we gather data over a period of time or across units at a point of
time. Let us assume that ‘n’ pairs of observations in X and Y are collected. The next
step is to find out the relationship X and Y.
The relationship between X and Y can take many forms. The general practice is to
express the relationship in terms of some mathematical equations. The simplest of
these equations is the linear equation. This means that the relationship between X and
Y is in the form of a straight line. When the equation represents curves (not a straight
line) the regression is called non-linear or curvilinear.
Now the question arises, “how do we identify the equational form?” There is no hard
and fast rule as such. The form of equation depends upon the reasoning and assumptions
made by the researcher.
However, the researcher may plot the X and Y variables on a graph paper to prepare
a scatter diagram. From the scatter diagram, the location of the points on the graph
paper helps in identifying the equational from. If the points are more or less in a straight
line then linear equation is assumed. If the points are not in a straight line and are in the
form of a curve, a suitable non-linear equation, which resembles the scatter, is assumed.
The researcher has to make another assumption: viz. identification of independent and
dependent variables. The again depends upon the logic of the researcher and purpose
of analysis: whether Y depends upon X or X depends upon Y. Thus, there may be two
regression lines from the same data (a) when Y is assumed to be dependent upon X,
this is termed ‘Y on X’ line, and (b) when X is assumed to be dependent upon Y, this
is termed ‘X on Y’ line.
Let us take an example of a linear equation with Y as the dependent variable and X as
the independent variable.
Y=3+2X
By taking in different values of X, we can determine the values of Y, e.g., when X=1,
Y=5; when X=2, Y=7 and so on. If we plot these pairs of points (1,5) (2,7), etc. on a
graph paper we get a straight line.
Generalising the above relationship, it can be said that a linear equation of Y on X
take3s the form Y=a+bX, where a and b are constants. Similarly, non-linear equations
can be specified in many forms. A simple example is Y=a+bX+cX2
8.5.1 Linear Regression
Let us consider the following data. The number of visitors and the number of books
issued during weekdays in a week are given.
No. of visitors to a library (X) 6 2 10 4 8
132 No. of books issued (Y) 8 4 10 7 8

If we plot the data on a graph paper, the scatter diagram looks something like Fig. 8.6. Statistical Techniques
Fig. 8.6: Scatter Diagram for No. of visitors to a library and Books issued
As is obvious from the graph, the points do not strictly lie in a straight line. But they
show an upward rising tendency where a straight line can be fitted.
If we plot the straight line along with the scattered points, the diagram looks like Figure
8.7. The difference between the regression line and the observations is the ‘error’. For
example, against a X value of 2, the Y value is 4. This is called the observed value.
Fig. 8.7
But the regression line shows Y value of 4.8 against X value of 2. This value, which is
calculated from the regression line, is the expected value. The difference between the
observed value and the expected value is termed as the error value. So we see that
observed value is the sum of expected value and error and value.
Our objective in fitting a regression line is to minimise the error values. This is usually
done by the method of ‘least squares’. The method of least squares minimises the value
of E , where e is the difference between observed value and expected value.
We will not go into the details of the method here. Instead, two equations derived on
the basis of least squares method and known as normal equations are given.
133
Tools for Research These are:
Y na b X
As a rule of thumb we can say that these normal equations are derived by multiplying
the coefficients of ‘a’ and ‘b’ to the linear equation and summing over all observations.
Here the linear equation is Y = a + bX. The first normal equation is simply the linear
equation Y = a +bX summed over all observations.
SY = a +SbX or SY = na + bSX
The second normal equation is the linear equation multiplied by X and summed over all
observations.
SXY = SaX + SbX2 or SXY = aSX +bSX 2
It is evident that all the terms in these equations are given numbers, calculated from the
data, except a and b.
The values of a and b need to be calculated for getting the estimated value of the
dependent variable. This is done in the following.
It can be seen from Table 8.1 that data on X and Y variables are given in the first two
columns. The succeeding two columns in the table give the calculations necessary to
solve two normal equations given above. The expected value of Y and error value are
given in the last two columns.
Table 8.1: Computations of Data for Regression Analysis
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

X Y X2 XY Expected Error
value of Y
6 8 36 48 7.4 0.6
2 4 4 8 4.8 -0.8
10 10 100 100 10.0 0.0
4 7 16 28 6.1 0.9
8 8 64 64 8.7 -0.7
TOTAL 30 37 220 248 37 0.0

As the normal equations are:
Y = na + b X ……(8,8)
XY = a X+b X2 ……(8.9)
We substitute the respective values from the Table 1.
Thus,
37 = 5a + 30b …………(8.10)
134 248 = 30a + 220b ……..(8.11)
If we multiply equation (3) by 6 and subtract the product from equation (4) we get : Statistical Techniques
248 = 30a + 220b

222 = 30a + 180b
- - -
40b = 26
or b = 0.65
On substituting the value of b in equation (8.10) we get:
37 = 5a + 30 x 0.65
or 5a = 17.5 or a = 3.5
So the regression line is
Y = 3.5 + 0.65 X ……(8.12)
If we substitute the values of X in the regression line that is equation (8.12), we get the
expected values of Y. For example, when X = 2
Y = 3.5 + 0.65 x 2 = 4.8
But our observed value of Y against X = 2 is 4. This difference between the observed
value and the expected value (4 - 4.8 = -0.8) is the error ‘e’.
The expected values of Y and e are given in the Table 8.1 above in columns (5) and (6).
Notice that the sum of errors for the sample is zero, i.e. Se = 0
X
For computational purposes we may use the following formulae to find out the value of
a and b.
Let us take
X = (X - X)
Y = (Y-Y)
XY =(X - X)(Y - Y)
Where and Y are the arithmetic means of X and Y variables respectively. This formula
gives
xy
b ........((8.13)
x2
a Y bX ........( (8.14)
Since these formulae are derived from the normal equations, we get the same values for
‘a’ and ‘b’ in this method also.
The steps in computation are:
1) Find out the values of X and Y
2) Find out x = (X - X) and y = (Y - Y) 135
Tools for Research 3) Find out the values of xy
4) Find out the values of x 2
5) Apply the formulae in equations (8.13) and (8.14) above.
On applying the above formulae in the example given in Table 1, above we get the data
given in Table 2.
Table 8.2: Computation of Regression Equation: Short cut Method
X Y X= (X - X) Y = (Y - Y) xy X2
6 8 0 0.6 0 0
2 4 -4 -3.4 13.6 16
10 10 4 2.6 10.4 16
4 7 -2 -0.4 0.8 4
8 8 2 0.6 1.2 4
Total 30 37 26.0 40
1 xy
X X 30 / 5 6 b 26 / 40 0.65
n x2
1
Y Y 37 / 5 7.4 a Y bX 3.5
n
Needless to mention that values for a and b are same as derived earler.
8.5.2 Properties of Regression Coefficient
Coefficient ‘b’ is called the regression coefficient. Notice that we can draw two regression
lines from the data on X and Y.
(a) Y on X line, Y = a + bX
(b) X on Y line, X= + Y
The two coefficients, b and ß, demonstrate some interesting properties. First, the product
of both regression coefficients is equal to the square of r ( correlation coefficient), i.e.,
bß=r2
So once we know both regression coefficients we can find out the value of r 2. By
taking the square root of r 2 we get r. Second if the regression coefficients are negative
in sign, then the correlation coefficients also is negative. If the regression coefficients
are positive then correlation is positive. Third, you know that
, i.e., r lies between - 1 and +1
Therefore r2 lies between zero and +1. Regression coefficient can take finite value. But
is one regression coefficient is more than 1 the other regression coefficient is less than
1. Both regression coefficients cannot exceed unity. Also it follows that the product of
both, which is r 2, cannot exceed unity. The square of correlation coefficient is called
the coefficient of determination and implies important characteristics. If r 2, the coefficient
of determination, is closer to one we can infer that the independent variable explains
the movements in the dependent variable. If the coefficient of determination is closer to
136 zero, the independent variable does not explain the variation in the dependent variable.
8.5.3 Non-linear Regression Statistical Techniques
In the previous sub-section we discussed the simple linear regression involving two
variables: one dependent and the other independent. Regression can involve one
dependent variable and more than one independent variable. Such cases are called
multiple regressions.
The equation fitted in regression can be non-linear or curvilinear. It can take numerous
forms. A simpler form involving two variables is the quadratic form. The equation is
Y = a + bX + CX2
There are three parameters here, viz., a,b and c, and the normal equations are :
Y = na + b X+c X2
XY = a X+b X2 + c X3
X2 Y = a X2 + b X3 + c X4
Notice again that the normal equations are the regression equation multiplied by the
coefficients of a,b and c and summed over all observations.
Certain non-linear equations can be transformed into linear equations by taking
logarithms. Finding out the optimum values of the parameters from the transformed
linear equations is the same as the process discussed in the previous sections. We give
below some of the frequently used non-linear equations and the respective transformed
linear equations.
1) Y = a e bx
1 By taking natural log ( that is, ln), it can be written as
Y
a bX ln Y = ln a + b X
Or Y = a + ß X
Where, Y = ln Y, a = in a, X = X and ß = b
2) Y=aXb
By taking log, the equation can be transformed into
log Y = log a + b log X
Or Y = a + ß X
Where, Y = log Y, = log a, ß = b and X = log X
3)
1
If we take Y ' then
Y
Y ' a bX
4) Y=a+b X
If we take X = X then
Y=a+bX
137
Tools for Research Once the non-linear equation is transformed, the fitting of a regression line is as per the
method discussed in the beginning of this section. We derive the normal equations and
substitute the values calculated from the observed data. From the transformed
parameters, the actual parameters can be obtained by making the reverse transformation
8.5.4 Prediction
A major interest in studying regression lies in its ability to forecast. In the illustration at
the beginning we assumed that the number of books issued depend upon the number
of visitors. We fitted a linear equation to the observed data and got the relationship
Y = 3.5 + 0.65 X
From this equation we can forecast the number of books issued given the number of
visitors. For example, if the number of visitors goes up to 30, then the number of
books issued will be
Y = 3.5 + 0.65 x 30 = 23
The procedure is to substitute the X value in the regression equation and get the expected
Y value.
The question that arises here is: Will the predicted value come true? It depends upon
the coefficient of determination. If the coefficient of determination is closer to one,
there is greater likelihood that the prediction will be realized. However, the predicted
value is constrained by elements of randomness involved with human behaviour and
other unforeseen factors.
Self Check Exercise
4) Given below is the data on X and Y
X : 15 17 20 22 25 33
Y : 25 22 30 31 37 35
i) Find out the regression line Y on X.
ii) Find out the regression line X on Y.
iii) Find out the coefficient of determination.
iv) Find out the Pearson’s product moment correlation.
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138
8.6 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS
In regression analysis, we discussed the cause and effect relationship between the
dependent and the independent variables. The independent variable can be any
characteristic based on our reasoning. When the independent variable is ‘time’, we
call it ‘time series’. We assume that the dependent variable depends upon time or
varies according to time.
In our day-to-day life we encounter several instances where certain characteristics
vary according to time. The stock in a library, the expenditure on user facilities, etc.,
are a few examples.
One of the important tasks before librarians and information managers is to make
estimates for the future. For example, a publisher may want to know his probable
sales for the next year, so that he can properly plan and take steps to avoid the possibility
of unsold stocks or lack of supply of some books published by him. A librarian may
wish to study the trend of book issued in order to take appropriate measures while
making his future plans. For all these purposes, one needs to consult the data, which
have been collected and recorded at successive intervals of time. Such statistical data
is referred to as ‘time series’ data.
An example of time series data could be the number of books on Library and Information
Science issued during 1995 to 2004. These data may be recorded as follows:
Table 8.3: Hypothetical Data Recorded on Books Issued Over Time
Year No.of Books Issued
1995 356
1996 350
1997 391
1998 289
1999 408
2000 412
2001 405
2002 482
2003 497
2004 469
A close look at the data would show that the demand of the books has increased with
some fluctuations. There may be several reasons for increase or decrease during a
certain period.
8.6.1 Components of Time Series
The fluctuations in time series may be classified into the following types of variations.
a) Secular trend
b) Seasonal variation
139
Tools for Research c) Cyclical variation
d) Irregular variation
A time series may have the above components in combination as well.
a) Secular Trend
Changes which take place as a result of general tendency of the data to increase
or decrease are known as secular movement. The general movement persisting
over a long period of time is called secular trend. The above time series example
for data on books issued is an example of secular trend.
b) Seasonal Variation
Changes or variations, which seasonally occur within a period of one year as a
result of changes in climate, weather, important happenings etc., are called seasonal
variations. It may be possible that in the data on books issued in the above
example (If made available on a month to month basis), the year starts with a low
figure in the beginning, reaches its peak in the middle and decreases at the end of
the year. This type of Fluctuation within a span of a year is called seasonal variation.
c) Cyclical Variation
Changes that take place due to cyclic fluctuations like prosperity and depression
may be termed as cyclical variations. In every business cycle there are four periods,
(i) prosperity (ii) decline, (iii) depression and (iv) improvement. Cyclical variations
are of a longer duration than a year.
d) Irregular Variation
Changes, which take place due to the factors that, could not be predicted like
violent riots, natural calamities, etc., come under irregular variation.
The components of time series data, viz., seasonal, trend, cyclical and irregular,
can be separated. In a traditional time series analysis, it is assumed that there is a
multiplicative relationship among these four components. This may be represented
symbolically as follows:
Y=TxSxCxI
Where T = Secular Trend
S = Seasonal Variation
C = Cyclical Variation
I = Irregular Variation
This is called the multiplicative model. In another approach, it is assumed that
Y=T+S+C+I
A model formulation of this category is called ‘additive model’.
8.6.2 Measurement of Secular Trends
There are various methods for determining secular trends.
The most frequently used methods are:
140
1. Moving average method, and Statistical Techniques
2. Method of least squares.

a) Method of Moving Average
It is a method of smoothing out fluctuations by calculating a series of averages by
allowing overlapping periods of the time series. Before the moving average is calculated,
it is necessary to select a proper period of moving average like three yearly, five-
yearly, etc.
If the period chosen is m years, the moving averages are obtained by calculating a
series of mean values of m consecutive values covering overlapping periods of the
series. The mean of the first m values, given by (Y1 + Y2 +……+ Ym )
is placed at the mid-point of the period covering the first m years.

It would be the first moving average value. The second moving average value will be
obtained by calculating mean of values covering the period 2nd to (m+1)th years. For
1
example: (Y + Y2 +…… +Y m 1 ) will be the next moving average and so on. This
m 1
process is repeated till the last observation is covered.
The formula of the three-yearly moving average will be:
1/3 (Y1 + Y2 + Y3), 1/3 (Y2 + Y3 + Y4), 1/3 (Y3 + Y4 + Y5) and so on.
And that of five-yearly moving average will be
1 1/5 (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y5), 1/5 (Y2 + Y3 + Y4 + Y5 + Y6) and so on.
m The above procedure will be easy to understand from the following illustration.
Illustration
Calculate a three-yearly moving average from the following sales figures of a publisher.
Table 8.4: Hypothetical Data for Computation of Moving Average
Year Sales (hundred units)
1990 5
1991 7
1992 9
1993 12
1994 11
1995 10
1996 8
1997 12
1998 13
1999 17
2000 19
2001 14
2002 13
2003 12
2004 15 141
Tools for Research Data on sales of books for 15 years are given above. To calculate three-yearly moving
average, we take, to begin with, the first three years total. This is 5+7+9=21 and place
this value against the middle observation, i.e., against 1971. In column (4) of Table 8.5
the moving average, i.e., the three-yearly total divided by the period (which is 3 in this
case) is given. Thus 21/3=7 for the first entry.
Following a similar procedure other calculations are made and results are presented in
the table given below.
Table 8.5: Computation of Three-Yearly Moving Average
Year Sales 3-yearly 3-yearly

Totals Moving Average
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1990 5
1991 7 21 7.0
1992 9 28 9.33
1993 12 32 10.67
1994 11 33 11.00
1995 10 29 9.67
1996 8 30 10.00
1997 12 33 11.00
1998 13 42 14.00
1999 17 49 16.33
2000 19 50 16.67
2001 14 46 15.33
2002 13 39 13.00
2003 12 40 13.33
2004 15
From the illustration above it may be noted that we do not get moving average value for
the beginning and the end years. In the case of a five-yearly moving average, we lose
moving averages for the beginning two years and the two years at the end. This loss of
information increases as the ‘period’ of moving average increases. Secondly, from the
moving averages, we cannot predict the figures for the future. It is just an analysis of
past behaviour.
b) Method of Least Squares
We used this method earlier to obtain the regression lines. The procedure here is very
similar to the fitting of regression lines. Here the independent variable is ‘time’ t. The
first step is to form the equation of ‘secular trend’. As you know, both straight lines and
curves can be fitted by the least squares method. If Y is the dependent variable, the
straight line to be fitted is Y = a +bt. Again, we have to minimize the error between the
142 observed and the expected values. The method of least squares suggests that the sum
of squares of the error terms should be the minimum. From this method, the relationship Statistical Techniques
between dependent and independent variables is estimated from the normal equations.
For a linear equation Y = a +bt, the normal equations are:
Y = na + b t
tY = a t + b t2
The constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ are determined from these two equations, and ‘n’ indicates
the number of observations in the sample.
We measure the variable ‘t’ by taking the mid-point of time as the origin. Suppose n
=5 years. Then taking the origin at the third year of the time, we get t = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2.
It may be seen that t = 0 for the third year.
In case the number of years covered is even, say 6 years, the origin at the mid point of
the two middle years, i.e., at 6 months past the third year is considered. In such cases
t takes values
t = -5, -3, -1, +1, +3, +5
To fit a linear trend line by making use of the data given in Table 8.5 above, the necessary
computations are summarised in Table 8.6 below.
Table 8. 6: Data Computation of Time Trend
Year t Sales tY t2
1990 -7 5 -35 49
1991 -6 7 -42 36
1992 -5 9 -45 25
1993 -4 12 -48 16
1994 -3 11 -33 9
1995 -2 10 -20 4
1996 -1 8 -8 1
1997 0 12 0 0
1998 1 13 13 1
1999 2 17 34 4
2000 3 19 57 9
2001 4 14 56 16
2002 5 13 65 25
2003 6 12 72 36
2004 7 15 105
Total 0 177 171 280
Recall that the normal equations are:
Y = na + b t
tY = a t+ t2 143
Tools for Research Substituting the respective values from the values from the table, we get,
177 = 15 a + b 0
171 = a 0 + b 280
or
15a =177 or, a = 11.8
280b =171 or, b = 0.61
So the trend line is Y = 1.8 +0.61 t
Remember that ‘t’ is the codified time value with 197 as the origin.
The method of least squares enables us to forecast future values for Y. This is done by
substituting the ‘t’ value in the equation.
In the illustration given above, the sales books (in hundred units) in the year 2006 will
be 17.29.
Y = 11.8 +0.61 9 = 17.29
In place of ‘t’ 9 is substituted since starting with 1997, the year of origin, 2006will be 9
years. The predicted sales of books (in hundred units) in the year 2006 will be 17.29.
As you know, non-linear trends can also be fitted to the observed data. Hence,
predictions can also be made on them. In the analysis of trend line, we make the
implicit assumption that the past behaviour continues to persist in a future period also.
So, a change in the past behaviour would make prediction unreliable.
8.6.3 Measurement of Other Components
Seasonal variation and cyclical fluctuation are periodic and recurring movements in the
data. It has been stated above that the seasonal variation is short term in nature and
usually the periodicity is less than a year. In contrast to this, the cyclical fluctuation lasts
longer than a year.
Just as there are several methods of measuring the seasonal variations viz., ratio to
trend method, ratio to moving averages method and link relative method, the cyclical
fluctuations can be measured by harmonic analysis, spectrum analysis, etc. These
methods involve tedious calculations and hence are not discussed here. If you are
interested in these methods, you may look into the books referred to at the end of this
Unit. However, attempts to separate the time series of its four components - seasonal,
trend, cyclical and erratic, may follow some simple procedure. This is briefly spelt out
in the following:
a) The seasonal component described above can be estimated with the help of moving
average. This component can be eliminated from the original observations through
subtraction if we assume an additive model..
b) The trend of the seasonally adjusted data are then estimated by means of least
square straight line or some other function fitted by least squares described above.
The trend component can be eliminated from the seasonally adjusted data.
c) The residuals, which remain after the elimination of seasonal and trend components
from the original time series can be recorded and potted graphically. This residual
variation may be compared visually or through some other method. The remaining
144 variations of the data series are attributed to cyclical and erratic components.
8.7 SUMMARY
In this Unit we discussed various statistical techniques for analyzing data. Often it is
necessary to provide a summary figure for a set or series of data. Such figure could be
a measure of central tendency such as mean, median and mode, or it could be a
measure of dispersion such as variance, standard deviation and coefficient of variation.
There are cases where more than one characteristic of a sampling unit is measured. In
such type of data, we can find out the correlation coefficient or we can fit a regression
equation. Remember that correlation does not show a cause and effect relationship
between variables. It only shows the strength of relationship. In regression analysis
variables are divided into two categories: independent and dependent. Regression
equation can be a straight line or a curve depending upon the type of equation fitted.
Often we have data at certain intervals for a sufficiently long period of time. Such data
re called time series and contains certain components, viz., secular trend, cyclical
variation, seasonal variation and irregular movements.

1) The standard deviation comes out to be 21.07. Apply the formula given in the text
and check the answer.
2) The correlation coefficient r = +0.61.
3) a) It is defined as the positive square root of variance and denoted by .
= +
2
b) Variance is the most widely used measure of dispersion. It is denoted by the
symbol 2 (read as ‘sigma-squared’) and is defined as
2 1 1 2
Variance = (X i X )2 Xi X
N N
In the case of frequency distribution variance is given by
2 1
fi (X i X )2
N
where N f i , the total number of observations.

i 1
In order to simplify calculation we use the following formula
2 1
f i X i2 X2
N
c)
145
Tools for Research n
6 Di 2
d) rs 1 i 1
2
n(n 1)
4) i) You have to find out the normal equations and substitute the values in the
equations. The estimated regression line will be Y = 13.94 + 0.73 X
ii) The regression line for X on Y will be X = a + bY
Consequently the normal equations will be
∑X = nα+ β ∑Y
∑XY = α∑Y + β∑Y2
The estimated regression line will be
X = -5.6 + 0.92 Y
iii) The coefficient of determination is the product of regression coefficients of
both the regression lines. So, it is 0.73 x 0.92 = 0.067
iv) Correlation coefficient is the square root of coefficient of determination, i.e.,
r = Ö 0.067 = 0.82. Since the regression coefficient is positive in sign, the
correlation coefficient is also positive.
8.9 KEYWORDS
Arithmetic Mean : Sum of observed values of a set divided by the number
of observations in the set is called a mean or an average.
Median : In a set of observations, it is the value of the middlemost
item when they are arranged in order of magnitude.
Mode : In a set of observations, it is the value which occurs
with maximum frequency.
Coefficient of Variation : It is a relative measure of dispersion which is
independent of the units of measurement. As opposed
to this Standard Deviation is a pure number.
Range : It is the difference between the largest and the smallest
observations of a given set of data.
Standard Deviation : It is the positive square root of the variance.
Variance : It is the arithmetic mean of squares of deviations of
observations from their arithmetic mean.
Normal Equations : A set of simultaneous equations derived in the
application of the least squares method, for example
in regression analysis. They are used to estimate the
parameters of the model.
Regression : It is a statistical measure of the average relationship
between two or more variables in terms of the original
units of the data.
146
Cyclical Variations : Oscillatory movements of a time series where the period Statistical Techniques
of oscillation, called cycle, is more than a year.
Irregular Movement : The random movement of time series, which is not
explained by other components. In this sense it is a
residual of other components.
Method of Least Squares : When a polynomial function is fitted to the time series,
the method of least squares requires that the parameters
of the function should be so chosen as to make the
sum of squares of the deviations between actual
observations and expected values to be minimum.
Seasonal Variation : Periodical movement where the period is not longer
than one year.
Secular Trend : The smooth, regular and long-term movement of a time
series over a period of time. Trend may be upward or
rising, downward or declining or it may remain more
or less constant over time.

Sanders, D. H. (1980). Statistics: A Fresh Approach. New Delhi: McGraw Hill.
Rao, I. K. R. (1983). Quantitative Methods for Library and Information Science.
New Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
147
UNIT 9 STATISTICAL PACKAGES
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Statistical Packages
9.2.1 Definition
9.2.2 Data Measurement
9.2.3 Functions of Statistics
9.3 Features of Some Statistical Packages

9.3.1 Microsoft-Excel
9.3.2 SPSS
9.4 Other Softwares for Statistical Analysis

9.5 Summary
9.7 Keywords
9.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you would be able to:
• define the word “statistics”;
• describe the different data types and data formats;
• illustrate the role of statistical methods;
• describe the features of statistical packages like SPSS and MS-Excel; and
• portray some of the popular statistical packages.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the features of the development of modern world is the development of the
capacity to convert observations in numbers. The science, which deals with numbers,
is statistics. It crunches the numbers and organises them in a meaningful way so that
information is generated. This information builds up knowledge and thus the development
goes on. Advances in computing have come handy in this as they help in doing this part
of job accurately, timely effectively and convincingly.
Computer can help immensely in the statistical analysis. There exist numerous statistical
tools and the need is to identify their actual usage. Even with the use of a statistical
package many statistical procedures require a lot of prior knowledge and insight.
In this Unit, we have tried to build-up a case for the usage of statistics by first defining
statistics and what it can do to your data. You will further find the definition of the data
types. An explanation of the common tasks that are performed in a preliminary analysis
is also given. This Unit also presents a description of two popular packages (MS Excel
148 and SPSS) and gives a glimpse of some other statistical packages.
Statistical Packages
9.2 STATISTICAL PACKAGES
Before going on to the definition of statistical packages, one needs to revisit the
definition of statistics and its functions. In this section, we would highlight the areas/
problems that statistics as a discipline addresses to and the kind of data one gets for the
statistical applications.
9.2.1 Definition
The term “Statistics” is used as a “collection of numerical facts or data”. It is also used
in terms of a “body of methods and techniques for analyzing numerical data”. Statistical
techniques have many purposes, which include methods and procedures for summarising,
simplifying, reducing and presenting raw data. It then makes predictions, tests hypotheses
and infers characteristics of a population from the characteristics of a sample. In other
words, Statistics is generally thought of as serving two functions. One is to describe
sets of data; the other is to help in drawing inferences. When you are studying only a
sample, there is possibility that your assumption may not be accurate and you can never
be certain that you have drawn the correct inference. For this reason the inferential use
of statistics may be thought of as helping you to make decisions under conditions of
uncertainty. It is different from guessing, because Statistics also provides you with a
method of estimating how reliable your conclusions are. With each statistical statement
that you make, you indicate the probability that findings like yours could have been the
result of chance factors.
A statistical package is the software for the collection, organisation, interpretation, and
presentation of numerical information. The need for a statistical package has arisen
because of the complexity of calculations involved in making inferences from the data.
The advances in computing technologies have made statistics a yet more powerful field.
According to Ripley (2004), “The most widely used piece of statistical packages/
software for statistics is Excel. SPSS and SAS dominate certain communities, and
Minitab is widely used in teaching. Many niche products, e.g. GenStat, Generalised
Linear Interactive Modelling Package (GLIM), Stata and S-PLUS dominate the high-
end, hence is widely seen in methodology papers.”
9.2.2 Data Measurement
Statistical data is generally obtained in many formats such as spreadsheets (e.g.
MS Excel) or databases (e.g. MS Access). Data may also be received in various open
formats such as typically tab-delimited text (*.dat, *.tab, *.txt), comma-separated text
or fixed-width text data (*.dat, *.txt).
The data could be of two types, qualitative and quantitative. Most of the statistical
methods are based on the quantitative data. Quantitative variable is a variable whose
values are numbers with real numeric meaning. It consists of mainly two types of data
viz. discrete and continuous. A set of data is said to be discrete if the values/observations
belonging to it are distinct and separate, i.e. they can be counted e.g. number of books
in a library. Whereas, a set of data is said to be continuous if the values/observations
belonging to it may take on any value within a finite or infinite interval.
There are four well-known levels of measurement scales i.e. nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio. There is a relationship between the level of measurement and the
appropriateness of various statistical procedures. For example, it would be impractical
to compute the mean of nominal measurements. Data must be measured on an interval
or a ratio scale for the computation of means and other statistics to be valid. Therefore,
149
Tools for Research if data are measured on an ordinal scale, the median but not the mean can serve as a
measure of central tendency. Let us have a brief discussion of what these scales are:
1) Nominal Scale
Nominal measurement consists of assigning items to groups or categories. No quantitative
information is conveyed and no ordering of the items is implied. Nominal scales are
therefore qualitative rather than quantitative. Religious preference, race, and sex are all
examples of nominal scales. Frequency distributions are usually used to analyse data
measured on a nominal scale. The main statistic computed is the mode. Variables
measured on a nominal scale are often referred to as categorical or qualitative variables.
Nominal variables allow for only qualitative classification. That is, they can be measured
only in terms of whether the individual items belong to some distinctively different
categories, but we cannot quantify or even rank order those categories
2) Ordinal Scale
Measurements with ordinal scales are ordered in the sense that higher numbers represent
higher values. However, the intervals between the numbers are not necessarily equal.
Ordinal variables allow us to rank order the items we measure in terms of which has
less and which has more of the quality represented by the variable, but still they do not
allow us to say “how much more.”
3) Interval Scale (Cardinal Scale)
On interval measurement scales, one unit on the scale represents the same magnitude
on the trait or characteristic being measured across the whole range of the scale. Interval
scales do not have a “true” zero point, however, and therefore it is not possible to make
statements about how many times higher one score is than another. True interval
measurement is somewhere between rare and nonexistent in the behavioral sciences. A
good example of an interval scale is the Fahrenheit scale for temperature. Interval
variables allow us not only to rank order the items that are measured, but also to
quantify and compare the sizes of differences between them.
4) Ratio Scale
Ratio scales are like interval scales except they have true zero points. Ratio variables
are very similar to interval variables. In addition to all the properties of interval variables,
they feature an identifiable absolute zero point, thus they allow for statements such as x
is two times more than y. A typical example of ratio scales is measure of time or space.
Interval scales do not have the ratio property. Most statistical data analysis procedures
do not distinguish between the interval and ratio properties of the measurement scales.
9.2.3 Functions of Statistics
Many people intend to use statistical techniques in their research. It is definitely a good
practice to substantiate your claims with the help of data. Statistics has various functions,
which can be broadly categorised as follows:
1) Summarise and Describe data: One summarises and describes the data in order
to view data at a glance. If it is nominal or ordinal data, one makes cross-tabulations
and graphs; if it is interval or ratio data then z-scores are calculated.
2) Variance and distribution of the data: In order to measure the spread of the
data and knowing its distributions one makes tables and charts and graphs for
nominal/ordinal data and histograms with normal curve or box plots with inter-
quartile range for interval/ratio data.
3) Compare groups: When one has to compare two or more populations then one
makes cross-tabulations for nominal/ordinal data and employ testing of hypothesis
150
for continuous/numeric data divided into groups.
4) Identify relationships: In order to identify relationships in the data, one uses cross- Statistical Packages
tabulations for nominal/ordinal data; calculate correlation coefficient and scatter
plot for Interval/ratio data or go for linear regression/ ANOVA for data with one
dependent and 2 or more predictor variables.
5) Identify groups of similar cases: Carrying out hierarchical cluster analysis solves
the problem of identifying groups of similar cases or k-means cluster analysis. One
uses Discriminant analysis for identify characteristics of known groups.
6) Identify groups of similar variables: Factor analysis is carried out to identify
groups of similar variables.
Self Check Exercise
1) Define a Statistical package. Describe its need and purpose.
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9.3 FEATURES OF SOME STATISTICAL PACKAGES

Advances in computing especially the advent of the personal computer (PC) have made
computing a game of the commoners. Today one has the computing power as one can
easily load software of his choice or need into his PC. There is a plethora of read-made
computer packages available today. Now one can find different statistical packages
for applications to different disciplines. We will describe two such packages that are
ready available and are popular and user friendly. We will also give a glimpse of some
other packages in the subsequent section.
9.3.1 Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is a big worksheet (it can take data rows in thousands across 256
columns). This worksheet can be used for data entry and for performing calculations by
click of buttons. It has a “paste function where you can paste any formula from a big list
of inbuilt functions. MS Excel can be used to create tables, and graphs and perform
statistical calculations. The work done in MS Excel can be easily copied and pasted to
many window-based programs for further analysis.
According to Pottel, “Spreadsheets are a useful and popular tool for processing and
presenting data. In fact, Microsoft Excel spreadsheets have become somewhat of a
standard for data storage, at least for smaller data sets. The fact that the program is
often being packaged with new computers, which increases its easy availability, naturally
encourages its use for statistical analysis. However, many statisticians find this unfortunate,
since Excel is clearly not a statistical package. There is no doubt about that, and Excel
has never claimed to be one. But one should face the facts that due to its easy availability
many people, including professional statisticians, use Excel, even on a daily basis, for
quick and easy statistical calculations. Therefore, it is important to know the flaws in 151
Tools for Research Excel, which, unfortunately, still exist today! …. ‘‘Excel is clearly not an adequate
statistics package because many statistical methods are simply not available. This lack
of functionality makes it difficult to use it for more than computing summary statistics
and simple linear regression and hypothesis testing”. However in MS Excel 2003 aspects
of the some statistical functions, including rounding results, and precision have been
enhanced.
The MS Excel worksheet is a collection of cells. As we have earlier said, there are
65,000 (rows) X 256 (columns) cells in an MS Excel worksheet. Each row or column
can be used to enter data belonging to one category. Data entry in MS Excel is as
simple as writing on a piece of paper. MS Excel assigns each column a field depending
upon the type of data. It supports various data formats; one can choose a data format
by formatting the cells.
Fig. 9.1: Screen Snapshot of MS-Excel for Choosing Data Format
Once the type of cells is defined it is easy to enter the data without taking care of the
format. MS Excel can perform usual calculations on the data so entered. It has an insert
function (fx) icon that contains many inbuilt functions like sum, count, max/min, standard
deviation etc. In fact it has a plethora of built-in functions that performs special
calculations without even typing the formula. To perform a calculation one has to select
a function and specify the range of values on which it has to be applied. These functions
are known as paste functions.
152 Fig. 9.2: Screen Snapshot of Function Menu Options in MS-Excel

We will concentrate on the statistical functions and see some of the major statistical Statistical Packages
functions of MS Excel. As you can see in figure 9.2, once you go to the function menu
and choose “statistical” category, you will be asked to select a function. Suppose you
have chosen t-test. You will be told on the same screen that t-test returns the probability
associated with a student’s t-test. Now if you are still not comfortable with the
description, you may select help on this function, which is at the bottom left of the
screen. More help is offered in the following form.
Fig. 9.3: Screen Snapshot of Help for TTest in MS-Excel

MS Excel has a built-in statistical package for taking you in further details of data
analysis. It provides a set of data analysis tools called the Analysis ToolPak, which you
can use to save steps when you develop complex statistical analyses. You provide the
data and parameters for each analysis; the tool uses the appropriate statistical macro
functions and then displays the results in an output table. Some tools generate charts in
addition to output tables.
To access these tools, click Data Analysis on the Tools menu.
Fig. 9.4: Screen Snapshot of Data Analysis Function in MS-Excel
Let us have a brief description of these tools. The table given below highlights their
functions and uses. 153
Tools for Research Table 9.1: Data Analysis Tools in MS-Excel
Sl.
No. Tool Function Use
1 ANOVA The ANOVA tools provide Test of the hypothesis that
different types of variance each sample is drawn from the
analysis. same underlying probability
distribution,
2 Correlation Calculate the correlation Examine each pair of
Covariance coefficient/ Covariance measurement variables to
between two variables when determine whether the two
measurements on each measurement variables tend to
variable are observed for each move together
of N subjects.
3 Descriptive Generates a report of Describes the data in an
Statistics univariate statistics for data, interpretable format and sow
providing information about summary statistics like mean,
the central tendency and mode, median, std. deviation,
variability of your data. skewness, kurtosis and range
etc.
4 Exponential Predicts a value based on the Forecast on the basis of a
Smoothing forecast for the prior period, smoothing constant.
adjusted for the error in that
prior forecast
5 F-Test Performs a two-sample F-test Test that these two samples
to compare two population come from distributions with
variances. equal variances.
6 Moving Projects values in the forecast Forecast trends on the basis
Average period, based on the average of past figures.
value of the variable over a
specific number of preceding
periods.
7 Regression Performs linear regression Analyse how a single
analysis analysis by using the “least dependent variable is affected
squares” method to fit a line by the values of one or more
through a set of observations. independent variables.
8 Sampling Creates a sample from a Infer about a population on the
analysis population by treating the input basis of a sample.
range as a population.
9 t-Test, Determine whether the two Compare two population
z-Test samples are likely to have means when the population
come from distributions with variances are known and
equal population means unknown
Source: Based on the Microsoft Office Excel 2003 help function
You have seen that MS Excel can do virtually most of common statistical calculations.
There are two more features that are worth mentioning when one talks about the statistical
functions of MS Excel. These two are cross tabulations, pivot tables and the graphical
154 features.
MS Excel can be used to create cross tabulations or two-way frequency tables across Statistical Packages
categorical variables. In MS Excel there is a pivot table wizard which helps in creating
tables in multi-dimensions. Let us explain these concepts with the help of an example.
The data given below is the percentage contribution of a country to world research in
a particular subject area.
Table 9.2: Percentage Contribution of a Country to World Research
in a Particular Subject
Countries Chem. Engg. Clin. Med. Phy. Mat. Sc. Plant. Sc.
Argentina 0.57 0.26 0.31 0.56 0.36 0.92
Australia 1.56 2.18 2.51 1.36 1.69 4.56
France 6.17 4.9 5.7 7.08 5.81 5.16
Germany 9.38 6.56 8.12 9.89 9.07 6.6
Hungary 0.83 0.44 0.25 0.54 0.41 0.61
India 4.02 2.68 0.85 2.51 4.02 3.49
Ireland 0.22 0.27 0.36 0.21 0.27 0.37
Israel 0.79 1.06 1.26 1.37 0.71 1.11
Italy 3.62 4.02 4.4 4.42 2.48 2.33
Japan 11.33 9.75 8.21 11.14 13.77 6.98
Now suppose you want to make a pivot table that would enable you to visualise a
country whose contributions differ in the disciplines of physics and chemistry. You can
simply drag the subject field in rows and column. This would enable you to see that
e.g. the shaded countries Hungary and India have significantly different contributions.
Count of
Countries Chem. Grand
Phy. 0.22 0.57 0.79 0.83 1.56 3.62 4.02 6.17 9.38 11.33 Total
0.21 1 1
123
123
123
0.54 1
123 1
0.56 1 1
1.36 1 1
1.37 1 1
123
123
2.51 123
1 1
123
4.42 1 1
7.08 1 1
9.89 1 1
11.14 1 1
Grand
Total 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 155
Tools for Research There could be many more such cross-tabulations depending upon the need of the
researcher. The most pleasant part of working with MS Excel is the ease with which you
can drag these fields and have a customised layout as per your wish. It is said that in MS
Excel, the most demanding work is to input the data, the analysis being the easiest. You
can use pivot table effectively to present data where two-dimensional tables are important.
One of the major advantages of this feature is that once the table is prepared, we can
change the summary from one characteristic to another.
Similarly, if you want to make a graphical presentation of the data then you can go to the
chart wizard and choose the chart that you want to make. MS Excel has a built-in facility
to create graphs and charts. There are several types of charts and graphs supported by
MS Excel like bar charts, line charts, pie charts and scatter diagrams etc. The chart
wizard menu can be summoned by clicking on the graph icon from the menu bar. The
chart wizard looks like the following
Fig. 9.5 : Screen Snapshot of Chart Wizard in MS-Excel
Now suppose you want to make a pivot table that would enable you to visualize a
country whose contributions differ in the disciplines of physics and chemistry. You can
simply drag the subject field in rows and column. This would enable you to see that e.g.
the shaded countries Hungary and India have significantly different contributions.
Fig. 9.6 : Screen Snapshot of Chart Companies of the Contribution of Countries to Chemistry
156 & Engineering
So you have seen that it is pretty simple to create a graph and visualize your data once Statistical Packages
you have some data in your worksheet. These graphs are very useful for common user
requirements. We can cut copy and paste these graphs to any document of MS Word
or PowerPoint.
Self-Check Exercise
2) Enumerate the data analysis tools in MS-Excel.
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9.3.2 SPSS
SPSS is the short form for Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). It is a very
popular package due to its features and compatibility with other window-based
programs. In the late 1960s, three Stanford University graduate students developed the
SPSS statistical software system.
SPSS can take data input from many packages like dBase (*.dbf), Excel (*.xls), Lotus
123 (*.w*) and others like *.dat and *.txt. It can filter the data and perform analysis
only in selected cases.
Fig. 9.7 : Screen Snapshot of SPSS Data Editor
Once you open a data file you can go to the analyze menu and start working on the
statistical aspects of the data. Figure 9.7 shows you the menu for the descriptive statistics.
You can find the frequencies, cross-tabulations, and ratios etc. You can see that there is
a long list of statistical analysis in the analyze menu. We will give you a glimpse of what
these functions do. 157
Tools for Research
Fig. 9.8: Screen Snapshot of Help Topics in SPSS
Table 9.3 : Functions of Statistical Analysis in SPSS

Tool/ Module Statistical Procedures
Report OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) Cubes, Summarize

procedure, Report Summaries in rows, Report Summaries in
Columns
Descriptive Statistics Frequencies procedure, Descriptive procedure, Explore

procedure, Cross-tabs procedure, Ratio Statistics procedure
Compare means Means procedure, One-Sample T Test procedure, independent-

Samples T Test procedure, Paired-Samples T Test procedure,
One-Way ANOVA procedure
General Linear Model GLM Univariate procedure
Correlate Bivariate Correlations procedure, Partial Correlations
procedure, calculates statistics measuring either similarities or
dissimilarities (distances)
Regression Linear Regression procedure, Curve Estimation procedure
Classify K-Means Cluster Analysis procedure, Hierarchical Cluster

Analysis procedure, Discriminant Analysis procedure
Data Reduction Factor analysis procedure
Scale Reliability analysis procedure, Multidimensional scaling
procedure
Non Parametric Chi-Square Test procedure, Binomial Test procedure, Runs Test
Tests procedure, One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test procedure,
Two-Independent-Samples Tests procedure, Tests for Several
Independent Samples procedure, Two-Related-Samples Tests
procedure, Tests for Several Related Samples procedure
Multiple Response Define Multiple Response Sets procedure, Multiple Response
Frequencies procedure, Multiple Response Cross-tabs
procedure.
158 Source: SPSS for Windows Release 11.0 Help
One can see that many of these tools are available in MS Excel also, but the difference Statistical Packages
is that the output given by SPSS contains many more details regarding the statistical
aspects of the findings. For example the cross-tabs procedure forms two-way and
multi-way tables in both MS Excel and SPSS, but in SPSS it also provides a variety
of tests and measures of association for two-way tables. The supporting statistics
provided in SPSS is Pearson chi-square, likelihood-ratio chi-square, linear-by-linear
association test, Fisher’s exact test, Yates’ corrected chi-square, Pearson’s r,
Spearman’s rho, contingency coefficient, phi, Cramér’s V, symmetric and asymmetric
lambdas, Goodman and Kruskal’s tau, uncertainty coefficient, gamma, Somers’ d,
Kendall’s tau-b, Kendall’s tau-c, eta coefficient, Cohen’s kappa, relative risk estimate,
odds ratio, McNemar test, and Cochran’s and Mantel-Haenszel statistics. SPSS is
thus more comprehensive.
SPSS also supports several statistical graphs. It displays many statistics on the graph
itself. It has a feature that helps you to find a chart that is most suitable for your data,
which is called “Chart Galleries by Data Structure”.
Fig. 9.9: ScreenSnapshot of Chart Galleries by Data Structure in SPSS
Now suppose you have chosen single categorical variable as the gallery that best
describes your data. Then the next screen that will appear would be like the following
figure. Suppose here you choose Simple Pareto Counts or Sums for Groups of Cases,
then SPSS will describe what this graph does like, “Creates a bar chart summarizing
categories of a single variable, sorted in descending order. A line shows the cumulative
sum.” 159
Tools for Research
Fig. 9.10: Screen Snapshot of Gallery : Single Categorical Variable
So in this way, SPSS also acts as a mentor also. Probably, this is the reason for its
success also. SPSS has a menu called “Statistics Coach”, which asks questions about
your data like “What do you want to do with your data?”
Fig. 9.11: Screen Snapshot of Gallery : Single Categorical Variable
It asks you further questions about your data in four steps and then suggests the right
kind of analysis for your dataset. The output of SPSS appears as pivot table, which can
be cut and pasted to Word documents, Excel worksheets and PowerPoint presentations.
According to Wegman and Solka (2005), “SPSS supports numerous add-on modules
including one for regression, advanced models, classification trees, table creation, exact
tests, categorical analysis, trend analysis, conjoint analysis, missing value analysis, map-
160 based analysis, and complex samples analysis”.
Self Check Exercise Statistical Packages
3) Enumerate the statistical analysis provisions in SPSS.

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9.4 OTHER SOFTWARES FOR STATISTICAL

ANALYSIS
Modern statistics can perform very large and complex calculations with the help of
computers. There are a lot of softwares available in the market. Many of them are
shareware, freeware and online pages that perform statistical calculations. Many of the
universities offer statistics online computational resources e.g. http://www.socr.ucla.edu/
(University of California at LA), Statlib: Data, Software and News from the Statistics
Community http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/ (Carnegie Melon University) and free statistical tools
on the web http://www.cbs.nl/isi/ (International Statistical Institute). The list is endless.
We therefore restrict ourselves by giving brief introduction to some of the popular
statistical softwares. The table below presents this:
Table 9.4: Brief Description of Some Statistical Softwares
S.No. Software and Brief Description
its URL
1. The SAS System SAS evolved in the late 1960’s at North Carolina State
http://www.sas.com/ University. It has now become a system for complete data
management and analysis. SAS represents the Microsoft
of the statistical software companies. The SAS website
claims that their software resides at 40,000 sites worldwide
including 90 percent of those companies on the Fortune
500 list. SAS has given due importance to recent “statistical-
like” advances like data mining. It has integrated
mathematical/statistical methodologies, database
technology, and business applications in an effective
manner to remain at the top of the commercial statistical
software arena.
2. BMDP BMDP originated during the 1960s as a bio-medical analysis
http://www.statsol.ie/ package. It still remains a clear favorite of biomedical field.
bmdp/bmdp.htm BMDP has aligned itself with a number of other currently
popular statistical products including StatXact 5.0, LogXact
5.0, SOLAS, EquivTest, SigmaPlot, Meta Analysis, and
SYSTAT.
3. S-PLUS S-Plus is based on the statistical analysis language
http://www. S. S-PLUS provides the user with a fully extensible
insightful.com/ environment by supporting the user to develop their own
functions using the S-PLUS language. S-PLUS contains
over 4,200 data analysis functions, which implement modern
and robust statistical procedures. S-PLUS has superb
graphical capabilities. It receives a strong support from the
academic and commercial sectors.
161
Tools for Research S.No. Software and Brief Description
its URL
4. MINITAB MINITAB combines an array of statistical methods,
http://www.minitab.com/ graphics tools, and project organization features in a user-
friendly package. It combines the user-friendliness of MS
Excel with the ability to perform complex statistical
analysis. Thousands of successful companies
worldwide, including GE, 3M, Ford Motor Company, and
the leading Six Sigma consultants, use MINITAB to make
data-driven decisions and achieve world-class quality.
5. GLIM Generalized Linear Interactive Modeling package (GLIM)
http://www.nag.co.uk/ is a flexible, interactive statistical analysis program
stats/GDGE_soft.asp developed by the Royal Statistical Society. GLIM is not
just a modeling package; it also contains many of the
standard statistical procedures and has high-resolution
graphics. Professionals, scientists and statisticians
worldwide respect GLIM.
Source : Wegman & Solka (2005) and websites of the softwares.
So you have seen that there are many statistical packages that provide the state of the
art facilities for performing statistical calculations. All these software are extremely good
and it is for the user to work on the one on which he feel most comfortable. There is a
competition among these software for providing enhanced statistical functions, enhanced
user-friendliness, better graphics and sound technical support. Also there is trend to
move towards “statistics-like” disciplines e.g. data mining.
9.5 SUMMARY
The science, which deals with numbers, is statistics. It crunches the numbers and organises
them in a meaningful way so that information is generated. Computer can help immensely
in the statistical analysis. There exists numerous statistical tools available and the need is
to identify their actual usage. Most of the Statistical methods are based on the quantitative
data. One can find different statistical packages for applications to different disciplines.
In this Unit you have read about two such packages MS Excel and SPSS. The Unit
has discussed some of their applications in details. You have also gone through a brief
introduction of some of the popular statistical softwares. This Unit was intended to
make you familiar with the basic statistical functions that can be performed with the help
of computer and to arouse your interest in the beautiful and huge world of statistical
computing.

1) A statistical package is defined as the software used to collect, organise, interpret
and present numerical information. The need of a statistical package arises due to
the complexity of calculations involved therein for analysis and inference. It helps
to bring accuracy in results.
2) The data analysis tools in MS-Excel are : ANOVA, corrilation covariance,

Descriptive Statistics, Expowertial Smoothing, F-Test, Moving Average, Regression
Analysis, sampling Analysis, t-Test and z-Test.
3) The statistical analysis tools in SPSS are : Report, Descriptive Statistics, Compare
Means, General Linear Model, Correlate, Regression, Classify, Data Reduction,
162 Scale, Non-Pavansetric Tests and Multiple Response.
Statistical Packages
9.7 KEYWORDS
Statistics : It is a broad mathematical discipline which studies ways to
collect, summarize and draw conclusions from data. In other
words, it is used as a “collection of numerical facts or data”.
Statistical Package : It is software for the collection, organization, interpretation,
and presentation of numerical information.
Nominal Scale : Nominal measurement consists of assigning items to groups
or categories.
Ordinal scale : Measurements with ordinal scales are ordered in the sense
that higher numbers represent higher values.
Cardinal Scale : On interval measurement scales, one unit on the scale represents
the same magnitude on the trait or characteristic being measured
across the whole range of the scale.
Ratio scale : Ratio scales are like interval scales except they have true zero
points. Ratio variables are very similar to interval variables.
Spreadsheet : It is a big worksheet (in many rows and columns). This
worksheet can be used for data entry and for performing
calculations by click of buttons.

Box, George E.P., William G. Hunter, and J. Stuart Hunter (1978). Statistics for
Experimenters: An Introduction to Design, Data Analysis, and Model Building. New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Johnson R.A., Wichern D.W. (2003). Business Statistics: Decision making with Data,
John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pvt. Ltd. : Singapore, 2003.
Levin R.I., Rubin, D.S. (2001). Statistics for Management. Prentice Hall of India Private
Limited : New Delhi.
Microsoft Office Excel 2003. Help Documentation.
Pottel Hans. Statistical flaws in Excel. Innogenetics NV, Technologiepark 6, 9052
Zwijnaarde, Belgium, http://www.mis.coventry.ac.uk/~nhunt/pottel.pdf. Downloaded
08/11/05
Ripley Brian D.(2004). Statistical Methods Need Software. Netherlands Statistical
Society, 27 April 2004. http://www.stats.ox.ac.uk/pub/bdr/NethStatSoc.pdf Downloaded
08/11/05
Sarma K.V.S. (2001). Statistics made simple- Do it yourself on PC. Prentice-Hall of
India: New Delhi.
SPSS for Windows Release 11.0. Help Documentation.
Wegman Edward J., Solka Jeffrey L. (2005). Statistical Software for Today and
Tomorrow. Center for Computational Statistics, George Mason University Fairfax, VA
22030. Downloaded 16/11/05 http://www.galaxy.gmu.edu/papers/guide.pdf 163
UNIT 10 OBSERVATION METHOD
Structure
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Meaning and Definition
10.3.1 Purpose
10.3.2 Characteristics
10.4 Planning and Process of Observation

10.5 Recording of Data
10.6 Types
10.6.1 Participant –Non Participant
10.6.2 Systematic –Non Systematic
10.6.3 Structured – Unstructured
10.6.4 Natural – Laboratory
10.6.5 Open – Hidden
10.6.6 Direct – Indirect
10.6.7 Covert – Overt
10.7 Advantages and Disadvantages

10.8 Application in Libraries and Information Centers
10.9 Summary
10.11 Keywords
10.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this Unit, you will be able to:
understand what is observation method;
how to plan this method for collecting the data;
identify the various types and differentiate them; and
describe advantages and disadvantages of this method.
10.2 INTRODUCTION
Observation means watching carefully. We do see many things, situations in our routine
life. There may not be any motive behind seeing. What we see is mostly casual and
without any purpose. But observation is different from casual seeing; it is being done
systematically with a definite purpose. In the process of observation the observer uses
all his sensory organs in an integrated manner. The observer obtains information about
the World around him for a definite purpose. This is one of the best scientific tools to
collect the data for research. 165
Research Methods Observation has to be done carefully and systematically. On the basis of observation
the data is collected, analysed, processed and used for research purpose. Most important
is the need for impartial observation. The observer’s experience is unique and peculiar
to himself. Naturally, the data collected may be less standardised. Still this is one of the
most useful methods of data collection for research especially in social sciences. Even
in the libraries this method is used to understand the behaviour and attitude of the users
in making use of the library services.
Observation method of collecting the data is one of the oldest and this technique is used
by both the scientists and social scientists. The term observation sounds to be simple
and gives an impression that the collection of data through this method is easy. But it is
not true in scientific investigation. There is also a criticism that this method is unreliable
but by doing it more scientifically, limitations could be overcome. This method of data
collection is one of the oldest method and it can be treated as scientific only when the
criteria such as objectivity, free from bias, reliability and systematisation is followed.
This Unit discusses the meaning and purpose of the observation method of data collection.
It also dwells on how to plan for and the different types of observation. The advantages
and disadvantages are also stated.
10.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION

Every human being observes the things around him, many times it is casual and without
any purpose. They observe it because it is in front of them. As seeing is not planned and
concentrated the observer may not be able to remember what has happened and even
what is remembered could not be in detail. The observation takes place in natural
situation without any controls imposed by the observer on the situation. It helps to
collect the data as it occurs without any interference.
Complete and detailed data is collected and recorded through observation of a

phenomena or behaviour. However, it needs to be planned and all the sensory organs
have to be used. The data has to be collected and recorded systematically. Many
disciplines/subjects including sciences and social sciences have been developed with
the data collected through this method. The behavioural scientists and anthropologists
devised/prepared several theories on the basis of observation. To make the data reliable
and valid, the process has to be planned and the data has to be recorded systematically.
There is also a need for checks and controls while collecting the data.
Observation is defined as a planned methodical watching that involves constraints

to improve accuracy (Ram Ahuja).
Krishna Swami defined observation as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon

in its proper setting for the specific purposed of gathering data for a particular
study.
Observe means “to watch attentively in a scientific manner”. In an observational

study, the current status of phenomenon is determined not by asking but by
observing Ronald R Powell).
The definitions state that watching with a definite plan / systematically a specific situation/
phenomena with a definite purpose of collecting the data helps in recording accurate
data.
166
10.3.1 Purpose Observation Method
The purpose of observation is to :

to capture the human conduct as it actually happens;
to provide more graphic description of social life;
to study important events and situations;
to verify and extend the generalisations or theories formed on the basis of other
studies; and
to gain insights in to the problem.
The purpose of the observation method is to collect valid data for qualitative research
used in both basic and applied research.
The characteristics of observation method of data collection are:
It involves both mental and physical activity. The observer may see many things
but attention has to be drawn only on the items useful / relevant for the study.
Observation is made on selective basis i.e. the researcher selects a relevant sample.
Observation takes place in natural surroundings.
It helps the researcher to determine the reality by himself or herself.
It avoids manipulations.
The collection and recording of data is not selective, it is done as it is observed in
natural environment rather than creating an artificial/laboratory environment.
It involves few or no controls on the surroundings.
It could be observation of fewer items/subjects.
It must serve the formulated research purpose.
Self Check Exercise
1) Define observation method. Enumerate its purpose.

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Research Methods
10.4 PLANNING AND PROCESS OF OBSERVATION
Observation involves human interaction and use of their sensory organs. Human beings
have their own limitations as well as the observation is likely to be influenced by their
background or culture. To overcome the limitations and collect factual data, there is a
need for planning for observation.
The observer should examine the following questions well in advance to enable to have
effective plan of action. They are:
what should be observed;
how the observation should be recorded;
what type of tools and techniques need to be used;
how to ensure accuracy of observation; and
what type of relationship should be there between the observers and observed-
how the desired relationship should be established.
The planners need to have comprehensive knowledge of the problem and techniques
of investigation. They also need to have experience, on the basis of which the plans
could be devised. The planning includes forecasting the situation and preparation of
step-by-step procedure. Each step has to be logically arranged to get the factual data.
Proper planning is essential to get the factual data through this method.
The following are the steps used for planning:
It is essential to examine the relevance of the observation method for collecting
data for the study of research problem.
If observation method is found suitable, it is essential to identify and analyse the
type of data the researcher is looking for through observation.
The questions are to be identified, for which the answer / data has to be collected
from the observation. Specific types of questions to be included and types of
behaviour to be observed have to be decided at the planning stage. Adequate
definitions for the kinds of behaviour have also to be developed.
The samples for observation have to be identified.
The researcher has to examine the conditions, events and activities, where the
observation is being made. It may be essential to provide training to the observer;
decision needs to be taken on the basis of the background of the observer.
On the basis of the above, the researcher has to plan how to observe, what tools
to be used, what will be the place of the researcher in the specific situation and
how can the process of observation be initiated. While selecting a tool or technique
the researcher should weigh their pros and cons.
While observing, the researcher finds many variables and it is essential to observe
and collect the data from relevant variables only. It is also essential to state the
operational definition for each variable chosen for observation.
It will be better to decide the timings for observation, recording procedure, and
identify subjects/items to be observed. It may be worth to work out these things
168 in detail.
There may be a situation, where number of observers are being arranged for Observation Method
the purpose of observation. All of them may not be trained nor equally
knowledgeable for the chosen purpose. Therefore, it is essential to train
them properly both theoretically and practically.
It is also necessary to consider seriously about the validity of the observation.

Therefore, the researcher may need to take measures to validate the data.
Williamson… [et al] have suggested four stages for the observer. They are:
1) choosing the research site;
2) gaining access in setting and taking a role;
3) jotting down notes; and
4) formulating the analysis.
Observation must be done under conditions which will enable to collect accurate
results. The distance and light must be satisfactory. Proper mechanical aids should
be chosen. The observation should have sufficient number of samples. If it is possible,
the observation could be repeated through another set of observers for verification or
accuracy.
Self Check Exercise
2) Discuss the points you would keep in mind while planning an observation.

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10.5 RECORDING OF DATA

The observer needs skills and training to observe and record the data. It is essential to
have the knowledge of different types of tools used to record the data. This is mainly
due to the reason that the observer is totally relied upon for amount and quality of
information. He may collect the data single handedly. Therefore, he may need a
background, such as knowledge of the subject, experience, adaptability, flexibility, ability
to mix with others. Further, he should not mix his ideology with observation data and
should be free from bias. If necessary, the observers may be given training to enable
them to concentrate on the subject of study. 169
Research Methods The observer needs to know:
topic and background of the research;
purpose of the observation;
knowledge of the group / people to be studied;
level and extent of involvement;
environment or conditions in which the observation has to be made; and
knowledge of tools and techniques used for data collection.
The observer has to record the observations systematically. He has to prepare schedules
similar to that of other method schedules. It will help to concentrate and also prepare
the method to analyze the collected data. The observer can write down the information
either as a summary or in verbatim. Tape recorders or other electronic gadgets may be
used to record the voice / expression / speech. It may be best to record the information
but it may not be possible to use the tools directly in front of the subject. If not possible
then notes may be prepared, where it may be difficult to note down each and every
word. Therefore, he may note down the key words and elaborate the same as early as
possible to enable not to forget the information. The expressions, facial feelings, language
used, behaviour, communication, etc., play an important role in data collection. The
observer has to take all these things into consideration while recording the data. For
example: Some one may accept to do a work, but facial expression may show that he
is not interested to do the same and accepted to do it under obligation. In such cases
the expression gains lot of weightage. It may be advantageous, if the field observation
log is also maintained. This could be maintained with each item under appropriate
headings and notes. Subsequently, the complete and full observation record may be
prepared.
The observer may also have sheets of papers with coded categories for marking. Number
of instruments, such as inter-actional chronograph, audio-introspectometer, inter-actional
recorder, were devised by various scientists. We can observe how tiny size cameras
are being used for recording the pictures and voice of the people as a part of investigation.
Even the mobile phone cameras are being used for recording the pictures as well as
conversation / communication. It could be possible to also use sound recordings and
video recordings. These days TV channels are able to video graph lot of things and
show the same in their broadcasting programmes. Modern technology is giving enough
opportunity to record group or individual behaviour, and many times it is proven
information without any interpolation.
10.6 TYPES
10.6.1 Participant –Non Participant
The role of the observer / investigator is necessary to be defined. In participant
observation, the investigator becomes a part of the group or phenomenon. Then the
investigator become participant or member of the group and also investigates / observes
the situation. He participates in all the activities and functions of the group and
simultaneously observes the behaviour of the group. The investigator has to play twin
roles such as observer and participant. He introduces himself in a disguised manner. To
enable the group to accept him as a member, the observer has to plan how to enter into
the group and being accepted by the group. The observer involves in the setting /
170
group, which is being studied as a research subject. The observer also shares the Observation Method
activities of the community studied and observes what is going on around. It allows
close proximity to the subject studied; therefore it gives an opportunity for intimate
study. The observation is supplemented with the interaction, conversations and interview,
so that more authentic data is collected. By living with the group, the language, habits
etc could be learnt by the researcher, which in turn can be used to converse in the
native language and helps in free flow of the information from the group. However, to
know what the subject is really doing, the observation is the best in comparison to
enquiring the members of the group. Even the data collected from conversation could
be validated through the observation i.e. the statements made by the members could
be checked for its accuracy.
The observer’s motive of collecting the data should not be known to the group. Even
the researcher may find some type of role in the group, but it should be acceptable to
the group. If it is known, the behaviour of the group is likely to be changed or modified
or disturbed and will have impact on collecting the factual data. As a participant, the
observer gets a position in the group and learns the pattern of activity. It could be
possible that the period of observation could be a long term i.e. continued for months.
Therefore, the range of material collected could be good and qualitative but it could
be enormous in quantity. While the data is recorded the context has to be given.
Participant observaation method is better than many other methods of data collection.
This method is used in social sciences to study the society and behaviour of its members.
The type of information collected through this method would not be possible through
other methods.
This type of investigation is made to study the behaviour of the groups such as inmates
of jail, agricultural labor, study of tribal culture and workers in an industry in natural
conditions. Even this method could be used for studying the users of the library, in
terms of their behaviour in searching for information or using catalogue for identification
of their relevant books. In all these cases the participation of the researcher is possible.
Now there are number of research studies on behaviour of the users in accessing
information in the libraries. Unfortunately, no scholar makes use of this method, instead
uses the questionnaire for collecting the data.
Greater degree of participation by the researcher may also result in developing close
relationship with the group. Further, he may learn to follow the behaviour pattern of
the group and may get accustomed to it. In turn, the behaviour of the group may not
look different and the observer may develop sympathy for the group resulting in
emotional attachment with them. This type of activity may destroy the quality of
information / data collected. It may be worth noting that participation becomes more
difficult when one wants to get information from the different strata of the society
which are antagonistic to each other or in direct conflict with each other. Based on the
relationship, it is essential to decide the degree of participation and the type of relation
between the observer and the observed.
This method is being used by sociologists, anthropologists, where in the observer
becomes part of the group and makes the observation. In this method, certain limitations
are also identified. They are:
when the observer becomes part of the group, naturally he gets accustomed to
the behaviour. it may effect on maintaining the objectivity of data.
unforeseen factors might interfere with the observational work.
171
Research Methods the ego, anger, prestige of the observed may create impact on the data as well as
create problems to the researcher.
after some time the observer may get accustomed to the behaviour of the group
and may fail to note the important details.
interrelatedness of the investigator to the situation has to be taken into consideration.
He/she might be influenced with the events.
the observer needs to spend longer time and adjust to the situation, which may not
be possible for a long time.
the observation could be subjective. Possibly all the data is not possible to be
recorded.
this method could not be used for study of illegal activities.
complete observation of each and every event may not be possible or may not be
needed.
In non-participant observation, the observer, gets detached with the group and does
not participate or intervene in their activities. Here he observes their behaviour and
there is also a possibility that the behaviour of the subject may become unnatural /gets
changed. In this type of observation, the observer is ever present but never participating.
In this case both feel uncomfortable. Further, there is no standard set of relationships or
role patterns for the non-member observer to follow. There is no emotional involvement
on the part of the observer. The observer may need skill in recording the observations
in an unnoticed manner. As stated earlier, the observer can not be a participant in a
criminal activity, in such situations, this type may be useful. In this method, the facts are
collected in more formal manner. May be as a non-participant observer, it is difficult to
maintain the quality of information. This method could be used in Library Users studies.
Many investigators opt for quasi-participant observation method, where in both the
above methods are used and involves the merits of the both the types and excludes
their defects.
Self Check Exercise
3) Define participant observation. Enumerate the areas in LIS research suitable for
participant observation
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172
10.6.2 Systematic---Non Systematic Observation Method
In Systematic observation, stated procedures are used for observation and recording
the data has to be done following certain rules or logical approach. This data could be
possibly replicated.
Unsystematic observation does not follow any rules or logic and replication becomes
difficult.
10.6.3 Structured ---Unstructured

Structured observation is organised and planned which employs formal procedure.
The units to be observed have to be carefully defined. It is also necessary to define the
information to be recorded, selection of data and standardisation of conditions of
observation; the observer is supposed to be knowing the situation and therefore need
to prepare specific plan for collection and recording the data. In this type, the categories
of observation have to be developed. It is subjected to high levels of control and
differentiation.
The unstructured observation is contrasting to the above situation. The participant
observation could be of this type as the observer may have to observe many things for
longer time and may not be able to structure his program. Further, he will depend on
the natural situation, which is not in his control and difficult to structure. However, the
researcher should decide the relationship between him and the group; the period of
observation; type of behaviour to be observed, etc.
For an observer, it is essential to know- what should be observed; what should be
recorded; how to ensure accuracy and how to check the data. It may be vital to know
what type of tools can be used and how to use them. With such knowledge and
background, there is a possibility of structuring the investigation.
Observation is also categorised as:
10.6.4 Natural – Laboratory

Natural observation is made in natural settings.
While the laboratory observation is made in the laboratory.
10.6.5 Open – Hidden

In open observation the identity of the researcher as well as the purpose of study
are known to the participants.
In hidden observation, both the identity and purpose are kept hidden from the
people under observation.
10.6.6 Direct – Indirect

In direct observation, the observer merely records what occurs. No attempt is
being to control / manipulate the situation.
Indirect observation is being made where either the subject is dead or refuses to take
part in the study. The observer may observe the physical traces left behind and make
conclusions about the subject. For example the police may visit the site of the crime
and look for traces left by the criminal for further investigation or study.
173
Research Methods 10.6.7 Covert – Overt
In Covert observation, the subjects / group being observed are not aware that they
are being observed. Participant observation could be covert observation as the observer
is a participant in the group and their activities.
In Overt observation, the subjects are aware that they are being observed. Once the
subjects know that they are being observed, there is every possibility of change in their
behaviour. We can take an example of a police man’s behaviour with the accused/
criminals, while he knows that he is being observed. He will be polite and may not use
abusive language.
Self Check Exercise
4) Differentiate between structured and unstructured observation.
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10.7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The observation method has several advantages and disadvantages. The advantages
are:
It is direct and helps to study the behaviour as it appears / occurs (collected in
natural environment). One need not ask any one about the behaviour but can do
self watching and collect the data.
The data collected in a natural environment or situations is reliable.
The data may be much more accurate as it is collected out of intimate and informal
relationship.
It is one of the best methods which can be adopted in a situation where people are
unable to state meaningfully, e.g. studies about the children, tribal, animals etc.
It helps to study the whole event and therefore, may provide the opportunity to
study the insights or all aspects.
It is easy to observe in disguising rather than disguised questioning.
It helps to collect when the respondents are unwilling to cooperate for giving
information.
It is expensive but it is also possible to collect the data on emotional reactions.
174 It helps to analyse the contextual background also.

The disadvantages are: Observation Method
This method is not useful to study the past events.

It will not help to study the opinions. It may be difficult to structure the situation.
Another limitation is stability of the conditions. Obervation is difficult under unstable
conditions.
The collected data may not be possible to quantify.
Most difficult could be how to get entry in the group being observed, i.e., how to
become participant?
It may not be possible to study or observe everything simultaneously, and the
study could be limited.
The internal attitudes and opinions are difficult to study.
The sample may have to be limited; unlike the questionnaire- where in number of
respondents from different places is difficult to study.
It may be essential to wait till the event takes place. For example- to study the
marriage customs, one has to wait till such an event takes place.
It is a slow, time consuming and expensive process.
This method is difficult to apply in large social settings and there is no set procedure
for observation.
It does not offer control measures.
Some types of behaviours are to private or personal in nature. These types of
behaviours are difficult to observe. For example: participating in criminal activity
or sexual behaviour etc.
The observer’s ability, consistency, knowledge, bias and familiarity influences the
data collected.
10.8 APPLICATION IN LIBRARIES AND

INFORMATION CENTERS
Observation method is used in libraries, the data collected is analysed, and the outcome
is used for improvement of the library activities and services. Some of the sample
observations are listed below:
How do the users approach the library for identification of relevant books? Do
they use catalogue or directly go to the shelf? What is the outcome of directly
going to shelves? In the process, how much time is lost by them?
What is the approach of the users in identifying the relevant reference books or
information?
How far the furniture (especially chairs, tables etc) are comfortable to the users?
The work standards can be prepared with the observation method. For example,
how many labels can be pasted in an hour?
It is also possible to observe the accessibility of the documents / information and
the satisfaction levels of the users. 175
Research Methods Behaviour of the users in use of various types of documents such as periodicals,
AV materials etc can be observed.
Lot of research studies on information seeking behaviour is being made by the researchers
in LIS. They use questionnaire method of data collection rather than observation method.
Probably, if they use this method the results could be more accurate. Further, the data
collected from observation may be combined with the data collected through other
methods / sources and the conclusions be made, which can be used for improvement
of the library.
Self Check Exercise
5) Give some examples of use of observation method for research in libraries.
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10.9 SUMMARY
Observation method is one of the most important and authentic method used for data
collection. The observer uses his sensory organs and observes the behaviour / attitude
of the people or a group. The observer has to plan carefully and execute the plans to
collect accurate information. The observation could be supported with interaction. This
method gives an opportunity to know the insights of the group and naturally, the observer
will be able to get the factual data compared to other methods of data collection.
Further, unlike other methods, the observer will be able to also observe the individual
in a specific situation and integrate between what is being said and being done. It
means, the facial and verbal expressions can be put together to understand the subject.
In other methods, the data is collected from the subject and it is not known to what
extent it is being practised.
The observer needs to have necessary skills, and knowledge of the tools, techniques
applied in the observation. Even the investigator needs to have the knowledge of the
subject, and should have an initiation to join into the group without any difficulty. If
necessary, the training should be given to the observer and while choosing the observer,
one has to assess and evaluate the capabilities. The observer also needs to be told
about the period of time and schedules.
Observation method has several types. The types include: participant and non-
participant, structured and unstructured; systematic and nonsystematic etc. Even though
they appear to be different types, there is a close relationship between these categories.
176 The type has to be chosen on the basis of the subject and environment.
Observation Method
1) Observation is defined as planned, systematic viewing of a phenomena or event
to record its occurrence in a scientific and unbiased manner. Its purpose is to
collect valid data for inference to analyze and draw inference regarding a situation
to finally propose a theory.
2) While planning an observation, one should keep in mind the following:
What should be observed;
How the observation should be recorded;
What type of tools and techniques need to be used;
How to ensure accuracy of observation; and
What type of relationship should be there between the observers and
observed- how the desired relationship should be established.
3) The role of the observer / investigator is necessary to be defined. In participant
observation, the investigator becomes a part of the group or phenomenon. Then
the investigator become participant or member of the group and also investigates
/ observes the situation. He participates in all the activities and functions of the
group and simultaneously observes the behaviour of the group. The investigator
has to play twin roles such as observer and participant. Areas in LIS research
suitable for participant observation are:
Use of OPAC by users
Information needs and requirements of users
Attitude of users towards use of IT in libraries
Reasons for pilferage and theft in libraries
4) Observation can be structured or unstructured. Structured observation is planned
and carried out accordingly. The conditions are known in advance and under
control. Unstructured observation is not so, as the conditions are not under control.
It is participant observation where the observer is part of the group to be observed.
5) Observation method can be used for research in libraries in the following cases:
Use of catalogue by users in a library;
Information seeking behaviour of users;
Reading habits of school children;
Attitude of users towards the use of IT in libraries; and
Courtesy among the library staff towards users.
10.11 KEYWORDS
Observation : Planned, methodical watching with a view to record
accurate and objective data regarding objects,
events or phenomena
Participant Observation : Observation where the observer is part of the
observants He participates in all the activities of the
group while observing them. 177
Research Methods Structured Observation : It is organised and planned which employs formal
procedure. The units to be observed have to be
carefully defined. The observer is supposed to know
the situation and therefore need to prepare specific
plan for collection and recording the data. It is
subjected to high levels of control and differentiation.
Covert Observation : In this type of observation the participants do not
know that they are being observed
Overt Observation : In this type of observation the participants are aware
that they are being observed

Ahuja, Ram (2001). Research Methods. Jaipur : Rawat. P239.
Bhandarkar, P.L. and Wilkinson (1998). Methodology and Techniques of Social
Research. Mumbai: Himalaya.
Busha, Charles H. and Harter, Stephen P. (1980). Research Methods in Librarainship.
Sandiego: Academic Press.
Goswami, Inder Mohan, (ed.) (1995). Research Methodology in Library Science.
New Delhi: Commonwealth.
Handarkar, P.L. and Wilkinson, T.S. (1998). Methodology and Techniques of Social
Sciences. Mumbai: Himalaya.
Goode, William J. and Hatt, Paul K. (1981). Methods in Social Research. Auckland:
McGraw Hill.
Khanna, J. K. (2001). Handbook of Research in Library and Information Science.
New Delhi: Crest.
Krishna Kumar (1992). Research Methods in Library and Information Science.
New Delhi: Har- Anand.
Krishna Swami, O.R. (1993). Methodology of Research in Social Sciences. Mumbai:
Himalaya.
Powell, Ronald, R. (1997). Basic research Method for Librarians. 3rd ed. Greenwich:
Ablex.
Deep and Deep.
Williamson, John B. [et al.]. (1977). The Research Craft : An Introduction to Social
Sciences Methods. Boston: Little Brown.
178
UNIT 11 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Questionnaire Method: Definition
11.3 Questionnaire Construction
11.3.1 Types of Questionnaires
11.3.2 Types of Questions
11.3.3 Use of Scales
11.3.4 Precautions
11.4 Pretesting of Questionnaire

11.5 Distribution of Questionnaire
11.6 Response Rate
11.7 Advantages and Limitations of Questionnaire Method
11.8 Summary
11.10 Keywords
11.0 OBJECTIVES
understand the meaning of questionnaire;
state the methodology of its construction;
learn the technique of preparing and pretesting the questionnaire and the
precautions to be taken;
elucidate the administration of questionnaire distribution and collection;
identify advantages and limitations of questionnaire method; and
comprehend the emerging trends in this field.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In the field of Library and Information Science, survey research is heavily used in
exploring the user information needs and use patterns. In order to strengthen the
information resources and services in the libraries the researchers conduct surveys.
These library surveys are attempted to gather data for investigations and to know the
characteristics of users, their needs, etc. For detailed information on survey research
please refer to Unit 3 of this course. 181
Research Methods During recent times most of us have the experience of filling up a questionnaire, may be
for some utility product, service, etc. This type of research is a market based research,
which has a goal to enhance the quality and sale of product or service by getting the
users response.
In survey research, the data is gathered by using the three types of methods namely,
Observation, Interview and Questionnaire. In this Unit we will learn the technique of
preparing questionnaire, its distribution, advantages, limitations and emerging trends in
this area. In the next Unit you will learn about interviews as a methods of gathering data.
11.2 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD: DEFINITION

Questionnaire is a data collection instrument. The researchers most commonly use this
method for collecting data. In order to gather data on a particular research topic, the
researcher lists the questions to which s/he requires answers. The list of questions grouped
in some order is either given personally, or sent / mailed to the target population.
In simple words, a questionnaire is a set of written questions for respondents to answer.
These answers become primary data for investigation. According to Krishan Kumar
(1992) “a questionnaire is a written document listing a series of questions pertaining to
the problem under study, to which the investigator requires the answers”. Schvaneveltd
(1985) defined questionnaire “ a data-gathering device that elicits from a respondent
the answers or reactions to printed (pre-arranged) questions presented in a specific
order.” Busha and Harter (1980) opined that questionnaires are often used in surveys
as the primary data collection instruments.
11.3 QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION

While preparing a questionnaire, caution must be taken in selection of questions and
variables so that the researcher could receive accurate answers that a researcher wants
to explore. The purpose of this type of data gathering technique is to obtain valid and
reliable information so that smooth investigation can be conducted and hypothesis can
be tested. It is essential for the researcher to have a clear understanding of the problem
under study. Hence, s/he needs to review the related literature before finalising the
contents of the questionnaire.
The covering letter explains the identity of the researcher and the objectives of the
research. It also includes the need for questionnaire. It should also tell the respondents
what use will be made of the results and precisely what will happen to their answers.
Hence, a covering letter, requesting the respondent for cooperation should explain the
purpose of the questionnaire, and it must also ensure the confidentiality of their answers.
This assurance will motivate the respondents to express their views freely.
Please find below a specimen copy of the covering letter given:
For Private Circulation Only

Questionnaire
Impact of the Internet on Scholarly Communication of Social Scientists of
Central Universities in Delhi
Dear Respondent,
I am conducting research on the impact of Internet on scholarly communication of
182
social scientists. In this connection I have designed a questionnaire to get the responses Questionnaire Method
of social scientists. I request you to spare some of your valuable time in filling up this
questionnaire. The answers will be kept confidential and will be used for the purpose of
research only.
Please find enclosed the questionnaire and a self addressed stamped envelope. You are
requested to fill the questionnaire and post it within a week. Your cooperation in this
regard will be highly appreciated.
Thanking you,
Yours sincerely,
(Name and address of the Researcher)
Only those types of questions should be asked which the target population not only
understands but also has the knowledge to answer them. Williams (1997) is of the
opinion that researcher should conduct some fieldwork with the target group in the
form of interview or observation work. This in turn assists the researcher in knowing
the pulse of the sample and also their reaction to a particular section of questionnaire.
In the mailed questionnaire stamped self-addressed envelope should be provided.
Reminders should be sent two to four weeks after posting the initial questionnaire.
Steps to be followed in Questionnaire Construction
1) Determining the scope of the questionnaire;
2) Deciding the type of questions (close ended or open ended) to be asked;
3) Preparing the draft questionnaire;
4) Pretesting the questionnaire with a sample population;
5) Revising the questionnaire according to the suggestions received;
6) Distributing the questionnaire;
7) Sending reminders to the population under study;
8) Receiving the responses;
9) Analysing and interpreting the data received; and
10) Writing the report.
Length of the Questionnaire
There is no prescribed length for a standard questionnaire. Researchers wants to ask

maximum number of questions in one questionnaire due to its cost effectiveness. There
is a belief that if the questionnaire is too long its response rate drops. Length of the
questionnaire depends on the topic of the research problem and size of the target
population. The response rate may vary according to the type of clientele it approaches.
But there are exceptions, which cannot be ruled out. Length of the questionnaire should
also include cost and the willingness of the target population to answer. Hence, a general
statement about the length of questionnaire cannot be made.
Questionnaire is not simply listing of relevant questions on a subject. The researcher
must know what is the objective of the research undertaken and what type of questions
to be asked. Questions should be such, that will elicit the required information. 183
Research Methods Guiding Principles to be followed for Questionnaire Construction
1) It should be self-explanatory.
2) Questions should be restricted to close ended as opened ended questions receive
vague and incomplete responses, which are difficult to interpret.
3) Less number of questions in the questionnaire helps in receiving high response
rate.
4) Attractive layout of the questionnaire is necessary. It helps in getting completed
questionnaires.
5) Proper instructions should be provided to the respondents in filling up the
questionnaire.
Self Check Exercise
1) Explain why length of a questionnaire determines its response rate.
2) Why is covering letter necessary in a mailed questionnaire?
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11.3.1 Types of Questionnaires

McKornam (1996) categorised questionnaires into three types: i) Mailed questionnaire
ii) Group administered questionnaire iii) Personal contact questionnaire.
First of these three types is a mailed postal questionnaire. Williams (1997) calls this
type self-completion questionnaire. This type has a predetermined set of questions. The
respondents are provided with self-addressed stamped envelope to return it within two
to four weeks after posting the questionnaire. This type of questionnaire contains a
covering letter, which explains the purpose, and objectives of the research. It also requests
the respondent for co-operation and assures them for confidentiality of their answers.
This type of questionnaire costs less compared to other types. Respondents can take
their own time in filling it. Its advantage is that it covers wider geographical area. The
biggest disadvantage of mailed questionnaire is low response rate. While most of the
questionnaires return after two weeks, some may even return after two months adding
to the time and cost of data collection. Mailed questionnaire may be filled by someone
other than the respondent. The answers may also be incomplete; that pose a serious
problem at the time of analysis of data.
184
The second type is group-administered questionnaire. In this type the respondents gather Questionnaire Method
at one place and complete the questionnaire. It is basically used by the teachers to
gather data on any research query. In the third category, i.e., personal contact
questionnaire the researcher and the respondents come together and questionnaire is
filled in the presence of the former. It enables them to interact and clarify on areas that
may need clarification.
11.3.2 Types of Questions
What type of questions should be included in the questionnaire for survey research?
There is no unanimity on this issue. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Numen (1997) has opined: “The crucial issue is not which form is best. Rather it is
under which conditions a form is most appropriate”. The choice of questions also
depends upon the topic of research, the target population, etc. Survey questions can be
grouped into two categories i.e. open ended and close-ended questions.
Open Ended Questions
Open-ended questions give liberty to the respondents to express their views. They give
tremendous freedom to the respondents to answer according to their interpretation.
Given below is an example of an open-ended question.
Example of Open Ended Questions:
Can you suggest some ways to further improve the use of Internet in your research?
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Advantages of Open Ended Questions
Unanticipated answers can be obtained from the respondents.
Researcher can have real views of the respondents.
Respondents can give their views in their own language reflecting creativity, self
expression and richness of detail.
Such answers reveal the logic of the respondents.
Disadvantages of Open Ended Questions
Different answers may be received from the respondents on the same question.
Responses can be vague, irrelevant or not to the point.
Many interpretations of the same question may not lead to valuable analysis.
Coding of the responses is not possible.
Respondent needs more time to answer. 185
Research Methods More space is required for answers in the questionnaire.
Respondents may use different terms for the same concept.
The responses to open ended questions are difficult to analyse but not impossible. It is
possible that some of the answers may put forcibly into one of the categories. The
researcher has to carefully study the responses and put them in different categories.
However, it is very time consuming.
Close Ended Questions
Close-ended questions are best suited for large-scale surveys. They are easier and
quicker for the respondents to answer as well as for the researcher to interpret . All the
close-ended questions in the questionnaire may bring distorted results. This problem
can be overcome by taking interviews, which can supplement the information on the
close-ended questions.
There is another problem faced by the researcher while coining different choices for a
particular question. If the choices are less the desired results cannot be achieved. If the
choices are too many, it may confuse the participant and appropriate answers cannot
be received.
Close-ended questions are provided with a list of acceptable options. A respondent
has to pick and choose one or more of these options. The responses chosen by
respondents may be best suited to them but they may not be the correct answers. There
is a possibility that the list of alternative answers may not be sufficient for the respondent,
hence, limiting his/her options. Given below is an example of a close-ended question.
Example of Close Ended Question
Given here are some reasons with regard to dissatisfaction with the current state of
Internet based resources. Rank your answers by 1,2,3… etc. Rank no. 1 is for the
highest.
There is dearth of research resources on the net ..................
Instability of e- resources ..................
Difficulty in verifying the authenticity of information on the net ..................
The state of idexing and search engines not helpful ..................
Lack of standardisation ..................
Paul Burton further classifies the close-ended questions into single choice or multiple-
choice questions.
Example
Single choice question
Gender: Male Female
Multiple-choice question
Which of the following computing skills do you have?
186 Word processing Internet browsing E-mail ect.

Database Power point Questionnaire Method
searching
Any other please specify ......................
Advantages of Close Ended Questions
Cost effective.
Answers of the respondents can be compared.
Easy for respondents to answers.
Easy to code and tabulate.
Performance of the respondents is more reliable
Researcher can also reliably interpret the answers.
Sensitive questions can be properly answered
Less number of confused answers
Less knowledgeable persons can also answer
With limited number of answer options the possibility of getting enough
responses to the options or categories may be useful for analysis.
Disadvantages of Close Ended Questions

Ideas of the researchers are imposed on the respondents.
Less knowledgeable can also answer due to the availability of multiple choices.
It is possible that respondents get frustrated by not getting the desirous options of
their choice.
Multiple choices from the researcher may be confusing for the respondents
Answers can be misinterpreted or may not be correct
The disadvantages of both types of questions can be reduced if there is a judicious mix
of both the categories in the questionnaire. Most of the questionnaires mix these two
types. Open and close-ended types of questions are required to get facts or opinions
of the respondents. Which type of the questions will be adopted will depend on various
factors. For quantitative data the factual questions are required. In this case close-
ended questions will suit the most. For qualitative data the open-ended questions are
required though they are less easy to categories and less amenable to computer
techniques.
Framing of Questions
Before framing the questionnaire the researcher has to review the literature on the area
to determine the type of questions to be asked. Flower (1987) has suggested four
queries to be addressed before finalising a question in the questionnaire.
1) Is this a question that can be asked exactly the way it is written?
2) Is this a question that will mean the same thing to everyone?
3) Is this a question that people can answer?
187
Research Methods 4) Is this a question that people will be willing to answer, given the data collection
procedure?
Terminology and jargon play a very important role in obtaining relevant responses. The
researcher who is immersed in the subject so much sometimes forgets the target
population’s limited knowledge to understand the terms. Paul Burton suggests that to
overcome the problem of use and relevance of technical terms, pretesting the
questionnaire is essential. Pretesting may also help in eliminating ambiguity in the
questions. For example, questions on frequency of use, visit to the library, etc.should
not use the terms like ‘Frequently’, ‘Often’, and ‘Occasionally’ as the users may interpret
these terms differently.
While drafting close ended questions the researcher has to decide the inclusion of negative
answers, like not sure, not at all, do not know, etc. There is a possibility that the target
population finds it easy to just strike these choices without trying out other options. If
such a choice were not given the respondent would definitely choose some other option.
Hence, it is advisable not to include negative options in the close-ended questions.
Sensitive questions should also be avoided. Precaution must be taken in choosing the
controversial, emotional words. The choice of words should be such which increases
willingness on part of the respondents to answer as well as increases the response rate
for the questions. High technical jargon, confusing words, words with two meanings
also cause hindrance.
Sequence of Questions
Questions in the questionnaire should be arranged or grouped in logical sequences.
Questions should be arranged in such a way that they do not scare the respondent but
make him/her comfortable in answering/responding. Questionnaire should start with
general but relevant questions and then move to the specific ones. It helps to set the
logical flow in the questionnaire. Same type of questions may be put together in a group
or section. For example, Question nos.1 to 10 deal with the use of library sources and
services. This type of instruction helps the respondents to understand the grouping of
questions. If need arises relevance of questions should be explained to the respondents.
One can divide the questionnaire into three parts namely, opening part, middle part and
end part. In the opening part the questions are basically on the personal background of
the respondents. These questions also come under the category of demographic
information; for instance questions on age, gender, qualifications, institution, contribution
in the field, specialization, etc. This category also involves questions pertaining to
elementary information (relating to the topic of survey research), which helps in preparing
the respondents’ profile. The middle category involves questions directly concerning
the topic of survey research. The questions here are also organised in smooth and
logical flow, which accelerate the respondents’ comfort level. The first question is related
to the next one and so on. The questions on the first topic create the context within
which the respondent moves on to the next without much hindrance. For example, if the
users in a particular survey are asked about their awareness of library services or sources,
the next question should be about the usage of library and services or sources, and this
should be followed by the question on improvement of services or sources. Finally, the
last portion of the questionnaire is basically loaded with open-ended questions on
suggestions, improvement and their opinion on the research problem taken. The logical
and proper organisation of questions helps in getting questionnaire completed.
Format and Layout of the Questionnaire
The format of the questions and physical layout of the questionnaire should be made
188 attractive, neat and easy to follow.
Questions should be properly numbered and enough space should be given to write Questionnaire Method
answers and spacing between questions should also be adequate. This will automatically
increase accuracy and completeness of questionnaire response rate. Questions whether
mailed or distributed personally, should have attractive layout to motivate the respondents
to answer. A polite covering letter with a sentence like thank you for your cooperation
is a must. The questionnaire should leave the respondent with the feeling that he/she is
very an important component in the research project; his/her participation in the research
is very much appreciated.
Researcher has to decide the format of the questions. Only those questions to be
preferred, which require answers in ‘yes’ ‘or’ no marking right (Ö) or wrong (C). The
main objective is to get clear responses. Questions should be arranged in such a way
that they save space. In some cases it is noticed that answer to one question will determine
the answers to the subsequent questions. For example, if a respondent answer to question
number 10 is ‘no’ then instructions may be given to the respondent to skip question
number 11 and 12 and go to the question number 13.
Consistency of format should be maintained. Close-ended question commonly use
boxes, brackets tick mark or cross to facilitate quick responses. However, the researcher
needs to use one type to maintain uniformity and consistency.
Examples of Question Format
Horizontal type
What is the level of satisfaction for Internet search results? (Tick mark (Ö) the answer)
High —— Moderate —— Low ——-

Vertical type
What is the level of satisfaction for Internet search results?(Tick mark(Ö) the answer)
High ———
Moderate ———
Low ———-
Example of Matrix Question Format
How frequently do you find information accidentally on the web? Tick mark (Ö) the
answers.
Methods Frequently Often Sometime Rarely Never
Browsing websites () () () () ()
Following hyperlinks () () () () ()
Through cited works in
the websites () () () () ()
Any other method
please specify——— () () () () ()
Given below examples of some response category choices. The choices are adapted
from the source Neuman (1997). 189
Research Methods Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor
Strongly Agree, Agree, Somewhat Agree, Somewhat Disagree, Disagree, Strongly
Disagree
Too Much, Too Title, About Right
Better, Worse, About the Same
Regularly, Often, Seldom, Never
Always, Most of the Time, Rarely, Never
More Likely, Less Likely, No Difference
Very Interested, Interested, Not Interested
Self Check Exercise
3) Differentiate between open ended and close-ended questions.
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11.3.3 Use of Scales
The questions should be designed in such a manner that the answers could be easily
and quickly analysed. Some of the questions involve simple calculation of number and
percentage. To tackle other complex issues, scaling techniques such as rating scale and
rank order scale should be used. Analysis of responses to such questions should be
done on the basis of weighted averages.
Rating Scale
A rating scale is a measuring instrument that requires the observer to assign the rated
object to categories or continua that have numerals assigned to them. This is perhaps
the most used measuring instrument as they are easy and quick to use. Time required
for administering and measuring response is shorter than many other instruments. As a
consequence, it is less expensive. However, they “lack validity due to their proneness
to constant or biased error. If used with knowledge, skill and caution, a rating scale can
prove to be a valuable measuring instrument.”(Krishan Kumar,1992)
Rating scale can be of several types. The most usual is simply a form of precoded
questions, e.g.,
Do you find the collection in your area of research in libraries you use adequate enough
190 to meet your demands? Please tick mark (Ö) the appropriate columns.
Excellent?____ Very Adequate?_____ Adequate?____Inadequate?____Poor?____ Questionnaire Method
The number of categories affects the dispersion of answers. A variation on the verbal
expression scale may be used to elicit the extent of agreements with various statements.
It is a normal practice to have a range of five answers, from positive to negative, with a
neutral mid-point. The above responses may be assigned weights 5,4,3,2,1 at the stage
of analysis of data. Numerical rating scale is easy to construct and use. The numbers
can be used directly for the purpose of statistical analysis.
The procedure of Likert scale essentially involves allocating scores to statements for
which the respondents can select a range of responses from ‘very useful’ to ‘no use’.
Example:
Do you consider conferences/seminars as useful sources of information? If yes, please
indicate (tick mark (Ö)) how useful they have been for your research work?
Very useful? ____ Useful? ____Satisfactory? ____Little use? ___No use? ___
In this example, choices that are most favourable to the use of conferences are assigned
the greatest weights, and the least favourable responses are assigned the lowest weights.
In this method the weighted index has been created by multiplying the number of
respondents with the numerical value assigned to all the scales (e.g., very useful = 4,
useful = 3, satisfactory = 2, little use = 1, and no use = 0) and then dividing the product
by the total number of respondents. Next the averages of all the variables in different
scales are calculated according to weighted index and are rearranged according to the
rank order.
The responses are assigned weights like 5,4,3,2 and 1 or 4,3,2,1 and 0 in a 5-point
scale and 3,2, and 1 in a 3-point scale. A three-point scale is developed for the level of
difficulty. The following Tables 11.1,11.2,11.3 clarify the point.
Table 11.1: Three-Point Scale
Scale Weights
3 2 1
Level of Difficulty High Moderate Low
Table 11. 2: Five-Point Scale
Scale Weights
4 3 2 1 0
Frequency Frequently Often Sometimes Rarely Never
Dependence Solely Most of Often Some Not at all
the time extent
Degree Very useful Useful Satisfactory Little use No use
Table 11.3: Five-Point Scale
Scale Weights
5 4 3 2 1
Adequacy Excellent Very Adequate Inadequate Poor
adequate
191
Research Methods Rank Order Scale
Another rating scale used in the questionnaires is rank order scale. It is a simple and
most useful form of scale. Here the respondent ranks a list of items in order of preference.
This method “is far more economical in time and effort, on the part of respondents as
well as investigators, particularly when a large number of items is involved.”(Line, 1981).
Example:
Which methods would you adopt to find out the sources of information the library
possesses on your topic of research? Mark 1,2,3, etc., indicating your preferences (1
stands for first preferences and 2 for second, etc.) You will learn more about the
measurement techniques in Unit –6 of MLIS-E2.
Table 11.4: Rank Order Scale
Methods Order of Preference
Consult the Librarian
Consult the Library Staff
Consult Subject Bibliography
Consult Subject Catalogue
Searching the Shelves
Self Check Exercise
4) What is a rating scale?
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11.3.4 Precautions
Preparation of a questionnaire is an art. It is an instrument for collecting data in survey
research. If it is constructed properly half of the survey research is done. The researcher
while constructing a questionnaire must take some of the precautions. Neuman (1997)
has suggested the following points to be avoided while writing survey questions.
Use of jargons, slang and abbreviations must be avoided.
Ambiguity, confusion and vagueness have no place in a well-constructed
questionnaire.
Use of emotional language is not recommended; natural language makes the
192 respondents more comfortable.
Double-barreled questions should be avoided and each question should be asked Questionnaire Method
for one specific aspect.
Leading or loading questions as they make the respondent to choose one response
over another need to be avoided.
The capability of the respondents should always kept in mind while framing the
questions otherwise it will lead to incomplete questions or questionnaires with
poor responses.
Questions leading to hypothetical situation need not be asked.
Questions about future intentions are not desirable.
No question should have double negatives.
Overlapping or unbalanced response options need to be avoided.
Busha and Harter(1980) suggest the following precautions “The investigators have a
professional responsibility:
a) To analyse carefully and understand their research problems;
b) To state their questions clearly
c) To request only information that can be easily provided by respondents; and
d) To place emphasis upon brevity and economy of participant effort, consistent
with an adequate treatment of the subject.
e) The objectives of questionnaire and the nature of needed data must be made
clear.
f) Respondent’s background, ability and knowledge must also be considered. If the
respondent is not having adequate knowledge from it is difficult to obtain valid
data.
g) Willingness of the Respondent must be ensured, otherwise questionnaire will not
be of any value.
h) Care must be taken to do away with unneeded or irrelevant questions. This may
discouraged the participants to answer the questions.
i) With the help of pre test the biased questions may be identified.
j) Ambiguous questions must be avoided.
k) Questions that convey double meaning or pose two questions at once need to be
enter eliminated or restated/reworded. These types of questions are called double-
barreled questions.”
11.4 PRETESTING OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Survey research questionnaire act as an instrument for gathering data. It should be pre
tested before putting it to actual use. Pre testing helps in further improving the
questionnaire and works like a measuring yardstick, seeking perfection. Once the final
questionnaire is printed then there is no room for corrections and improvement. If the
researcher tries to make corrections it will be expensive as well as difficult. To pre test
the questionnaire it has to be circulated to the sample population to receive useful 193
Research Methods comments and the researcher can revise accordingly. Pre test also includes verbal
communication with sample population about confusing questions, difficult questions,
over lapping categories, etc. In this method the sample first fills up the questionnaire and
then discusses with the researcher on the unintelligible questions. Formal pre testing is
an invaluable part of questionnaire design process. It is a learning process for the
researcher as well. Pre testing helps the researcher in recording, simplifying, transforming
some of the questions. The process generally involves drafting the questionnaire and
discussing it with colleagues and also circulating it among the small sample of the population
for whom the questionnaire is designed. This helps in removing any problem relating to
clarity, understanding of technical or professional terminology, order of questions, etc.
Paul Burton (1990) states, pretesting may therefore go through a number of iterations,
but this is a necessary part of questionnaire design. Pretesting, also called pilot survey,
is very much desirable to finalize the questionnaire. Krishan Kumar (1992) has also
suggested that a second pretest must be carried out with a revised questionnaire. He
further observes that if some difficulties cropped up, another pretest might be required.
Pretest also indicate the time required to fill up the questionnaire. It is a practice not to
include the pretest sample to the actual population.
Self Check Exercise
5) Why pretesting is required before finalisation of questionnaire?
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11.5 DISTRIBUTION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire can be either distributed personally or through mail/ by e-mail/ Internet.
Each of the system has its own merits and demerits.
In Person
Questionnaire can be distributed personally to the respondents. For example, if the
researcher is surveying the use pattern of a particular library, then the questionnaire can
be given at the time when users enter the library. If, by chance, the researcher does not
find respondents there then it can be given to them personally at the place of work or at
their residence.
Questionnaire can be sent by post to the target population with a self-addressed envelope
stamped/pre-paid so that the respondents can return the filled questionnaire in time
without hassle. Mailed questionnaire should also accompany a covering letter stating
the objective of the survey, requesting the respondent to fill in time, etc.
194
In order to deliver the questionnaire to the respondents in person, a number of visits Questionnaire Method
have to be made to their place of work, study or to the libraries, which they usually
consulted. As it is not possible to contact each of the respondents some questionnaires
may be left with the library staff or with the department where they work or study with
the prior permission of the librarian / authorities.
Through E-mail
Nowadays with the coming of the Internet connectivity: It is possible to circulate the
questionnaire through e-mail. In this method the respondents who are having e-mail
address as well as the Internet connectivity can receive and send the questionnaire as
an e-mail attachment. This is a quick, easy and cost effective way of distribution and
collection of questionnaire. It can easily extended or resent to the respondents any time
at any place. E-mail based questionnaire is easy to construct, distribute and manage the
results. Through this method online survey can be made available to any one with Internet
connectivity.
The pre requisite of this method is the Internet connectivity and list of e-mail addresses
of respondents.
Web Questionnaire
There is another method of distribution and collection of questionnaire where the
population is wide spread, covering state, country, etc and it is difficult for the researcher
to reach or meet the target population. In this method the questionnaire is put on the
website. Whosoever comes under the purview of the survey can fill the questionnaire
and submit it giving required details. Web questionnaire is also having a time frame to
complete/submit. This type of questionnaire also has a set of respondents, for example,
if the survey is on the “Use of Search Engines by the Central University Teachers of
India in the field of Indian Politics” only the Central University teachers of India should
fill up the Questionnaire. It has the same layout, open as well as close ended questions.
The close-ended questions can be filled up with the help of mouse click. For open-
ended questions the respondents can simply type the answer and after completion the
questionnaire can be submitted. A specimen of web questionnaire is given below for
your information.
Fig. 11.1 : Snapshot of a Web Questionnaire 195

Research Methods Designing of Web –based Questionnaire
It should be designed in such a way that attracts the respondents to fill and submit it.
Here also the length should be restricted to achieve high response rate. Only those
questions should be included which are important and meaningful to research. It is
advisable to use clear and specific wording for the questions. Reassurance should be
given to the respondents regarding the privacy measures taken for their answers.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The researcher gets answers from a wide spread population. With this size of the
population the old data analysis methods may not suit. It is for the target population to
access, fill and submit. The data may be accessed in short span of time. It is easy, fast
and inexpensive. Researcher is free from the hassle of collecting properly filled
questionnaires. For example, if a respondent fills a question wrongly, out side the defined
range of answers or s/he misses some of the questions: the web-based questionnaire
program can detect the error and direct the user to answer the particular question again
and then submit. The data received from the web –based questionnaire is automatically
validated.
Some of the disadvantages are like; that this type of questionnaire may not successfully
attract a representative sample of the population of interest. The population is wide
spread it is not possible for the researcher to personally contact them. Due to technical
snag like server crash or browser freeze a lot of data may be lost. It is advisable to
keep such questionnaire small. If it has number of pages the respondent has to submit
the answers page wise. If a web-based questionnaire has six pages and after filling up
five pages if server crashes in such a situation the data of those five pages already
submitted may be captured. There is a possibility that after submitting the questionnaire
an error message occurs in front of the screen and the respondent may not fill it again.
To over come such situation it is necessary to test and retest the questionnaire.
Alternatively the web program should have a very soft and humble error message,
which prompts the respondent to return and fill it.
Self Check Exercise
6) State the advantages of web-based questionnaire.
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11.6 RESPONSE RATE

Response rate in survey research is very crucial. Different types of surveys have different
response rates. For example, very high rate of response is required for census survey.
196 If the researcher fails to get adequate response then there is a need for introspection.
The reasons may include: i) the target population at the top-level may not answer due Questionnaire Method
to time constraint, ii) difficulty in approaching the scattered respondents, iii) respondents
refuse to answer due to ignorance of the topic under research iv) lengthy questionnaire
or the use of highly technical language discourages the respondents, v) if the questionnaire
seeks more views from the respondents they get conscious of their privacy and may
not like to reveal their opinion.
A researcher can increase the response rate to a point by contacting the respondents
frequently, on the phone or by mail or by meeting them personally. The researcher may
have to make repeated visits or may send soft reminder letters periodically persuading
to return the completed questionnaire. If the questionnaire is short and simple it generates
good response. Those respondents should be motivated periodically to fill up the
questionnaire. Timing of the distribution is also important in getting responses. If teachers
or students are given the questionnaire during vacations or weekends, it will generally
yield higher response.
A polite reminder letter along with another copy of the questionnaire should follow two
weeks after the specified date of return the questionnaire. Second copy is required
because there is a possibility that the respondent has misplaced the questionnaire.
Researcher should be polite and patient while distributing and reminding or receiving
the questionnaire.
11.7 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
Advantages of Questionnaire Method
Easier and quicker to collect data. Through this method large amount of data can
be generated in short span of time.
Direct responses can be obtained.
Information received is quantifiable. Quantitative as well as qualititative responses
can be procured. Back ground information of the respondents, which is otherwise
difficult to obtain, could be collected.
Empirical data can be collected
Cost effective
Response from a large population can be received covering a wide geographical
area.
High rate of response can be generated from educated population.
Respondents get a chance to prepare and revise their answers before finally
answering the questionnaire.
Researchers also get a chance though pretest to revise the final questionnaire.
Responses are easy to analyse and taubulate.
Questionnaire method provides the respondents to express their views on any
given topic freely.
Questionnaire has a fixed format with a given number of questions. This helps in
eliminating variation in questioning process. 197
Research Methods Limitations of Questionnaire Method
Difficult to receive adequate response rate. People are in the habit of not filing and
returning in time.
Reliability of data can be questioned
Truthful answers cannot be ascertained.
It is time-consuming activity, which includes preparation, pretest, revision,
distribution and sending reminders adding to time and cost of data collection.
Incomplete answers also cause problem during analysis stage.
Researcher cannot observe the respondents reaction at the time of filling up of the
questionnaire.
The questions can be wrongly interpreted which can affect the analysis.
Assumptions of the researchers for certain things may prove opposite to the
respondents perceptions.
Technical jargon/ professional terminology may play havoc for the respondents. It
may be possible that the questionnaire is returned with substantial number of
unanswered questions.
Complex worded questions also fetch poor results.
There is a possibility that the questionnaire may be biased. It may not have included
certain important questions though are very useful otherwise, due to the lop-sided
preference of the researcher.
Verification of the accuracy of the responses received from questionnaires might
be difficult.
Potential respondents may become discouraged by getting ill prepared
questionnaires.
11.8 SUMMARY
Paul Burton has very rightly said: “Properly designed and analysed questionnaires can
be a rich and reliable source of research data, both quantitative and qualitative”. Hence,
proper attention has to be paid to carry out a questionnaire survey. If not done properly,
it may lead to misleading results.
This Unit has described the method of construction of questionnaire. It has also highlighted
the type of questions to be asked and precautions to be taken while listing the questions.
Merits and demerits of asking open and close-ended questions have also been discussed.
Questionnaire is an effective tool to gather both quantitative as well as quantitative data
in survey research quickly, is considered the most popular research method.

1) What should be the length of the questionnaire has been debated for a long. There
is a belief that if it is lengthy the respondents may not fill it and leave it incomplete.
Therefore, resulting in low response rate. If the questionnaire has less number of
questions there is a possibility of getting high response rate.
198
2) Covering letter explains the objective of the survey and it requests the respondents Questionnaire Method
to fill it. The researcher through this letter assures the respondents the confidentiality
of their answers and the usage of data for research purpose only.
3) Open ended questions are those questions where respondent give answer in their
own language. They freely express their views and answer according to their
interpretation. These questions are also called unstructured questions. Close-ended
questions are structured questions. Every question has a number of alternate
answers. A respondent has to select one answer. These questions are also called
precoded questions.
4) Rating scale is a measuring tool that requires the observer to assign the rated
object to categories or continuum that have numerals assigned to them.
5) Pretesting as the name suggests is a process of finalizing the questionnaire before
putting it to actual use. It is essential as it alerts the researcher to the weaknesses,
trouble points, and ambiguity in the questions. After pretesting the researcher revises
it and circulate to the target population.
6) Web-based questionnaire has advantages over printed questionnaire. The former
can be distributed and received back from the wide spread population automatically.
The answers can be validated. It is easy, quick and inexpensive.
11.10 KEYWORDS
Questionnaire : It is data gathering instrument in survey research. It is a
list of written questions, which are to answered by the
target population.
Open Ended Questions : They are also called unstructured questions. In such
questions respondents express their views freely.
Close Ended Questions : They are also known as structured questions. These
questions are having number of answers. The responded
is asked to choose one from the given options.
Pretesting : Before finalizing the questions in the questionnaire it is
circulated to a sample for their opinion and suggestions.
It is also called pilot survey.
Response Rate : The number of respondents returned the filled in
questionnaire.
Rank Order Scale : Respondents are asked to rank all items according to
some specified order.
Scaling Technique : A finite sample of concepts or items is ordered along a
continuum. This may or may not accompanied by
qualitative measurement of the variable represented by
continuum.
Weighted Index : Weighted index derives by multiplying the percentage
of respondents (weights) with the numerical value assign
to the scale, and dividing the product by total value of
the scale in terms of percentage.
199
Research Methods
Adams Gerald R. and Schvaneveldt, Jay D. (1985). Understanding Research Methods.
New York: Longman. Pp.197-229.
Burton,Paul (1990). Asking Questions : Questionnaire Design and Question Pharsing.
In: Slater, Margaret, (ed). Research Methods in Library and Information Studies.
London : The Library Association. Pp. 62 -76.
Orlando, Florida : Academic Press. Pp. 53-90.
Fowler, Floyd J. (1987). Survey Research Methods.Vol. 1: Applied Social Research
Methods Texts. New Delhi: Sage Publications. Pp.61-106.
Krishan Kumar (1992). Research Methods in Library and Information
Science. New Delhi : Har Anand Publications in association with Vikas Publishing
House. Pp.121 -173.
Line, Maurice, B. (1982). Library Surveys : An Introduction to their Use,
Planning,Procedure and Presentation of Surveys. 2nd ed. Revised by Sue Stone.
London: Clive Bingley.
Line, Maurice, B. (1981). Designing Secondary Services in Social Sciences: Reflections
on a Research Project. INSPEC.15, 84-94.
Mc Kernan, James (1996). Curriculum Action Research: A Handbook of Methods
and Resources for the Reflective Practioner. 2nd ed. London: Kogan Page Limited.
Pp. 123-140.
Mann, P.H. (1985). Methods of Social Investigation. Oxford: Blackwell.
Mann, Thomas (1987). Guide to Research Methods. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Newman, W. Lawrence (1997). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Pp. 227-269.
Slater, Margaret (ed). (1990). Research Methods in Library and Information Studies.
London: The Library Association.
Williams, Malcolon (1997). Social Survey: Design to Analyse: In: Time May Social
Research: Issues, Methods and Process. 2nd ed. Buckingham, Philadelphia: Open
University Press. Pp. 81-88.
200
UNIT 12 INTERVIEW METHOD
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Interviewing
12.3 Types of Interviews
12.3.1 Structured Interview
12.3.2 Unstructured Interview
12.3.3 Focussed Interview
12.3.4 Non-directive Interview
12.3.5 Clinical Interview
12.3.6 Telephonic Interview
12.3.7 Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) System
12.4 Interview Process

12.5 Advantages and Limitations of Interview Method
12.6 Summary
12.8 Keywords
12.0 OBJECTIVES
• understand the role of interview method in survey research;
• know the types of interviews used for data collection;
• identify the steps and guidelines to be followed in interview method;
• learn the procedure to conduct interviews; and
• visualise the advantages and limitations of interview method as a tool of data
collection.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Data collection is a difficult and yet very important part in survey research. Each data
collection method has its own complexities as well as advantages and limitations. We
cannot say which method is the best out of them. Each method should be seen in
relation to the type of research to be conducted and more particularly the research
problem to be investigated. Survey type research has been discussed at length in Unit
3 of this course.
The basic instruments of data collection in survey research are questionnaire and interview
methods. Unit 11 of this course deals with questionnaire method. This Unit introduces
you to interviewing as one of the data collection instruments. 201
Research Methods In research the question arises how one can gain access to data required. One can
access it through documents, or visiting places, like institutions, organisations, work
places, or through questionnaires and interviews. Before selecting the method the
researcher must know and finalise the target population, the questions to be asked, the
schedule to be drafted. Because these tools help us to generate empirical data which
will yield qualitative as well as quantifiable results.
12.2 INTERVIEWING
You must have witnessed many programmes on TV, which are basically interview-
based. These programmes usually invite celebrities, film personalities, politicians,
industrialist, etc. to get information on their life, works or they may be asked questions
pertaining to some social theme or current political event. Interviewing in Survey Research
is different from these interviews.
We will study some of the definitions to know the meaning of this term. According to
Neuman (1991) “the interview is a short term, secondary social interaction between
two strangers with the explicit purpose of one person’s obtaining specific information
from the other…. Information is obtained in a structured conversation in which the
interviewer asks pre arranged questions and records answers, and respondent answers.”
Krishan Kumar (1992) defines “interviewing is a process of personal interaction between
a researcher and a respondent.” Ranjit Kumar in his book Research Methodology
(1999) opined that “any person- to- person interaction between two or more individuals
with a specific purpose in mind is called interview.” O’ Leary (2004) of the view that
“Interviewing a method of data collection which involves researchers asking respondents
basically open-ended questions.”
In simple words we can say that survey interviewing is a face-to-face interaction with
the respondents to get specific information. The questions may be pre decided. Invariably
it is seen that for data collection, the interview method includes only open-ended
questions.
Interviewing as a method of data collection is not just easy. You may think that it involves
only jotting down questions and recording the answers. This method has its own
complexities. O’Leary (2004) has suggested that the complexities may arise due to
people or the target population you interview and secondly, due to complexities of
communication. People are complex, complicated or may be introvert. There is no
doubt about this. Getting proper answers without annoying them is a difficult task. If the
interviewee and interviewer have some understanding, gathering data is assured. If
there is no chemistry between them, it may hamper the interview process.
Self Check Exercise
1) Explain the role of interview in survey research.
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202
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Interview Method
12.3 TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
Adams (1985) has compared questionnaires and interviews with the surgical tools in
the medicine. He further stated that these tools are the most commonly used modes of
data collection in many branches of social and behavioural sciences. We all know that
these tools are very flexible and adaptable by various research scholars to different
types of research problems. Interviews can be structured or unstructured. It can be for
personal, impersonal or mixed type of interaction. The most important aspect here is
that the social behavioural researcher must know how to prepare and use it; what type
of interview will suit the particular research problem, etc. In the following sub-sections
we will learn about different types of interviews. The type of interview to be chosen will
definitely depend on research topic, purpose of research and population under study.
12.3.1 Structured Interview
During structured interview the interviewer asks the pre-drafted questions. Here, he/
she cannot change the questions, or their sequence. No freedom is given to add new
questions or delete any question. The interviewer is strictly instructed to ask the pre
decided questions in verbatim and also to record them.
The interview scheduled is prepared in advance. It contains open ended as well as

closed ended questions. The question schedule may be given to the interviewee in
advance so that he/she can prepare the answers. There is a difference between
interviewing and interview schedule. Ranjit Kumar (1999) suggested that interview
schedule is a tool to collect data while interviewing is a process/method of data collection.
As compared to unstructured interview this type generates uniform data. It does not
need any professional skill to conduct interview sessions because of listed questions. It
is required from interviewer that he/she should remain unbiased. The interviewer can be
biased in the case of unstructured interview. The interviewer is supposed to give only
clarifications on and when it is desired. Krishan Kumar also said that it should restrict to
only clarifications and no suggestions be given. This type of interview can be conducted
person-to-person or through telephone or by using electronic device.
Example
1) Do you make use of computers in your research?
Yes .................. .
No .................. .
2) Are you aware of the concept of invisible college?
Yes .................. .
No .................. .
3) Do you communicate with other scholars to seek information for your research?
Yes .................. .
No .................. .
203
Research Methods 12.3.2 Unstructured Interview
During the interview when the interviewer exercises autonomy in asking questions what
ever comes to his/her mind on a particular research problem under investigation, is
called unstructured interview. This type of interview can be conducted on one - to- one
basis or with a group of interviewees. Unstructured interview may permit the interviewee
to give responses freely or it may restrict free responses. Hence, the interviewer asks
the respondents only such questions, which comes under the area of research problem.
There are no set typed questions. One question leads to another and so on. The main
aim of the interviewer is to get personal viewpoint of the respondents on a given topic
The interviewer should keep interview guide/schedule with him/her at the time of the
interview. It helps him/her to know the areas to be covered and it also provides guidelines
for smooth conduct of interview session.
Interviewer is free to ask additional questions and also repeat or delete questions as
mentioned in the guide. If he/she feels some questions are not very clear he/she can
exercise full freedom to change or reward it. At the time of the interview if it is felt that
putting certain questions or changing the sequence may yield some useful results,
interviewer can do it freely. On the respondent’s side, they are given opportunity to give
their views, opinion freely on the questions asked. An effort can be made during interview
to encourage them to speak freely. This flexibility helps generating spontaneous, useful
responses on the area of research. Unstructured interview is easy to conduct but difficult
to analyse the results. Reason is that no two interviews reveal same type of responses.
On same questions you may get different responses. This type of interview calls for
sufficient knowledge background, good interviewing skills, command on language; and
ability to convince the respondent to answer. This type of interview demands specialised
training to be imparted to the interviewer/researcher to get best results.
Unstructured interview is also called in-depth interview. It is also said that this type of
interview is best suited to those situations where very little is known. Such interviews
aim to elicit information from the respondents which otherwise may not be procured.
Kothari (2004) opined, “Depth interviews are designed to discover underlying motives
and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to
explore needs, desires and feelings of the respondents.”
Depth interviews can be projective or non-projective in nature. Projective depth interview
includes such type of indirect questions, which are related to interviewee’s behaviour,
attitude towards the subject of study. Both types of depth interviews can generate data,
which may be useful in understanding the behaviouristic attitudes of people under study.
Examples
1) How do you keep up-to-date in the field of your research?
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2) Would you like to delegate search for information?
Yes .................. .
204
No .................. .
3) If yes, give reasons. Interview Method
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4) If no, give reasons.
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12.3.3 Focussed Interview
Focussed interview is conducted basically to get focussed, in depth information on any
given issue from the respondent. It is one of the types of unstructured interview. The
main task of the researcher in such type of interview is to involve the respondent in
discussion on specific topic so that the researcher gets desired information. Here the
interviewer has the freedom to decide the questions and their sequence. Kothari (2004)
is of the opinion that such interviews are helpful in the development of hypothesis. Here
the information is gathered from the respondent’s area of experiences, effects,
participation, etc. Here the interviewer is not only properly informed about the area of
research but he/she also be knowledgeable and skilled to get required information from
the experiences, background of the respondent which has a direct bearing on the topic
under study. The selection of respondents is done on the basis of knowledge experiences
of the respondents on the area of study.
12.3.4 Non-directive Interview
Interviewer in this type of interview acts like a catalyst. He/She prompts the respondents
to give information on the topic under investigation. Like in focussed interview here
questioning is very less. But the area(s) to be covered remains under the control of the
interviewer. He/She is supposed to give free environment to the respondents so that
they can express their views freely and to the point; the interviewer simply supports the
views expressed by the respondent instead of approving of disapproving them.
12.3.5 Clinical Interview
This type of interview also comes under the category of unstructured interview. Adams
and Schvaneveldt (1985) reported that this type of interview has been used in social
care work, counselling and prison setting, and is also called personal history interview.
This type covers basically the feelings, life experiences, of the respondents. The
interviewer has the freedom to interact freely with the respondents to elicit the information
on the given topic. This type of interview is flexible and it includes introductory questions
as well. Here the respondent can also give new information on related factors and
elaborate on them. It may prove very helpful in predicting, analysing, and concluding on
some areas. The area under investigation, its objectives, scope are the main determinants
of selection of questions and area to be covered in the clinical interview. 205
Research Methods 12.3.6 Telephonic Interview
As the name suggests this type of interview is conducted on phone. You need a telephone
connection and an instrument, a phone directory and a set of questions to be asked. It
is best suited for market type of survey, poll, etc. The main advantage of this type of
method is to get data very fast without wasting time on visiting the respondents. It does
not require special skills to conduct the interview session. Telephone interview is a
faster and cheaper method for obtaining information. Extra staff i.e., field staff is not
required in this method. Moreover, it is very flexible in comparison with mailed
questionnaire method. Non-response percentage is very low in telephone interview. On
the other hand, long distance calls, number of calls, length of call time adds to its cost.
There is a possibility of many respondents not having a connection. The voice quality or
the connectivity may also pose problems. For short conversation it may be ideal but
lengthy conversation may not be liked by the respondents. It is very difficult to find out
doubtful information provided by the respondent. Like mailed questionnaire the personal
touch will be missing in this type of interview also. If respondents do not wish to talk to
the interviewer or do not cooperate it may turn a disaster for the researcher.
Self Check Exercise
2) What do you understand by clinical interview?
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12.3.7 Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) System
The increasing use of information technology has changed the traditional scenario of
conducting surveys. It has definitely eased the efforts and enhanced the quality of research
with minimising time.
Now, you can see that software companies have introduced many software programmes
to facilitate data collection, analysis, etc. Some of them are mentioned here for your
information sake only. They are CAPI (Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing), CATI
(Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing), ACASI (Audio Computer Assisted Self
Interviewing) WinCati System, Wincati Mixed Mode and Sensus Web, and many more
to cite here.
CATI System is used to conduct telephone interview to gather data from number of
respondents scattered all over the world. In this system computers are used to automate
the activities done in the formal interviewing. In simple words, computers are used to
conduct surveys. They keep control of questions, data, data entry, and data analysis. It
can also facilitate the status of the study whenever it is required. It also helps in interview
administration and monitoring. This system requires PC, which is linked through network
to server where data can be stored centrally. Telephone, head set and of course set of
questions to be asked, and telephone numbers of the respondent are required in this
system also. Interviewer sits facing the computer screen, reads the questions and simply
206 record by keying the responses.
Looking at the advantages of this system we should not underestimate the importance Interview Method
of human touch to the interviewing. For example, the proper wording of questions,
sequencing their explanations, suggestions to the questions, and more importantly,
convincing the respondent to answer the questions freely and frankly definitely generate
credible responses from the respondents.
This system has many advantages:
• Uniformity may be maintained.
• Questions can be stored in the computer memory.
• Reponses can be recorded directly into the computer.
• It eliminates the errors on the part of interviewers or in case missed questions
• Analysis can be done very fast.
• It helps in keeping automatic records.
In this Unit our main emphasis is on traditional way of interviewing. Hence, we will not
discuss CATI system in detail.
Interviews are basically structured, semi-structured or unstructured. They can be formal

or informal. Formal interview follows the rules and roles associated with this method
where as informal does not follow any rule of interviewing and it seems casual and
relaxed form of interviewing which removes the gulf between interviewer and
interviewee. Formal interview is structured and informal is highly unstructured.
Interviewing can be done one to one and in groups also. Telephone interview is the
best example of one to one interviewing. In-group interview the interviewees are seen
as focussed group and the interviewer acts as a moderator or facilitator.
Self Check Exercise
3) What are the infrastructure requirements for CATI system?

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12.4 INTERVIEW PROCESS

In the foregoing sections you have learnt about the interviewing and its different types.
In this section we will focus our attention to the process of conducting interview, which
involves the preparation of plan of action to meet all types of contingencies, training of
interviewers or field staff, preparation of interview schedule, selection of data recording
system, pilot run of the interview, modifications for the final interview, conducting
interview sessions and finally the data analysis. 207
Research Methods Plan: In this stage the researcher plans the whole interview process, which includes the
training of interviewer, time to be taken in the interview and the venue of the interview.
It also takes into account the cost factor, travel time and wait around time. Field staff is
required when number of interviewees is more. One principal interviewer/research
assistant is not sufficient for the large number of respondents. Training of field staff/
enumerator or research assistant is needed to successful manage the interview session.
In this process the interviewer will become aware of the questions and the instructions
to be followed in the session.
Preparation of Interview Schedule: Interview schedule is a list of printed questions,
set in some order or sequence, and the interviewer records the answers on the printed
schedule during the interview session. Interview schedule is prepared in advance. People
(researcher, interviewer, or simply the enumerator) who are going to take this assignment
need practical training to conduct the interview smoothly. However, we cannot ignore
the interviewer’s bias towards the interpretation of answers. Through interview schedule
the identity of the respondent is known to the researcher. The problem of low response
rate is not faced in this method. However, information received from the respondent is
recorded there only the ones which prove to be highly accurate. Through Interview
schedules personal contact with the respondent can be established. This method can
prove successful even when the target population is not educated. This method has
some drawbacks also. Interviewer may be biased, if he/she is not well trained, then it
will hamper the investigation and this method is not feasible when target population is
geographically wide spread.
The researcher must keep in mind certain points while preparing interview schedule.
The researcher should be clear in mind regarding the objectives, scope of the research
area under study.
The choice of closed or open-ended questions should be made.
Complex, emotional and sensitive type of questions should be avoided.
Format of the interview schedule should be attractive and it leaves sufficient place to
enter the answers.
The sequence of questions should be finalised before conducting the interview session.
It is preferable to put questions in logical order.
Relevant questions should be drafted on the basis of area of research.
Please refer to Unit no. 11 of this course to get detailed information on construction,
and selection of open and close-ended questions. The Unit also discusses the relative
advantages and disadvantages of both the types of questions.
Pilot Test of the Schedule: Before the actual interview process starts it is advisable
to pre test the interview questions. A group of interviews should be selected for pilot
study. This group should not be included in the proper study. Interviewer should request
the selected respondents to give their suggestions/observations to improve the interview
schedule. After getting the responses from the pilot study group the researcher should
modify it accordingly. This practice is very important to get proper responses from the
respondents.
Conducting the Interview: We all know that interview is an art. But for researcher it
208 is the most difficult task. The researcher/interviewer has to manage multiple tasks at
one time. For example he/she is putting questions to the respondent, listening to the Interview Method
answers carefully, giving clarification, sometimes explanations, directions to clear the
doubts of the respondents and recording the answers manually, or with the help of any
electronic device (i.e., tape recorder). The interviewer is also keeping tap on time, the
questions to be covered in the session, etc. It is a skilled job. The interviewer should be
trained to undertake such job. Experience shows that this skill can be improved over
time.
How an interviewer is conducting himself/herself in the interview session is very important.

His/Her appearance, pleasing personality, behaviour, use of words, and knowledge of
the area can make a lot of difference to the results. Body language can also affect the
communication process. It may increase the level of comfort or ease of respondent.
Interviewer should not keep waiting the respondent. He/she should be punctual, polite
and courteous. Before starting the actual interview session he/she should introduce the
objective of the study and clearly explain the importance of contribution of the respondent
in the research. The interviewer should listen more than talk. He/She should have listening
skills. The main objective of the interview is to facilitate respondents to answer. So it is
important that the interviewer should ask right types of questions prompting the
respondent to answer and then properly recording the answers.
Guidelines for Conducting Interviews
• Interviewer should plan in an advance the venue, time, etc. of the interview session.
• He/She should have the friendly approach so that a proper understanding/rapport

can be established between the interviewer and interviewee.
• He/She should have the ability to mobilise the respondent to answer freely and
frankly on the subject.
• Questions should be well framed. Complex questions should be avoided. Such

questions should be added which will elicit the desired answers.
• He/She should be properly trained to have proper control of the interview session.
He/She should be responsible for creating a friendly atmosphere of mutual trust
and confidence.
• He/She should not show any surprise or disapproval to the answers of the
respondent but at the same time he/she should be supportive of the respondent
answers.
• He/She should have friendly, courteous, unbiased approach.
• He/She should be non judgemental and should not try to change or influence the
reactions or opinions of the respondents.
• The interviewer should not indulge in any argument, even though he/she may know
that respondent’s replies are not accurate.
• At the end of the interview session the interviewer must show gratitude for their
cooperation. The respondent should get the feeling that they are actively
participating in the research process and their views are valuable and important to
research.
209
Research Methods In addition to this Adams (1985) suggested three factors, which make an interview
successful. They are:
“having a thoroughly tested questionnaire or interview form which to work;
being familiar and “wise” in the interview process;
treating respondents with trust, respect and courtesy”.
Recording the Interview: In the structured interviews where mostly the questions are
closed ended, it is easy to record the responses on the interview schedule. This method
is called Note Taking method. It is difficult for the interviewer to remember all the
responses and enter at the end of the day. It is advisable for he/she to record accurately
and fully whatever responses emerge after the session. In the Note Taking method no
answer should be left blank if the respondent did not answer. In such situations it should
be written “not responded”, etc. Some explanation should be recorded against
unanswered questions Interviewer should also note the comments made by the
respondent on the margin area near the questions. The explanations given by the
interviewer should also be recorded separately question wise. These noting will prove
highly useful at the time of data analysis.
In this method the interviewer should be extra careful. He/She should be questioning,
listening, and recording the answers simultaneously. In the case of highly structured
interviews use of tape recorder is not required. It may prove helpful in the case of
open-ended questions.
For open-ended questions, writing the responses, which may be long, is not only difficult
but time consuming also. In order to get the main substance of the answer recording of
exact wordings is required. In such situation interviewer may make use of the Tape
Recording method to have the verbatim copy of the answers. Data generated through
audio recordings can be preserved and used later. The use of this method saves the
time of the interviewer and the same can be utilised for further analysis and report
writing. The only disadvantage of this method is that it may put respondents at unease.
At the end or in between the interview session if time and other conditions permit the
respondents should be shown the marked responses. The openness, truthfulness and
trust on the part of the interviewer may generate confidence in the respondent and he/
she is prompted to cooperate with the interviewer. If the marked responses are not
shown to them then they may get the feeling that something is being concealed from
them and they may not continue the interview session. Such situations may play havoc
not with the interview but with the research as such. For the case of tape recorded
responses the transcripts of the recordings in verbatim should be shown to them for the
confirmation of accuracy. It is expected from the respondent that he/she should not
revise the answers.
Preparation of Verbatim Transcripts: After the interview the recordings are

transformed into verbatim transcripts. This forms the primary material for research.
Helen Finch (1990) is of the opinion that preparing transcripts is a arduous task. It is
time consuming. It is better to give such task to some outside professional agency and
the researcher can utilise the time elsewhere.
Analysis of Data and Report Writing: Analysing the qualitative data is a very difficult
task. Same sets of questions receive diverse answers. Analysis of data and report
writing will be discussed in detail in this course.
210
Self Check Exercise Interview Method
4) Enumerate different stages of interview method.

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12.5 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF

INTERVIEW METHOD
Advantages
• Through questioning in depth information can be obtained from the respondent.
• In personal interaction clarifications and explanations can be made.
• This is a very flexible method. Questions can be restructured to eliminate ambiguity.
• Through personal interaction complete responses can be obtained from the
respondents.
• Personal information, as well as complex and sensitive information can be generated.
• Non- response percentage is very less. As compared to questionnaire method
here participant rate is high.
• The interviewer may come across information, which is most spontaneous.
• Interviewer can remould the questions, change the language according to knowledge,
educational background of the respondent.
• Many people do not want to answer questionnaires due to time constraints but at
the same time they may very willingly face the interview session. It takes less effort
and time of the respondent.
• Quarterly data can be retrieved from interview session.
• Through personal interaction the interviewer can observe the respondent’s reactions,
body language, facial expressions vis-à-vis a particular question. These expressions
help the researcher/interviewer to reword or remould the questions spontaneously.
Some of these reactions, if observed carefully, may prove useful at the time of
analysis.
• Face –to –face or group interaction gives respondent the feeling of direct
participation in the research process.
• Conducting interview is an art. A properly trained interviewer can make the
respondent answer even sensitive, emotional and sometimes complex questions
with ease. Information gathered from this method can be supplemented to the
original findings of the research. 211
Research Methods Limitations
No method is fool proof. There are some inherent weaknesses, limitations associated
with this method. Some of them are mentioned below:
• It is a very time consuming as well as very expensive method especially when the
target population is big in number and widely spread over a geographical area.
• There is a possibility of biased analysis, interpretations from the side of researcher
or interviewee. Biased reactions can also be received from the interviewee. Age,
class, race, gender, social status, etc. can play crucial role in generating biased
opinions from both the sides. Biased reactions, analysis and interpretation can
hamper proper research results.
• If the interviewer/ researcher is not skilled, trained in the art, he/she may not able
to conduct successful interview session with proper control.
• There is a possibility if majority of the target population consists high and top-level
management groups, executives, therefore this method may not prove approachable
to such clientele. Getting information from such people is not under the control of
interviewer.
• Proper training, selection and supervision of the interviewer are very essential to
this method.
• Getting free, frank responses from the target population is not a easy task.
Establishing proper rapport with the target group is very difficult requirement.
• Information received from this method is difficult to analyse. Same set of questions
may receive diverse responses.
• Interview method may call for some errors, which are difficult to eliminate.
• The use of computers in data collection has its own set of limitations.
Infrastructures, connectivity, knowledge to operate such system are some of the
essential requirements. Without them the system may not run.
Interviews vary in form and purpose. Each type has its own advantages and limitations.
However in any given situation one type of interview may yield excellent results and it
may not prove fruitful in some other situation. We all know that interview is an important
tool of survey research. In the following section we will learn the inherent advantages
and limitations of this method. Adams has rightly said, “It is a most sensitive device for
the acquisition of reliable valid data.”
12.6 SUMMARY
In this Unit we have studied the interviewing as a tool for data collection. This method
can be useful when it is combined with questionnaire, observation, case study method
and especially in user studies will definitely add qualitative analysis to the interpretation
of results. Interviewing in one of the methods of getting data under primary sources.
Each method of data collection has its own merits and demerits. The success of
interviewing method is dependent upon the target population, trained/skilled and
knowledgeable interviewer. Like other methods this method also cannot generate 100%
accurate results. This Unit elaborates in details different types of interviews, the process
of interviewing, the guidelines to be followed and finally the chief merits and limitations
of this method. The construction of research instrument is the key aspect in conducting
212 the research. This tool will generate the primary and quality information for analysis.
This instrument may be designed keeping in view the target population, the objectives, Interview Method
and scope of the research.
Interview is an expensive as well as time consuming tool but at the same time it can be
used as an excellent mode of communication between interviewer and interviewee.
Personal, complex, confidential types of information can easily be gathered from the
respondents.
Busha and Harter (1980) have said that some investigations give more weight to the
interview method than questionnaire method. The reason they likely give that the former
generates more complete answers.
Interview is a data-gathering device, which elicits answers or information from a

respondent to the already printed questions or spontaneous questions from the
interviewer. Interview may be structured, unstructured, and telephonic or computer
assisted, consisting of open or close-ended questions. Any type of interview is basically
to get information from respondents on information on themselves, their experiences,
their views, expressions, attitudes, etc. The purpose(s) for which interview method is
used differs considerably. Use of interview method in survey research signifies its utility
and flexibility. The presence of researcher and respondent and interaction between
them has a great influence on both the quality and quantity of response(s) generated
from respondent.

1) Interview method is a very common tool of data collection in survey research.
One author has equated this tool with the surgical instrument in medicine. Through
this method qualitative data can be collected which will supplement the research
findings.
2) Clinical interview is one of the types of unstructured interviews. This type is being
used in social work, counselling and prison setting. This is also called personal
history interview. This interview is used to get data on the personal feelings, life
experiences of the respondents.
3) For CATI system one requires PC which is linked through network to server,
telephone line connection, head phones set of questions, list of respondents to be
interviewed.
4) Stages of Interview Method are:
Planning the interview process, construction of Interview Schedule, pre testing
the schedule, recording the answers, preparing the transcripts, data analysis and
finally, the report writing.
12.8 KEYWORDS
Personal Interview : It is a face – to face interaction between researcher and
respondent.
Interviewer : It is the person who is asking questions. He or she may be a
research assistant or a researcher himself/herself.
Interviewee : It is the person who is being asked questions on a particular
research problem under investigation. He or she may be called
respondent or target population. 213
Research Methods CATI : It stands for Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing. In
this system computer is used to conduct interview.
Interview Schedule : List of printed questions for seeking answers from the
respondents. Interviewer records the responses on it.

Adams, Gerald R. and Schvaneveldt, Jay D. (1985). Understanding Research
Methods. New York: Longman. Pp. 199-229.
Orlando: Academic Press.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology : Methods and Techniques. 2nd ed.
Reprint. New Delhi: New Age International. Pp. 95-121.
Kumar, Krishan (1992). Research Methods in Library and Information Science.
New Delhi: Har – Ananad Publications. Pp. 174 -190.
Kumar, Ranjit (1999). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners.
London : Sage Publications. Pp. 104 -26.
Neuman, W. Lawrence (1991). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Pp. 227-69.
O’Leary, Zina (2004). The Essential Guide to Doing Research. New Delhi: Vistaar
Publications. Pp. 150-83.
214
UNIT 13 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Research Problem Appropriate for an Experiment
13.3 Parts of an Experiment
13.4 Steps in Planning an Experimental Research
13.5 Laboratory Experiment an Field Experiment
13.6 Experimental Research Design
13.7 Advantages, Disadvantages and Limitations of Experimental Method
13.8 Summary
13.10 Keywords
13.0 OBJECTIVES
understand the basics of experimental method;
know the definitions of parts of experiments;
get acquainted with the steps in planning experimental method; and
understand the importance of experimental design.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Webster’s Dictionary states the meaning of the term experiment as:
trial made to confirm
to disprove something
operation undertaken to discover some unknown principles or effect
to test some suggested truth
to demonstrate some unknown truth
conducting of tests.
These points emphasise the seriousness of the experimental process to find out the
truth. Further Greenwood elaborately describes that “An experiment is the proof of
hypothesis which seeks to hookup two factors into a causal relationship through the
study of contrasting situations which have been controlled on all factors except the one
of interest, the latter being hypothetical cause or hypothetical effect”.
Experimental research is one of the basic methods of research specifically in the field of
physical sciences. This is useful for tracing the cause and effect relationships. Normally
experiments are carefully planned and conducted to record the results through
observations under controlled conditions. 215
Research Methods It involves independent and dependent variables. It aims to study the effect of an
independent variable on a dependent variable. Experimental approach provides an
answer as to why certain phenomenon occurs or what happens if a particular factor is
changed.
Why we need Experiment?
Experiment requires special efforts. It is often difficult to design and also it is time
consuming. So the question arises why one should take such a trouble? Why not simply
observe/survey the phenomenon? The fundamental weakness of any non-experimental
study is its inability to specify the cause and effect. It can only show correlation between
variables but correlation alone never prove causation. Experimentation is the only way
which can show the effect of an independent variable on dependent variable. In
experimentation, the researcher can manipulate the independent variable and measure
its effect on the dependent variable. Moreover, experiment provides the opportunity to
vary the treatment in a systematic manner.
Experimental Method in Social Sciences
There is a question on the possibility of conducting experiment in social sciences as
comfortably as in the case of physical sciences. It is true that the experimentation in
social sciences is not as effective as physical and chemical sciences. In physical and
chemical science the experiments can be repeated endlessly under controlled and practical
conditions. Where as in the case of social sciences it is impossible to repeat the
experiment under varied conditions. Though true experimentation in social sciences
may be of minor importance, the recent developments in the application of statistical
methods to social problems have brought-in enormous changes.
Experimental method connotes laboratory situation. How it is possible for social scientists
to bring a piece of society in to the laboratory? And how to observe its behaviours in a
test tube under varied conditions? If it is true, then the question comes does the
astronomer bring the solar system in to the laboratory?
Though this kind of controversies are still prevailing, the research techniques and tools
have improved considerably to tackle the issues. Hence, the fast development of
scholarship in social sciences on the strong footings of scientific method.
13.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM APPROPRIATE FOR

AN EXPERIMENT
Experimental research in library and information science covers areas such as testing of
new tools and techniques for developing, designing, maintaining and utilising the total
collection of the library. It is also possible to identify inadequately conceived ideas, until
not known or not observed phenomena along with exploring the conditions under which
certain phenomena occur in library and information science. The growth and development
of the library over a period of time is revealing the fascinating changes that have occurred
from time to time. Understanding of these changes and their implementation in different
situations, naturally leads to explore newer experimental research approaches.
13.3 PARTS OF AN EXPERIMENT

It is essential to know here the parts of experiment to understand better the process of
experimental research. Some of the identified parts of an experiment are subject,
experimental group, control group, treatment, independent variable, dependent
variable, pretest, posttest and random assignment.
216
Variable Experimental Method
A variable is a changeable element in phenomena. Variables are divided in to two types;

Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
Independent Variable
is an experimental variable, which is manipulated in an experiment it is also known
as causal variable.
Dependent Variable
is a subject variable associated with control group. This is also known as effect or
criterion variable.
Experimental group
The subjects who are randomly assigned to get the treatment are called experimental
group.
A treatment
A treatment is the condition that is applied to experimental group of subjects. In the
case of library and information science treatment covers the facilities developed to
provide more easy access to the scattered information in the form of an index, catalogue,
bibliography, current awareness lists and abstracting services. Even user education and
information literacy programmes can be considered as the treatment aspects.
Random assignment
In an ideal experiment all the factors that might affect the outcome of the experiment
(the dependent variable) are controlled by the experimenter. This is more possible in
the case of natural sciences where as in social sciences, complex subjects matters pose
the problems of identification of variables and their control. Therefore, to overcome
this problem the concept of randomisation is used. This randomisation is nothing but
assigning subjects to experimental and control groups at random. Random assignment
is a requirement of statistical tests of the significance of experimental results.
A subject
A Subject is a basic unit on which the experiment is conducted. This varies from discipline
to discipline. In the case of library and information science or for that matter social
sciences subjects are often people – patrons, librarians or users.
Control Group
Control is central to experimental research. This helps in distinguishing the experimental
research from other methods of research. Control group is that on which the experiments
are not conducted. Control group helps in the process of comparison. Even the treatment
is not applied to control group.
Cause and effect relationship
The results of the experiment showing the influence of manipulating the independent
variable (cause) on the dependent variable (effect).
Pretest
The measurement of dependent variable after the random assignment of subjects to
experimental group and control group is called pretest.
217
Research Methods Posttest
The measurement of dependent variable for experimental and control groups after the
pretest and introduction of treatment is called posttest.
13.4 STEPS IN PLANNING AN EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH
Experimental research is to be planned carefully considering all the details so as to
obtain the best possible results from the experiment. The experimenter is supposed to
bear in mind the following steps while planning the experimental research.
Selecting the Problem
Selection of the problem suitable for experimental method has to be done very
cautiously. The elaborate study of the literature related to the field and the successful
application of experimental method for the collection of data will give good insight.
Another factor is that the possibility of manipulating independent variable to study its
effects on the dependent variable has to be cautiously decided. It is true that all problems
cannot be approached through the experimental research. Therefore, only such problems
which are amenable for experimental research are to be taken for investigation. In the
case of library and information science problems like compatibility of different indexing
systems, classification codes and also methods of innovative teaching to enhance the
performance among the library and information science students can be the best examples
to be tackled through experimental research.
The selection of the problem is followed by the formulation of hypothesis, with conceptual
clarity and fixing of the place, time, duration and materials for the experimentation.
Further, proper attention is paid in deciding the subjects and groups on which the
experiment is going to be conducted.
Selection of Setting
Experiment in the laboratory environment will have an automatic setting, where as in
the field experiment environment natural setting has to be selected. Usually the important
factors that are to be considered for a good setting are as follows:
the environment conducive to the phenomena be studied;
the phenomena must occur in the setting so that organising the experiment is possible;
the researcher has to have all skills and techniques to manipulate independent
variables as well as the knowledge of controlling the other factors which might
come in the way of experimentation; and
there should be enough freedom for the researcher to access and publish the data.
Pilot Study
The pilot study is a pre-requisite in all serious research activities to find out the realities.
It gives an idea to the researcher to understand and clarify number of doubtful factors
involved in the experiment. As a result the experimenter will be in a sound position to
conduct the experiment and convince the authorities as far as the successful conducting
of experiment is concerned.
Research Design
This is a rough layout of the total structure of the experimental research. Research
design involves enumerating the independent and dependent variables and gives the
218
direction to the researcher to manipulate the situation. Further, research design also
helps in selecting control groups, experimental groups, random assignment of subjects Experimental Method
to eliminate the personal bias and problem of choice and also measurement of the effect
manipulation of independent variable, repitition of experiments to confirm, etc.
Conducting the Experiment
The following are the important steps normally used in conducting the experiment:
controlling the variable or non-experimental factors;
manipulating the independent variable;
measurement of experimental results;
analysing, classifying and interpreting the findings;
cross checking the findings with the existing facts;
drawing conclusions from the findings; and
reporting the results.
Evaluation of an Experiment
Evaluation forms an important component in experimental research. The evaluation
consists of hypothesis(es) testing, identifying the experimental error, sensitivity, internal
validity and external validity.
Experimental research usually starts with the formulation of null hypothesis and testing
the same. Null hypothesis asserts that with in the specified limits of credibility the control
and experimental groups are essentially equivalent. A test of null hypothesis intends to
show that the experimental variable has not effected any change in the value of dependent
variable. For the purpose of testing a null hypothesis, the tests like T tests, Chi-square
test and analysis of variable are used according to the need.
The sensitivity of an experiment is its ability to detect relatively small effects. To increase
the sensitivity of an experiment the investigator increases the number of subjects.
The experimental error is decreased by exerting additional control over the experiment.
This is achieved by matching subjects on the basis of as many variables as possible.
The internal validity of an experiment is mainly estimated through answering the questions
like: i) Are variables sufficiently controlled? ii) Has random assignment of subjects be
employed throughout?
The external validity of an experiment is tested by answering the questions like: i) Can
the results of experiments be generalised? If so, what is the population to which it can
be generalised? ii) When a sample is taken, to what extent sample is repetitive for the
target population.
Justification of the generalisation is easier in the case of field experiments. Because of
the artificiality, the generalisation can hardly be justified in the laboratory experiment
environment.
To conclude, the evaluation of experimentation findings is always in terms of reliability
of the data, importance of experimental results and the extent to which the data can be
generalised.
13.5 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT AND FIELD

EXPERIMENT
An experiment can be defined as a form of experience of natural facts that occur
following deliberate human intervention to produce change, as such it distinguishes 219
Research Methods itself from the form of experience involving the observation of facts in their natural
settings. This definition leads to think of two distinct types of experimentation. They are
laboratory experiment and field experiment.
Laboratory Experiment
A laboratory experiment is an investigation conducted in a setting created specifically
for the purpose. Here the researcher manipulates an independent variable and studies
its effect on a dependent variable, keeping other variable constant.
Purpose of Laboratory Experiment
The main purposes of laboratory experiment are:
to discover causal relations under uncontaminated conditions;
to test the predictions derived from theory and other researches; and
to refine theories.
Users of Laboratory Experiment
This method is useful not only in physical science research, but also in social science
research. Even though experimentation on a social science problem has special difficulty,
it can be used for a variety of problems. Studies such as information seeking behaviour,
and use of specific types of documents, etc., can be approached through this method.
Merits of Laboratory Experiment
Laboratory experiment has several merits as listed below:
It has the possibility of securing relatively complete control over extraneous
factor(s);
It can manipulate one or more variables and can study its impact on dependent
variables;
High degree of specificity can be achieved in operationalising the variable; and
It yields precise results and it is replicable.
Demerits of Laboratory Experiment
The greatest weakness of this method is probably the lack of strength of
independent variables. Because, laboratory situation is artificial, so the effects of
experimental manipulation are usually weak.
This method is highly structured, thus limiting flexibility
The results cannot be simply generalised to real life situations because various
extraneous forces operate in the latter stage.
Field Experiment
This is an experiment conducted in a real life situation in which the experimenter
manipulates an independent variable in order to prove the experiment. In comparison
with laboratory experiment, a field experiment involves less control, because it is very
difficult to foresee and control extraneous factor in the field.
Uses of Field Experiment
This is well suited to both testing of theory and finding solutions to practical social
problems. It is useful for studying variety of social action programmes such as improving
the work culture, productivity and increasing the efficiency in the professional
performance.
220
The field ‘experiment will be more successful if preceeded by a field study which gives Experimental Method
a more thorough knowledge of the setting.
Merits of Field Experiment
Field experiment has several merits as listed below:
The variables in a field experiment usually have a stronger effect than those of
laboratory method, as the field situation is real. Realism increases with strength of
the variable.
This method is particularly appropriate for studying methods of social influence,
social processes and social changes in real life setting.
As this deals with the total life situation it is well suited for studying complex
syndromes and social processes where inter-relationship among many analytical
variables are involved.
Demerits of Field Experiment
The major demerit of this method is the practical difficulty involved in the
manipulation of independent variables and randomisation in many fields.
Another weakness is the lack of precision, precise measurement in realistic situation
is not possible as in laboratory method.
Self Check Exercise
1) Differentiate between the Laboratory and Field Experiments
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13.6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

‘Necessity is the mother of invention’, thus goes an adage. An inquisitive mind is always
trying to search for new things. Then the feeling of need, identifying the deficiency and
attempting to improve the situation all contribute to create the experimental attitude
which is required for experimental research.
An experimental design involves two groups of subjects. Of these, one is the control
group, which is not subjected to experimentation, while the other is the experimental
group on which experiments are performed. At a time, a single variable is added in the
case of the experimental group to check if its presence produces a change in the
condition of this group. The operative rule of experimental design is to vary one
circumstance at a time maintaining all other circumstances unchanged. This is known
as the law of the single variable, which has to be satisfied in every experimental design
to establish cause and effect relationship. Thus, adequate control is the essential factor
of the experimental method of research. An experimental design is prepared to include
the following elements: 221
Research Methods A problem that can be solved;
Experimental factors;
The best type of set-up for experimentation;
The operative rule, i.e. the law of the single variable;
Measurement programme;
The experimental design concerns the technical and organisational features,
which define the experiment - the number of experimental groups, the way in
which the groups are made, number and types of independent variables, any
repetition of observations, etc. Such characteristics may vary greatly and when
combined give rise to a multitude of possible experimental designs;
In experimental design, experts have categorised four distinct designs which are
as given below:
Before – After or Pre test experimental design;
After only or Post-test only experimental design;
Quasi – Design or Post-facto experimental design; and
Special design or Mixed design.
Before-After or Pre- test- Post-test Experimental Design
This is normally called classical experimental design. It is more reliable and it represents
the so-called four-cell design (Fig. 13.1). Here, before experimentation all the groups
are selected, observed and measured. There is one independent variable - the treatment
- and one dependent variable. Subjects are assigned randomly to the control group and
experimental group. Then the dependent variable is measured for both the groups.
After pretest, the treatment is introduced to the subjects in the experimental group only.
The dependent variable is then measured again for both the groups and compared. This
is the Post- test. This design suffers from one limitation, that is, it does not ensure to be
free from the influence of external factors.
Value of Dependent Value of Dependent

Variable Variable
Before Treatment After Treatment
Control Group
Experimental Group
Fig. 13.1: The Four-Cell Experiment Design
After-only or Pre-test only Experimental Design

In this type of design the study is carried out under social conditions, which are not at all
in the control of the physical or natural conditions. Two groups of subjects, who are
similar in all conditions, are chosen. One is called experimental group and the other is
called control group. Experiment is carried out on the experimental group as per the
222
pre-determined method. After the prescribed period both groups are observed and the Experimental Method
results are measured. The results are compared and changes that are observed in the
experimental group are recognised as a result of manipulating the variable in the
experiment.
Quasi or Ex-Post Facto Experimental Design
The name of the quasi experiment has been given to those situations in which the
experimenter cannot randomly assign subjects to experimental groups, but can still
manipulate the independent variable. However when even such manipulation is
impossible - that is to say, when the stimulus is also beyond the control of the researcher
– we can no longer speak of experimentation, what we have is purely and simply, an
analysis of co-variation. Never the less there are research situations which, although
lacking both features of experimentation (i.e. randomisation and manipulation) involve
a design that closely resembles that of experimentation. Such designs are called ex
post facto.
‘Ex Post Facto’ is a Latin phrase which means ‘done or made after a thing but retro
action upon it’. In this the experimenter does not achieve the change which studies, he
invariably chances upon the effect after it has already occurred. In Library Science,
children reading habits and behaviour of a fresh reader in the library can be studied with
the application of this design.
Special design (Mixed Design)
There is a special design called multifactor - between subjects design (also called mixed
design). Where one factor is between and the other is with-in. This design demands as
a pre-requisite, computer programme and the statistical consultant. This kind of mixed
designing is used in a situation where the experimenter:
needs power;
wants to generalise the results to real life situation where people are bound to get
more that two levels of the treatment; and
feels that order effects are not a problem.
Self-Check Exercise
2) Enumerate the different experimental designs.
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Research Methods
13.7 ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND
LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Experimentation has two basic advantages; firstly it is the research method that best
enables us to tackle the problem of the causal relationship; secondly it allows isolation
of specific phenomena, which could not be studied, systematically in their natural setting,
owing to the presence of other factors that hide, confuse and distort them.
Advantages
Its power to determine causal relationship is much better that that of all other
methods.
The influence of extraneous variables can be more effectively controlled.
The element of human error is more reduced.
More conditions may be created and tested in this method.
This method yields generally exact measurements and it can be repeated.
Disadvantage
It is very difficult to establish comparable control group and experimental group.
The scope of experimentation with human beings is extremely difficult.
Experiment is often difficult to design as it tends to be expensive and time consuming.
Experimentation can be used only in studies of the present but not in studies relating
to the past or future.
Limitations
Experimentation is applicable to certain phenomena and certain social situations.
Experimentation cannot be conducted if the independent variable cannot be
manipulated.
This approach is generally suitable to ‘micro’ issues (involving interpersonal
relationships) rather than to ‘macro’ situations (on account of the difficulty of
manipulating institutions or social groups).
Self-Check Exercise
3) State the advantages of experimental method.
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224
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Experimental Method
13.8 SUMMARY
We have seen so far a brief description of experimental research method and its
different aspects. The use of experiment to collect the data for testing the hypothesis(es)
is a hallmark of research in physical and chemical sciences. The literature review reveals
that there is an increasing application of experimental method in recent years in library
and information science research.
Experimentation is a social research technique well suited for specific issues, group
analysis and dynamics of interaction among individuals and all those phenomena that
occur in limited segment of space, time and number of persons involved. Cause – effect
relationship is the very basics of scientific reasoning. In social science, experiments can
be sub divided into laboratory experiments and field experiments, in the first case the
experiment is carried out in an artificial situation, where as in the second a real life
setting is used. Laboratory experiments can be classified in to impact studies, judgements
studies and observational studies.
Four cell experimental design is a popular design in the field of research. Generally
identified experimental designs are:
Before – After or Pre test experimental design;
After only or Post-test only experimental design;
Special design or mixed design.

1) The difference between Laboratory experiment and the field experiment is simple.
Usually the laboratory experiment is conducted in an artificial situation. Where as
the field experiment is carried out in a real-life setting.
2) Before – After or Pre test experimental design
After only or Post-test only experimental design
Special design or Mixed design
3) Advantages:
Its power to determine casual relationship is much better that that of all other
methods
The influence of extraneous variable can be more effectively controlled
The element of human error is more reduced
More conditions may be created and tested in this method
This method yields generally exact measurement and it can be repeated.

225
Research Methods
13.10 KEYWORDS
Variable : The treatment variable
Null Hypothesis : Hypothesis, that there is no evidence that the treatment
has an effect
Experimental Hypothesis : A prediction that the treatment will cause an effect
Randomisation : A tool used to establish internal variability
Mixed Design : A special design where one factor is between and the
other is within.

Bhandarkar, P.L. (et al) (2003). Statistical Methods. New Delhi: Himalaya Publishing
House.
Bryman, Alan (2004). Social Science Research Methods. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Busha, Charles H. and Stephen, P. Harter (1980). Research Methods in Librarianship:
Techniques and Interpretation. New York: Academic Press.
Goode, W.J. and Hatt, P.K. (1986). Methods in Social Science Research. New Delhi:
McGraw Hill.
New Delhi: Har Anad.
Mitchell, Mark and Jolley, Janina (1988). Research Design Explained. Holt: Rinehart
and Winston.
226
UNIT 14 CASE STUDY
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Case Study
14.2.1 Definition
14.2.3 Importance
14.2.4 Uses
14.2.5 Advantages, Disadvantages and Limitations
14.3 Research Problem Appropriate for a Case Study

14.4 Research Design in Case Study
14.4.1 Selection of an Object for a Case Study: Essential Precautions
14.2.2 Sources of Data
14.5 Steps Involved in Case Study Method

14.5.1 Skills Needed for a Researcher
14.6 Case Study and Case Work

14.7 Case Study and Other Methods
14.8 Summary
14.9 Answers to Self Check Exercise
14.10 Keywords
14.0 OBJECTIVES
understand the meaning of case study method of research;
delineate the sources, procedures and steps involved in conducting the case
study method;
know the relation of case study method with other methods of research; and
apply the case study method in library and information science research.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Case study method is an important method of social research. This method is
extensively used in sociology, education, political science, public administration,
management and psychology. Library and information science is not an exception
to it.
The staunch advocates of this method were Frederick Le Play (1806-1882) a
French Social reformer and Dr. William Healey. Case study is a deep intensive study
227
of particular social unit. It is recognised as a versatile device for research in providing
Research Methods an insightful explanation about a phenomenon that other methods will find difficult to
match. However it is often talked that the potential of case study has been over
shadowed by lack of validity, reliability and generalisability. This method is also
considered as a diagnostic study oriented towards finding out what is happening and
why is it happening and what can be done about it. Further it enables to determine
social process revealing the complexity of factors and indicate their sequence along
with their inter-relationships.
14.2 CASE STUDY

14.2.1 Definition
Charles H Cooley says that ‘Case study deepens perception and gives a clear insight
into life.’ Pauline Young opines that “it is a method of exploring and analyzing the
life of a social unit-be it a person, a family, an institution, cultural group or even an
entire community.” Goode and Hatt say “Case Study is a way of organizing social
data so as to preserve the unitary character of social object being studied.” According
to F.L. Whitney, “Case study is a complete analysis and report of the status of an
individual subject with respect as a rule to specific phases of his total personality.”
Another social scientist compares the case study as equivalent of the spotlight or the
microscope that takes, as its subject, one or more selected examples of a social
entity such as organisations, work team, events, and roles or relationships. Each
case is studied using a variety of data collection techniques such as analysis of
administrative records and documents, in-depth interviews, structured interviews etc.
The definitions stated above lead to suggest that the case study attempts to explain
holistically the dynamics of certain historical periods of a particular social unit. Case
studies are also useful in formulation of policies and procedures including planning for
the enterprises, service sectors and organisations. Case study as a research strategy
is considered as a vehicle in providing rich description of events from more than one
perspective which other research strategy such as survey or experiment cannot
possibly provide.
Library and information science like other disciplines of social sciences is having
number of examples of case studies. The purpose of case studies on individuals and
institutions is almost invariably fact finding. Normally case studies are helpful in
providing the solutions to management problems and enable the researcher in planning
new information services or remodeling the earlier ones.
Some of the very important characteristics of the case study method are listed below:
Case study is a deep, detailed and intensive study of a social unit;
It is a method of qualitative analysis;
It is a comprehensive study;
In this study all the variables and traits are linked with one another;
In case study, there are changes for wide variety of units to be selected;
It preserves wholeness of the units i.e. it is an approach which views any social
unit as a whole;
In case study complex factors are studied; and
Traits are the subject matter of the study.
228
14.2.3 Importance Case Study
Case study method is important in many ways. Some of them can be listed as
follows:
It helps in formulating valid hypothesis(es);
It is of immense value in forming questionnaires and schedules;
Discovering deviant units;
It is intensive in nature; and
It is very comprehensive.
14.2.4 Uses
It helps to collect detailed information about the unit of study and gives clue to
new ideas and further research;
As a tool of analysis, it helps to ascertain a number and variety of traits, qualities
and habits confined to a particular instance;
If helps to identify the peculiarities of a case for observation;
Case Study method shows the way to deepen our perception and sharpen
insights to understand biographies; and
It is often useful to advance a new interpretation.
14.2.5 Advantages, Disadvantages and Limitations
Advantages
Case Study is a deep and diagnostic study. It is acclaimed as a useful research
technique. Many expert researchers in social sciences have assessed the importance
of case study research. The following are some of the specific advantages of the
case study:
It helps to probe the entire life span of a social unit intensively and to analyse
the complex factors that are influencing the social unit.
Case data are vivid, absorbing and tend to reproduce a person’s social attitudes
and values.
Case Study facilities to understand every thing about a social unit and the variety
of habits, traits and qualities combined in a social unit.
Case Study helps to secure a detailed information about the growth of the unit,
group structure, individual life pattern etc.,
The relationship between individual and society in well brought out in the Case
Study.
Case Studies are indispensable for therapeutic and administrative purpose
It is also easy to generalise cases with the case and helps prepare a plan of
action for treatment.
Case Study is followed for comparison, classification, and analysis and for the
formulation of hypothesis leading to further research. 229
Research Methods Disadvantages
Following are the few disadvantages of the Case Study method as stated by research
experts:
It is inefficient in situations, which are already structured where the important
variables are identified.
It often assumes that all the past experiences of the individual or past happenings
in the situation have contributed to the final result.
It depends upon the recall of others as to what had happened, thereby giving
room for fallibility of memory.
Usually undesirable traits being over-emphasised where by desirable
characteristics given a low priority resulting in typical situation.
There is possibility of getting disturbed due to incompleteness of data in certain
circumstances.
Limitations
Case Study method has been criticised for several reasons. Numerous debates have
taken place about case study as regards to its value and validity. Still the method
has contributed considerably to the field of social research. Following are some of
the limitations commonly attributed to case studies:
Does not provide universal impersonal and common aspects of a phenomenon
Tendency for a researcher to draw generalisation after studying a few cases,
which may not be relevant to all situations
Tendency to over-emphasise the unique or universal events which are seldom
comparable
Collected subjective data do not lend themselves to quantitative check
Time consuming, costly and wasteful in certain cases
Sometimes case study is loose and unsystematic and the generalisations drawn
from few cases are not always accurate
Temptation to ignore the basic principles of research design is often seen
Self Check Exercise
1) Explain the significance of case study method.
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Case Study
14.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM APPROPRIATE FOR
A CASE STUDY
Case studies in library and information science cover the varied category of library
users, library personnel, institutional libraries like academic, research, and public
libraries including national and children libraries. It is to be clearly understood that
case studies allow close examination of unique problems of individual or group
situations-which other methods do not readily permit. Library is a social institution
with the committed societal responsibility. Case study approach to investigate related
problems –that is, their social control, performance, and impact on society-is the
appropriate approach. Number of researchers in the subject have employed case
studies approach and achieved varying degree of success.
According to Busha and Harter, the case study is particularly suitable for gathering
extensive data about a single research object and this allows a concentrated attention
on a single phenomenon and the utilisation of a wide array of data gathering methods.
Sometimes questionnaire, schedule and interviews including observation methods are
used to gather the varied data in case studies. Case studies are also useful in studying
the institution like University library, assessing the contributions of the persons to the
growth and development of the library, also the mechanisms devised to maximise the
use of collected resources.
Case study method is suitable to tackle the research question calling for a response
to ‘how’ and ‘why’. And also considered appropriate if the research focuses on
contemporary issues. In library and information science the most important current
issues that are amenable to case study research are:
Library Automation;
Impact of IT on Library and Information Services;
Performance of Library Consortia;
Growth and Development of INFLIBNET ;
Evolution of Library Professionals from Gatekeeper to Gateways;
Growth and Development of Information Skills; and
Information Literacy in the Information Society etc.,
Further, case study like other research strategies can be applied in all phases of
research and for all purposes of exploring, describing and explaining.
Case Study serves a dual purpose. While intensive investigation of a single case is
often made for the purpose of increasing general knowledge of a given area, perhaps,
more often than not, it is carried out with the ultimate purpose of making a practical
improvement in the specific instance examined and only incidentally it contributes to
the general knowledge. As a research method, it is examined with respect to the way
in which it can help to solve scientific problems.
14.4 RESEARCH DESIGN IN CASE STUDY

The successful conduct of case study research is mainly based on the clear research
design. As we know the research design is an action plan or a ‘blueprint’ of research
that guides the researcher to proceed smoothly and produce the expected results. It
also helps to connect the empirical data to research questions and ultimately to its
231
Research Methods conclusions. According to Yin (1994), the research design in case study contains the
following component parts:
1) A study’s questions in terms of who, what, where, how and why;
These components are argued to provide a clue to the type of research strategy,
which can be used in case study research.
2) Its propositions, (if any);
Study propositions help to direct research attention to matters that ought to be
examined closely. This will guide the research in the right direction by providing
further dues to what data to collect and from where data may be obtained.
3) Its unit of analysis;
This helps to define what the ‘case’ is and further focuses on a precise research
question.
4) The logic linking of data to the propositions ‘pattern-matching approach’; and
This is used for case study. This approach helps in putting together several
pieces of information from the same case and relating to the some theoretical
proposition.
5) The criteria for interpreting the findings;
There is no precise way of interpreting case study findings. Certain type of data
in a case, such as statistical data, may be tested for its validity or variance.
Other quantitative data such as independent and dependent variables may be
analysed for their relationship. While time series data may be analysed for its
trend quantitative data however, may require contextually innovative ideas for
interpreting it. The nature of relationship between data such as ‘positive’ and
‘negative’ perhaps in one criterion and another would probably be in terms of
its effects on the other such as sequential, circular, constant and temporal.
For the purpose of data collection and analysis Yin proposes two alternative strategies
namely the strategy of relying on theoretical propositions and the strategy for developing
a case description. The final part of the process is to prepare the report as the end
product of the research. Thus produced report depicts the picture to the audiences
or readers the contributions of the researcher to the field.
14.4.1 Selection of an Object for a Case Study: Essential Precautions
It is known that, a case refers to a unit of study. Unit is understood to be a family
or social group, a class of persons, a set of relationships or processes. There are
some essential precautions to be taken while choosing the object for case study:
Selection of typical and representative unit;
Identification of situations and problems;
Time to be covered-the phase of life cycle;
Unitary character of the unit-breadth of data, levels of data, use of indices and
types;
Quality of data;
Availability of data and its reliability;
Cost to be incurred;
232
Time to be spent; Case Study
Researchers courage, interest, skill and training in research; and

Possibility to repeat the case study.
These precautions are to be carefully taken note of by the researcher to conduct the
Case Study method successfully.
14.4.2 Sources of Data
Case studies are not limited to any single source of data. They employ a number
of sources. The following are some of the identified sources of information for the
case study method:
Life histories;
Personal records;
Personal documents;
Personal letters;
Confessions;
Biographies;
Interviewing individuals; and
Observations.
Life history is very essential in getting the actual experience and attitude of persons.
The information collected may be cross-checked by conducting interviews and through
observation. Briefly the entire life of an individual is studied, tested and enquired
from the life history, letters including diaries, and correspondence. The hidden
secrets of an individual, his way of life, the objects and the mode of life can be
studied from these sources. Thus to collect reliable and accurate data researcher has
to use various sources and techniques in case study method.
Self Check Exercise
2) What is the aim of case study?
3) Enlist the different sources of data for case study research.
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14.5 STEPS INVOLVED IN CASE STUDY

METHOD
Generally the steps involved in the case study method are:
Determining the present status - Collection of descriptive information which
enables to determine the present status of the unit selected for the study.
233
Research Methods Collecting background information - Gathering the information and examining
the circumstances leading to the current status and also to list the possible
causes or problems in the present situation.
Testing the suggested hypothesis(es) - Collecting specific evidence about
each of the hypotheses from the background information gathered. Since the
behaviour is varying, investigator is not able to come up with a single solution
for the breakdown of the situation.
Instituting remedial action - Subsequent to the existing situation, some
corrective or improvement programme should follow to check what effect the
change has brought about.
Busha and Harter (1980) have suggested the following steps to conduct the case
study successfully:
The research object is explicitly identified and described at a level of explanation
commensurate with whatever pertinent knowledge has already been produced
about it.
Information about the research object and the investigative task are then
assembled and analysed, and relevant terms and variables are defined and
described.
The research question is stated or hypotheses are formulated appropriately-
based upon available information and the body of theory related to the topic of
the study (More often than not, case studies are based upon research questions
rather than hypotheses; in any event, the research problem should be examined
within the context of existing theoretical knowledge).
An entity (case) is chosen as the specific object to be studied with reference
to the research problem.
The object of the study is then carefully observed, and if necessary causal
factors associated with the observed phenomenon are identified.
If sufficient research data is collected, the hypotheses may be tested with some
degree of certainity; however investigators can be more certain when they select
and examine similar cases (i.e. conduct follow-up case studies in the same
problem area).
14.5.1 Skills Needed for a Researcher
Experts and scholar social scientists over a period of time have come to the conclusion
that some specific skills are required to conduct the case study smoothly. They are
listed as follows:
Should be able to ask good questions and to interpret the answers;
Should be a good listener and not be trapped by his or her own ideologies or
preoccupations and be able to observe and sense more generally;
Should be adaptive and flexible so that new encountered situations can be seen
as opportunities, not as threats;
Should have firm grasp of the ideas being studied whether it has a theoretical
or policy orientation. Such a grasp reduces the relevant events and information
to be sought to manageable proportions; and
Should be unbiased by preconceived notions including those derived from theory.
234 Thus person should be sensitive and responsive to contradictory evidence.
Case Study
14.6 CASE STUDY AND CASE WORK
The terms case study and case work are often used in the social research. It is
essential here to know the distinction between these two terms. Case study refers
to the intensive investigation of a particular unit where as case work relates to the
developmental and adjustmental procedure that follows diagnosis. Of course, these
two terms are different facets of the same approach to problems, and as such are
interrelated and essentially complementary. As M H Gopal says Case study is often
understood as a method and sometimes as technique, and sometimes as an ‘approach’
to a social reality and occasionally, a mode of organising data in terms of some
chosen units. He further states that it is infact a technique which considers all
pertinent aspects of a situation, employing as the unit of study –an individual, institution
or group, and intensively investigating it.
14.7 CASE STUDY AND OTHER METHODS

Case Study as a method of research has a potential to stand along with other
methods of research. It was George Lundburg who called it futile to consider
superiority or inferiority of different methods of research. He holds the view that
“each has its place, and for a particular purpose, or at a particular stage of investigation,
is best.” In his opinion “Any method which achieves its purpose is valid for that
purpose.”
Scholars have agreed that there is much the same connection between case study
and statistical method. They are interdependent and complementary. In some areas
of investigation especially when prediction must be made quickly, statistical techniques
have to replace case study. Sometimes, case studies may supply the raw data for
latter statistical study. When an overall generic picture of a problem is needed case
study steps in and statistical tools become its handmaid for interpreting and analysing
the data.
One of the noted Social Scientist states that, “Critical or rigorous statistics grew out
of one form of Case Study, that of the general Survey.” Thus according to him, the
general survey, one form of survey method is, but a type of case study. In fact the
interview Schedule used to collect the data, sufficiently complete and detail, as well
as arrayed with respect to some degree of unity is in a sense a case study. Therefore,
case study method has a close relationship with survey method.
Case study, as a method of research, frequently employs more techniques than one.
Thus for tracing the developmental process, it makes use of the historical method,
wherever factual picture is needed it uses the descriptive method and it also relies
on questionnaire, checklist and rating scales etc., to gather the data, and it looks to
statistics at the classification and analysis stages. Even in the context of choosing the
units for case study, the out come of the earlier case studies and the final processing
and analysis of the material is to be treated by statistics. Thus, the case study has
to go to statistics if its data are to reveal frequencies, types, trends, uniformities and
patterns.
L.L. Bernard a noted authority in social science research expresses the view that “
the case method corresponds roughly to the laboratory experiment, except, that the
social case describes situations as they are, while the laboratory case describes
conditions under artificial controls. Therefore it can be concluded that case study
is the first step in scientific method and leads directly into statistical, method forming
235
Research Methods the basis for its generaliations. It is also very close to schedule, questionnaire as well
as experimental and historical method.
Self Check Exercise
4) Discuss the complementary role of the case study and statistical technique.
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14.8 SUMMARY
Research goes beyond the securing of data for the purpose of information or publicity.
It must help to explain causal relationships. Case study research involves an attempt
to publish certain principles in the analysis of social situations, which the case studies
will bring to light. In spite of the drawbacks of the case study method, research
experts still use this method for conducting their research. Considerable attempts are
being made by eminent research experts like Carl Rogers, Alfred Kinsey, John
Dollard, Elton Mayo to improve the effectiveness of the method and to overcome
those visible disadvantages and limitations. In library and information science the use
of case study method in the contemporary research is increasing day by day. Goode
and Hatt lament that “as against the analysis of individual traits alone, it is highly
fruitful approach as yet insufficiently exploited by those who are currently doing
research into research techniques”, M.H.Gopal rightly summarises the significance of
case study method, that of given time, money and the right type of investigators, the
potentialities of case study technique are immense, particularly in underdeveloped
countries. If the ‘cases’ are chosen objectively, wherever possible by utilizing statistical
devices and investigated intensively, it should be possible to formulate generalisations,
whose validity would of course, depend on how representative the cases are. A wise
combination of the case study and statistical techniques would perhaps make this tool
highly significant in a vast country with multiple and inter related influences.

1) Case study method has been in use for many decades and has contributed to
knowledge significantly. It is a viable strategy for research and can be versatile
device for bridging the gap between the phenomenon and image that a researcher
has about it. Case study is relevant in the situation where researcher has to
answer for ‘why’ and ‘how’. It is considered appropriate if the research is
focused on the contemporary events.
2) The aim of case study is to find out the factors that are account for behaviour
pattern of the units and its relationships with the environment. In other words,
the researcher using the case study method tries to understand the complex of
factors that are operative within a social unit.
236
3) The possible sources of data for case study research are, life histories, personal Case Study
documents of all types, confessions, biographies and interviewing individuals.
Case studies are not limited to any single source of data collection. They employ
a number of sources.
4) Case study and statistical approaches have been considered as rivals and not
really mutually exclusive. They are in fact, complementary and both may be
employed with advantage in the same project. While one analyses mass of data
horizontally and otherwise, the other studies vertically a small number of individual
cases in detail and as a whole-the number of units may be small but the total
number of traits would be large. The two approaches have their significant role.
14.10 KEYWORDS
Case Study : Intensive investigation of a particular unit.
Case Work : Developmental and adjunct mental procedure that follows
diagnosis.
Research Design : A plan of action or a blueprint.
Trait : Distinguishing feature in character.

Budhwar, Pawan and Budhwar, Laxmi (2003). Research Methods for Business
Studies: Issues and Perspectives. New Delhi: Global Business Press. Pp. 39-50.
Busha, Charles H. and Harter, Stephen P. (1980). Research Methods in
Librarianship: Techniques and Interpretation. New York: Academic Press.
Pp.151-54.
Gopal, M.H. (1994). An Introduction to Research Procedure in Social Sciences.
Bombay: Asia Publishing House. Pp.184-92.
New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications.
Lundberg, George A. (1942). Social Research. London: Longmans.
Yin, R.K. (1994). Case Study Research: Design and Method. California: Thousand
Oaks.
Young, P.V. (1996). Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New Delhi: Prentice-
Hall.
237
UNIT 15 RESEARCH DESIGN
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 What is Research Design?
15.3 Need and Purpose
15.4 Functions
15.5 Types
15.5.1 Based on Nature of Investigation
15.5.2 Based on Data Collection Methods
15.5.3 Based on Number of Contacts made with the Subjects
15.5.4 Based on Reference Period
15.6 Summary
15.8 Keywords
15.0 OBJECTIVES
understand the concept of research design;
comprehend its need and purpose;
know its types; and
apply appropriate design for research to be undertaken by you.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Research is a systematic effort towards unraveling the mysteries surrounding us. It
involves putting in persistent efforts to know the unknown. In doing so, we start from
where we are, what is our present state of knowledge? We tend to interpret this present
state by studying the work done by others in the field. We have used the word systematic
to characterise research. There are reasons for that; there is a specific purpose while
carrying out research; the effort required is monumental in view of the fact that a
comprehensive study of what has already been known about it has to be understood. It
has to be continued further, form conception to observation to analysis to interpretation
and finally reporting, which involves considerable intellectual efforts. Robson has
characterised research as systematic, skeptic, and ethic. By systematic, he means that
we should be clear about what we are doing, why we are doing, and how we are
doing. By skepticism he conveys that the researcher should check, cross- check, and
verify his/her views before finalizing them. Researcher should not violate ethics while
conducting research, whether it is conceptualisation of topic, data collection, analysis
or presentation of results. Research is of two types, viz., pure and applied. The trend
today is towards applied research. That is not to belittle pure research, as both are
complimentary to each other. Pure research is done to improve upon our existing state 241
of knowledge. Applied research is done to find out new knowledgeResearch to be put into
Design
application. It is carried out with an aim of developing something better for the benefit
of the society.
We have seen that research needs to be organised and systematic. Research Design is
a step towards carrying out research in a planned way. In this Unit, we shall study about
what is research design and what is its purpose. We shall also discuss the factors affecting
research design and the types of research design.
15.2 WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?

Research is an important activity affecting the society as a whole therefore, it involves a
lot of decision making. Research design also involves a lot of decision - making. It
provides a structure and shape to your research project. After finalising your topic, you
decide about how you are going to conduct your study. It involves formulation of strategy
for all the stages starting from formulation of hypotheses to the analysis of data. Kerlinger
defines research design as a plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so conceived
as to obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete
scheme or programme of research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do
from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of
data. Thyer has defined research design as a blueprint or detailed plan for a research
study - starting from operationalising variables so that they can be measured, to selecting
a sample of interest to study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses,
and finally analysing the results. Thus, we can conclude that research design provides
us a base on which we conduct our research.
15.3 NEED AND PURPOSE

Research is a systematic endeavour towards quest for new knowledge. The word
systematic is important and needs clarification. Studying informally and casually may
also yield new knowledge but that is not research. In research, organised efforts are put
right from thinking of a topic to the presentation of results. The magnitude of the study
and the efforts involved require systematisation. Research also involves spending public
money therefore, it requires proper planning for effectiveness and efficiency. The methods
and techniques involved in data collection and analysis may involve subjectivity. Adequate
planning needs to be done to minimise this subjectivity. Validity is another important
issue for which a proper design is required. Validity ensures that what we are measuring
is what we intend to measure.
The purpose of a research design is to provide information regarding:
What is the study?
Why is the study being carried out?
Where will the study be carried out?
How will the study be carried out?
What will be the processes and tasks involved?
What will be the data?
How will the data be collected?
What methods of sampling will be used? and
How will the analysis be done? 239
Research Process
15.4 FUNCTIONS
The functions of a research design are to:
Provide a plan to undertake systematic study and help to provide procedures to
undertake the research work; and
Ensure objective, valid, and economic undertaking of the study.
Research design enables the researcher to put his study on a sound scientific footing.
He is able to decide in advance the what, why, and how of his study. It acts as a guide
to conduct the various steps of his/her study in an objective, valid, and economic way.
Self Check Exercise
1) Define research design. Discuss its need and purpose.
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15.5 TYPES
There are different types of research design. Which one is the best for your study,
depends on the purpose and scope of your study. While taking decisions on the research
design, a number of factors have to be taken into consideration. These include: Nature
of investigation, Data collection methods, Number of contacts made with the subjects,
and the Period of reference of your study.
Nature of Investigation:
Exploratory;
Descriptive;
Experimental;
Semi or Quasi- experimental;
Non- experimental; and
Field research.
Data Collection Methods:
Survey;
Case studies; and
Content analysis;
Number of Contacts made with the Subjects:
Cross-sectional;
Before- and- after; and

240 Longitudinal
Reference Period Research Design
Retrospective;
Prospective; and
Retrospective - Prospective.
15.5.1 Based on Nature of Investigation
The nature of investigation can be exploratory, descriptive, causal/experimental, semi
or quasi- experimental, non-experimental, and field research. Exploration is an
important characteristic of research. Any research begins with it when the researcher
dives into the unknown and unsolved terrains. He/She starts with a quest for knowing
more through exploration. It is an initial foray into the densities of the unknown.
Exploration starts with a vague idea of what is intended to be researched. It forms the
basis of research. It is not very systematic to the order of research to be undertaken
otherwise. It is a flexible approach to undertaking research where the sampling is generally
non-probability and the data collection methods are unstructured. It involves a study
and analysis of the literature and discussions with peers and fellow colleagues to know
their views on the topic.
Descriptive research is carried out to provide information about a person, thing or
process. It describes the characteristics of an individual, group, organisation, or
phenomena, conditions, or a situation. The characteristics are described in terms of the
dependent variables. Description may be limited to events of past or present but not of
the future. In that case it becomes experimental research. Most of the research in social
sciences is descriptive in nature. Some examples of descriptive research in LIS are:
Services, collection, and infrastructure of a particular library
Status of libraries in a geographical area
Impact of library services on the performance of students
Impact of IT on library services
Attitude of users towards staff in libraries
In descriptive studies data collection is done through structured methods. Samples are
selected by random sampling.
The nature of investigation moves systematically from exploratory towards experimental.
The degree of investigation goes on increasing as we move ahead. Casual investigation
in exploration, to description and finally causal investigation in experimental research. It
aims to find cause and effect relations between the dependent and independent variables.
Experimental research studies the effect of independent variables on dependent variables.
The researcher identifies the two different kinds of variables and the relationship between
them. For this, he/she reviews the literature on the subject and also related studies done
by others. Discussions with peers and other professionals also help in finding out the
relationship. Hypotheses are framed for verifying the relationships. The research is
conducted under controlled conditions so that the changes in the dependent variables
can be attributed solely to the changes in the independent variables.
Semi - experimental studies are different from experimental studies in that the sampling
in experimental studies is random sampling compared to non - random sampling in
semi - experimental or quasi-experimental studies.
Non - experimental studies also find out causal relations but they follow the reverse
approach. Experimental studies explain the cause - effect relation by identifying the
independent variables and later inducing changes in them to find out the resultant effect
241
on the dependent variables. Non- experimental studies ascribe the changes that have
taken place
Research in the dependent variables to some independent variables. They do not
Process
induce changes in the independent variables to see the effect on dependent variables.
This is generally done in the social sciences and the reason for doing so is the population
that are human beings compared to physical and chemical entities in sciences. Let us
consider an example to clarify the difference. We want to see the effect of use of IT in
the classroom on the performance of students. In experimental studies, we would take
use of IT in the classroom as the independent variable and the results of students as
dependent variable. We would compare the scores of students after introduction of IT
to the scores obtained by them earlier and find out the relation. In non-experimental
study, we would check the scores of students after IT has been introduced and find out
the relation between them by studying the coefficient of correlation. Let us take another
example to understand the difference, where we are studying the effect of OPAC on
the use of catalogue. We would divide the users randomly into two groups. One group
of users is provided the facilities of a traditional catalogue for access to the literature.
The other group is provided the facility of an OPAC to access the literature. We would
measure the use of catalogue in the two cases and ascribe the difference to OPAC.
Field research is done in the natural surroundings in real life situations. Here the main
criterion is doing research in social settings rather than on the techniques of research.
Let us discuss some observations on field research:
“Field research is the design, planning and management of scientific investigations in
real-life settings” (Fielder)
Kaplan comments that Field research involves direct or indirect observation of behaviour
in the circumstances in which it occurs without any significant intervention on the part of
the observer. We can conclude that field research is conducted in real life settings
without any modifications done to the settings. There is little stress that the techniques
applied are scientific. Importance is given to the fact that the observer collects data
while being on the site along with those observed. He is trained to be part of the observed
group and objective in recording the observations. Such research is carried out
particularly in subjects like sociology or social work. Field studies have been divided
into field research and field experiments. Field experiments are different from field
research in that the former involve studying the effect of varying independent variables
on dependent variables in real life natural settings. The difference between experimental
research and field experiment is that the former are conducted in laboratory settings
whereas the latter are conducted in natural settings. Thus, the control in the observations
is not possible in field experiments, which is possible in laboratory experiments.
Self Check Exercise
2) Enumerate the different kinds of designs based on the nature of investigation.
Describe the descriptive design.
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242 ........................................................................................................
15.5.2 Based on Data Collection Methods Research Design
Research design based on data collection methods is of the following types: survey,
case studies, and content analysis. Survey approach is used on a large population. But
instead of studying the whole of population, a sample is studied. The sample is generally
large in size. It is generally used in descriptive studies, however it can also be used in
experimental studies. The techniques of data collection used are questionnaire and
interviews. Questionnaire can be self- administered or mailed. It can be structured or
otherwise. In social science research, survey method is generally used.
Case study involves studying few cases in contrast to the large sample in survey. But the
level of study in case study is intensive which is not true of survey. Example of a case
study can be “ Automation in University Libraries of North India: A Case Study of
University Libraries of Kurukshetra, Punjab, and Jammu”. The study involves taking a
sample and studying that in detail. This would enable the researcher to study automation
in detail in these libraries than if the study would have taken all University libraries of
North India. But the question is whether we can generalise the results of the study and
conclude for the whole of North India.
Content analysis is another type of data collection method where the data is collected
from documentary sources. In this method the contents of documents are analysed to
arrive at a conclusion. This is a method used and particularly useful in historical research.
It enables to study the events in present that have taken place in the past. It is only
documents like diaries, autobiographies, archival documents that can act as the source
of data. Content analysis can be done quantitatively as well as qualitatively. Quantitative
analysis involves counting of words or phrases. Qualitative analysis involves analysing
documents to find out the ideas behind words.
Self Check Exercise
3) Define survey approach to data collection. Differentiate between survey and case
study method.
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15.5.3 Based on Number of Contacts made with the Subjects
Based on the number of contacts made with the subjects, research studies are: cross-
sectional, before- and- after, and, longitudinal. Cross- sectional studies are case studies
that involve studying a phenomenon at one point in time. These are also called one -
shot studies. Examples of these could be:
Attitudes of users towards use of IT in libraries
Status of LIS education in India
Continuing education for librarians in India 243
These are simple
Research Processto undertake as they involve contact only once with the population.
They have a drawback that they are not suitable for measuring change.
Before-and- after study design tries to overcome the disadvantage of cross-sectional
studies by taking the observation twice. The observation is done before introducing a
change in the independent variable and after introducing a change in the independent
variable. Thus, we are able to measure change in the variables over a period of time.
Examples of the before and after design are:
Impact on users of the use of IT in libraries.
Attitudes of users towards use of IT in libraries before and after automation.
In the above two examples, observations are made twice, before and after introduction
of IT in libraries. It enables to measure change, which is not possible in cross- sectional
studies.
Longitudinal design tries to overcome the disadvantage of the before-and- after study
design. It is able to measure the pattern of change in the dependent variables over a
period of time. A number of observations are taken over a population after regular
intervals of time, which may vary from a week to even more than a year. In the above
two examples, if observations are made over a period of time to know the pattern of
impact on users at different stages of automation, the design is called longitudinal design.
15.5.4 Based on Reference Period
Based on the period of reference of study, research design has been divided into:
retrospective, prospective, and, retrospective- prospective. Retrospective studies study
a phenomenon, event, or situation that has happened in the past. Data is collected on
the basis of documentary evidence or the respondents’ recall of the situation. Some
examples of retrospective studies are:
Libraries in Ancient India.
Devastation caused by floods to libraries in the 20th century.
Employment scenario among LIS Professionals in 1990s.
Prospective studies try to predict situations that have yet to take place. They attempt
to foresee the future. The studies are concerned with studying the future of a concept,
object, organisation, or even attitudes of people. These are experimental in nature.
Examples of some such studies are:
Libraries of the future: How will they exist.
Prospects of digital libraries in India.
Effect of RFID technology on pilferage of books in college libraries.
Image of IT savvy librarians.
Retrospective- Prospective studies are concerned with the events or phenomena that
has happened in the past and predict it for the future. These are like before-after
studies with the difference that there is no control group here. The dependent variable
is observed before and after variation in independent variable on the same population.
Some examples of such studies are:
Impact of automation on the use of libraries.
Change in attitude of users towards staff after library orientation.
Rate of use of helmets by people after heavy fines were imposed by traffic police.
Effect of advertisement on billboards on the sale of cars in metropolitan cities of
244 India.
The plan of research from the point of operationalisation of hypotheses to the analysis
Research Design
of data is presented as research design. The research design is the blueprint of your
nature of investigation, data collection methods to be used, number of contacts to be
made with the subjects, and the reference period of study. Broadly your nature of
investigation can be either exploratory, or descriptive, or experimental. It depends upon
your topic which one you choose. A study can adopt more than one also. For example,
any research starts with an exploratory investigation where you tend to explore your
topic. It is a stage where you tend to formulate your topic based on the review of
literature and discussion with others in the field. The research here does not rigidly
follow research methodology. The data collection methods also do not follow strictly
probability sampling. As in social sciences, in library science also descriptive methods
of research is followed. It describes the situation of an object, phenomenon, or a process
or an event in the past or present. If it does in the future it becomes experimental
research. If our topic of research is: “Impact of automation on the services of academic
libraries in India” it has to be descriptive research. Similarly you have to describe the
data collection design. Whether it will be survey, or case study, or content analysis. It
will be survey in case of the topic, Impact of automation on the services of academic
libraries in India”. A mention of the number of contacts to be made with the subjects
and period of reference also needs to be made here.
In the research design you should also mention the population under study clearly.
Describe the data that you intend to collect in terms of the dependent and independent
variables. Then you also need to clarify whether you will collect data from the whole of
the population or from only a sample. If it has to be a sample study, you need to specify
what methods of sampling would be used. Whether it would be probability sampling or
non- probability sampling. Within probability and non- probability sampling also state
which type of sampling method would be used. The size of the sample should be
mentioned here. Next in the research design, the researcher should mention the techniques
and tools of data collection. In the techniques, he/she should mention, whether it would
be observation, questioning, or interview. What tools of data collection would be used,
questionnaire (mailed or self- administered), interview schedule, etc. The research design
should also state when and where will the data collection be done.
Data collection tools are the base on which the results of the study depend upon. If the
data is not truly representative of the variables, it has a direct effect on the results.
Validity and reliability of the tools are therefore measured before they are used. Let us
define these concepts. Validity of a tool refers to the fact that we are measuring what
we intend to measure. Smith has defined it “…as the degree to which the researcher
has measured what he has set out to measure.” The next question is how to measure
the validity of an instrument. One is by observation and analysis and the other is
statistically. Experts and peers can do observation.
Validity is of different kinds, viz., Face, Content, Construct, Predictive, and Concurrent
Validity. Face validity, as the name implies measures the validity as seen on its face. It is
observed and assessed by the observer on the basis of his experience of the subject.
Content validity is also measured in the same way when the expert ensures that all the
aspects of the subject have been covered in the instrument. Construct validity is an
extension of content validity. It analyses the different constructs that contribute to the
formation of a concept that the researcher intends to measure. While measuring the
construct validity, it is checked whether all the constructs have due representation in the
instrument. Let us discuss by taking an example. We are measuring the professional
competencies of librarians and construct a scale for that. While ensuring the construct
validity, we should check whether all the constructs of competencies, viz., knowledge,
245
skills, and attitudes have been covered in the scale or not. Predictive validity refers to
the extent Process
Research to which we can predict a measure of the dependent variables. In the above
example of Professional competencies of the librarians, we can measure the predictive
validity by verifying how far the competencies measured through the instrument match
their actual competencies demonstrated through their work. Concurrent validity refers
to how far the observations regarding the dependent variables tally at different times.
Reliability is another important characteristic of the instruments that need to be verified
before it is used to measure the variables. Reliability is the degree to which we can
repeat the results of the observations at different times in the same conditions. The
more the degree of correlation between the two results, the more the reliability. The
reliability can be increased by making sure that: language used is simple, clear,
unambiguous, and precise. There are different methods to increase the reliability, e.g.,
test- retest. Here we administer the instrument to the subjects again and check the
correlation as a ratio of the results. If the ratio of the results of the two observations is
unity, it is the ideal situation, i.e., 100% reliability. The less this ratio, the less the reliability.
Another method to ensure reliability is to do parallel test where we design two similar
instruments and divide the population in two groups and administer one instrument
each to the groups. Later we correlate the results of the two to measure the reliability.
Split – half technique is another method to increase the reliability of the instrument.
Here we divide the questions into two parts. The parts contain questions to cross-
check the responses of the subjects on the same issues. Their correlation enables the
researcher to measure the reliability of the instrument.
After the data collection methods are discussed, the methods of its presentation and
analysis should be described. Here a mention should be made of the types of tables
and graphs that you intend to use to present your data. Also explain how you would
analyse your data. What statistics do you intend to use? If you plan to do the analysis
using some software package like SPSS, MS-Access, or MS-Excel, etc. mention in
the design.
Self Check Exercise
4) Define content analysis as a method of research design for data collection.
5) Enumerate the different kinds of validity. How would you measure content validity
of an instrument?
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15.6 SUMMARY
In this Unit, we discussed the concept of research design. Research design is the blue-
print of your research work. After a discussion of the need and purpose, its functions
are discussed. There are different kinds of research designs based on a number of
factors. You have to choose one depending upon the purpose of your research work.
246
All these have been explained in the Unit with examples.
Research Design
1) Research design is a plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so conceived as
to obtain answers to research questions or problems. It is a blueprint or detailed
plan for a research study - starting from operationalising variables so that they can
be measured, to selecting a sample of interest to study, collecting data to be used
as a basis for testing hypotheses, and finally analyzing the results. Research is a
systematic and organised effort towards quest for new knowledge. It involves
spending public money and thus accountability towards them. Thus, it needs to
have a well thought of research design.
2) The different kinds of designs based on the nature of investigation are:
Exploratory;
Descriptive;
Experimental;
Semi or Quasi- experimental;
Non- experimental; and
Field Research
Descriptive research is carried out to provide information about a person, thing or
process. It describes the characteristics of an individual, group, organisation, or
phenomena, conditions, or a situation. The characteristics are described in terms
of the dependent variables. Description may be limited to events of past or present
but not of the future. In that case it becomes experimental research. Most of the
research in social sciences is descriptive in nature.
3) Survey approach is one of the approaches of research based on the method of
data collection. It is generally done on a large population. But instead of studying
the whole of population, a sample is studied. It is used in descriptive studies,
however it can also be used in experimental studies. The techniques of data
collection used are questionnaire and interviews. It is one of the most used methods
in social sciences. It is different from case study in that the size of the population is
small in case study method. In case study the level of study done is intensive
compared to survey method.
4) In content analysis, documents are analysed to collect data. This is a method used
and particularly useful in historical research. It enables to study the events in present
that have taken place in the past. It is only documents like diaries, autobiographies,
archival documents that can act as the source of data. Content analysis can be
done quantitatively as well as quantitatively. Quantitative analysis involves counting
of words or phrases. Qualitative analysis involves analysing documents to find out
the ideas behind words.
5) Face, Content, Construct, Predictive, and Concurrent Validity. Content validity is
measured on the basis of views of experienced people in the subject/area by
observation and assessment of the tool.
15.8 KEYWORDS
Descriptive Studies : Research studies that are carried out to describe an object,
phenomena, process, or organisation in the present.
Experimental Studies : Research studies that are undertaken to study cause and
effect relations between variables are called experimental
studies. 247
Research
ReliabilityProcess : The measure of being able to measure the variables with
the same accuracy at different times under similar
conditions refer to reliability.
Research Design : The strategy that a researcher adopts to undertake his/
her research. It concerns the operationalisation of
hypothesis, data collection, and data analysis.
Content Analysis : It is a method of data collection for studying events that
have taken place in the past on the basis of literature.
Validity : Validity is a measure of the extent of what you are
measuring is what you intend to measure.

Ackoff, Russell L. (1953). The Design of Social Research. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Adams, Gerald R. and Schvaneveldt, Jay. D. ( 1985). Understanding Research
Methods. New York: Longman.
Hart, Chris (2005). Doing your Masters Dissertation. Delhi: Vistaar.
Hedrick, Terry E. (1993). Applied Research Guide. London: Sage.
Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2nd ed.
Delhi: New Age.
Krishan Kumar (1998). Research Methods in Library Science. 2nd ed. Delhi: Har-
Anand.
Neuman, W. Lawrence (1997). Social Research Methods. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Ranjit Kumar (1999). Research Methodology: A Step- By- Step Guide for Beginners.
Delhi: Sage.
248
UNIT 16 RESEARCH PLAN
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Definition
16.3 Need and Purpose
16.4 Functions
16.5 Types
16.6 Structure
16.6.1 Title
16.6.2 Introduction
16.6.3 The Problem
16.6.4 Scope
16.6.5 Objectives
16.6.6 Hypotheses
16.6.7 Review of Related Literature
16.6.8 Research Design
16.6.9 Tentative Chapterisation
16.6.10 Limitations
16.6.11 Operational Definitions
16.7 Funding
16.8 Monitoring
16.9 Ethics
16.10 Summary
16.12 Keywords
16.0 OBJECTIVES
know what is a research plan;
appreciate its need and purpose;
understand its functions;
know its different types and structure;
comprehend the tools and techniques used in a plan; and
prepare a research plan.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed in Unit 15 on Research Design, the importance of organisation and
planning in research. Research design involves formulating a strategy for your research.
252 There are a number of factors involved while taking a decision in this regard. Once you
have formulated a research design, the next step is to prepare a research plan. As a Research Plan
with a research design, research plan also gives your research a sound footing. This
Unit is devoted to a discussion of the different aspects of research plan in detail.
16.2 DEFINITION
Research plan has been used synonymously with proposal and synopsis. They refer to
a blue print of your research. Both are used for documents that describe in detail:
What are you going to do?
Why are you going to do?
How are you going to do?
In what resources (time, money, infrastructure, etc.) are you going to do?
What are you not going to do?
A research proposal is thus, a document to your plans and ideas of carrying out your
research. You may be wondering, how is it different from research design? Research
design is also a strategy of how you are you going to conduct your research. But it
precedes research plan. Research design is a plan of the technical decisions regarding
the what, why, and how of your research. Here we take decisions regarding the nature
of investigation, data collection methods to be adopted, and number of contacts to be
made with the subjects, and the period of reference with the subjects of study. Research
plan can be formulated only when research design has been decided. In fact, research
design helps to formulate research plan. It is the document that describes all the decisions
that have been taken in the design stage plus the administrative decisions concerned
with your research. It presents systematically everything starting with the title of your
project to the tentative structure of your thesis.
16.3 NEED AND PURPOSE

As stated earlier, we repeat that research is a systematic endeavour towards quest for
new knowledge. There is a role of intuition also in research but a systematic step-by-
step approach needs to be followed in research. Studying informally and casually may
also yield new knowledge but that is not research. In research, organised efforts need
to be put right from thinking of a topic to the presentation of results. Research is a long
journey from knowing and understanding the present state of knowledge in a particular
field to exploring raw areas where additions and improvements can be done and finally
making those improvements. It is a project, which involves investment of considerable
resources. And thus, needs planning as a proposal.
The purpose of a research plan is to:
present for him the proposed plan of action;
present for the supervisor and other authorities also the plan of action for their
approval;
The purpose of a research design is to provide information regarding:
What is the study?
Why is the study being carried out?
Where will the study be carried out? 253
Research Process How will the study be carried out?
What will be the processes and tasks involved?
What will be the data?
How will the data be collected?
What methods of sampling will be used?
How will the analysis be done?
16.4 FUNCTIONS
The functions of a research plan are to:
give directions on what needs to be done, when and how and in what order;
provide a route from stating the topic to finalising the results;
enable to evaluate your progress during research;
define your topic to limit its scope; and
prove to your supervisor that you have gone into the fine details of your topic and
will be able to conduct research.
Self Check Exercise
1) Define research plan. How is it different from a research design?
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16.5 TYPES
There are two types of research plans. These are: quantitative and qualitative proposals.
Quantitative proposal is given for experimental and descriptive research whereas
qualitative proposal is given for descriptive and exploratory research. Though, there is
no hard line of demarcation, generally qualitative research doesn’t have hypothesis and
operationalisation of concepts. Operationalisation of concepts refers to giving operational
definitions, finding out the independent and dependent variables, sample selection, and
finalising the measuring instruments and their reliability and validity. Instead the qualitative
proposal will have research procedures which quantitative research doesn’t have.
16.6 STRUCTURE
A research proposal is presented in the following structure:
16.6.1 Title
The title of your study (dissertation or project) is the first part of your plan. We should
ensure that the title is self- explanatory. It should convey what we intend to do. There
254 should be no ambiguity. It should be clear, precise, and grammatically correct. It should
not be broad or more specific than what we plan to study in the research. If we wish to Research Plan
study the impact of personality development programmes on the tackling of users by
staff, then the topic could be: Handling of users by staff in libraries: Impact of personality
development programmes.
16.6.2 Introduction
The introduction provides background information to the topic of your study. It includes
a thorough review of what is available related to your area of study. Try to clarify the
conceptual area zeroing down towards the topic. Ranjit Kumar enumerates the following
list of the aspects to be covered in the introduction:
An overview of the main area of study;
A historical perspective (development, growth, etc.) pertinent to the area of study;
Philosophical or ideological issues related to the topic;
Trends in terms of prevalence, if appropriate;
Major theories, if any;
The main issues, problems and advances in the subject area under study;
Important theoretical and practical issues relating to the central problem under
study; and
The main findings related to the core issue(s).
Let us clarify with an example. If the topic of study is, “Impact of automation on the
services of academic libraries in India”. The introduction should discuss:
Brief discussion on the concept and history of automation;
Attempts at automation of libraries in India;
Trends of automation of academic libraries in India; and
Impact of automation on libraries and their services.
16.6.3 The Problem
Introduction and the problem could be visualised as occurring together in continuation
as background to the study. The difference is that introduction is more general as
compared to the problem. The problem starts with where introduction has left the topic.
It is continuation of introduction, focusing specifically on the topic. Why have you chosen
the topic? Is there any need to conduct such studies? What is the rationale of your
topic? What gaps in the existing knowledge does it intend to fill? Ranjit Kumar
enumerates the following issues that need to be discussed in the problem:
Identify the issues that are the basis of your study;
Specify the various aspects of/perspectives on these issues;
Identify the main gaps in the existing body of knowledge;
Raise some of the main research questions that you want to answer through
your study;
Identify what knowledge is available concerning your questions, specifying
difference of opinion in the literature regarding these questions if differences exist:
and
Develop a rationale for your study with particular reference to how your study will
255
fill the identified gaps.
Research Process
Let us discuss what needs to be discussed in the problem if our topic of research is:
“Impact of automation on the services of academic libraries in India”. It should include
the following based on a review of literature:
categorise the different kinds of services and the impact of automation on them;
discuss the views and theories propounded by experts in this regard;
present case studies of attempts by professionals towards studying impact of
automation on services;
separate the impact on service providers and users;
bring to light issues that remain to be studied or point towards a need for more
investigation; and
state the relevance of your study, why is it needed, how is it going to fill the gaps,
if anything exists. If such studies have already been conducted, you could justify
the need for your study if some aspects have not been studied, or some issues
have cropped up from earlier studies, or your study is being conducted in a new
environment or conditions, or it is a longitudinal study. You would recall, we have
discussed about longitudinal studies in Unit 15 on Research Design. These are
studies conducted again on the same population after a gap of time to know the
change in dependent variables over a period of time. It helps to provide a pattern
of change in the dependent variable.
16.6.4 Scope
After the problem has been stated, it is important to explain its scope also. In the scope
one should indicate to what extent one intends to probe the topic. He should clarify the
scope as far as the subject content is concerned as well as the geographical area is
concerned. There should also be a submission of the scope regarding the coverage of
the time period. The scope must give an indication of the limitations of the topic.
Self Check Exercise
2) Describe what would you discuss in the introduction to the plan of your Study.
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16.6.5 Objectives
After the problem, the plan should state the objectives of your study. This is one of the
most important parts of your plan. It helps to know what you intend to do. Anyone
interested in your study gets to know the whole picture from just the objectives. You
can very well judge the importance of objectives. Therefore, it is important that they are
stated in a crisp language so that are clear and unambiguous. Moreover, they should
256 convey what is the intended outcome of your study. Where do you reach to when you
start from here? For that you need to use action verbs like: to know, to find out, to Research Plan
evaluate, to automate, to design, etc. Another thing to be borne in mind while stating
objectives is that they should not be broad. One should clearly make out the intentions
of one’s study that could help him/her or even you while evaluating. It is a pointer to
measure how far you have succeeded in your project. Let us discuss the same example
again, “Impact of automation on the services of academic libraries in India”. The
objectives of the study could be stated as to study the impact of automation on:
Change in the form of services;
Any new services introduced;
The service providers;
The frequency of use of services; and
Ease of use of services.
Self Check Exercise
3) Taking a hypothetical example, state the objectives of your study.
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16.6.6 Hypotheses
The next section of your plan should be devoted to hypotheses. Hypothesis is an
assumption, presumption, or in simple words guess towards some situation or condition.
It is an assumption of relationships between the dependent and independent variables.
Hypotheses provide the researcher a line of action along which he/she moves to find out
answers to the problem he/she is working on. It is not necessary that every research
study has a hypothesis.
Though we have stated that hypotheses formulation involves guess that does not mean
there is no base to it. It involves a thorough review of literature to understand the concept
and the relationships existing between the various variables existing. It is on the basis of
this review and discussion with peers and others in the field that we propose a relationship
between the variables. This is tested during the course of study. It is pertinent to recall
what we have studied in the earlier units, that hypotheses if proved true later results into
theories and finally into laws.
There are two kinds of hypotheses, null and alternative. Hypothesis is stated as null
hypothesis, which is a negative statement. We state the relations expected between the
variables in a negative way, e.g., if we expect that automation has resulted in increased
use of library services. We would frame the null hypothesis as:
HO = There is no increase in use of library services due to their automation. The alternative
hypothesis would then be:
H1 = There is increase in use of library services due to library automation
Thus, if null hypothesis is proved to be false, the alternative hypothesis is proved to be
257
true.
Research Process 16.6.7 Review of Related Literature
After the hypotheses are stated, a brief review of literature is presented. It helps the
researcher to know and assimilate what others have already done in the field. It gives
him the direction of movement into his research. He comes to know the ripe areas for
research. Whenever we plan to research, we have to start from somewhere, which we
come to know by literature review. Literature review is conducted at two different
stages of research work. This is the first stage when it is a brief review of related
literature. It is done again after the proposal is approved and the study is conducted.
Later the scope of review of literature is greater covering all aspects and a period of
coverage is decided which depends on the subject and topic of study.
Self Check Exercise
4) Define hypothesis. Differentiate between null and alternative hypothesis.
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16.6.8 Research Design
The plan of research from the point of operationalisation of hypotheses to the analysis
of data is presented as research design. The research design is the blueprint of your
nature of investigation, data collection methods to be used, number of contacts to be
made with the subjects, and the reference period of study. Broadly your nature of
investigation can be either exploratory, or descriptive, or experimental. It depends
upon your topic which one you choose. A study can adopt more than one also. For
example, any research starts with an exploratory investigation where you tend to explore
your topic. It is a stage where you tend to formulate your topic based on the review of
literature and discussion with others in the field. The research here does not rigidly
follow research methodology. The data collection methods also do not follow strictly
probability sampling. As in social sciences, in library science also descriptive methods
of research are followed. It describes the situation of a n object, phenomenon, or a
process or an event in the past or present. If it does in the future it becomes experimental
research. If our topic of research is: “Impact of automation on the services of academic
libraries in India” it has to be descriptive research. Similarly you have to describe the
data collection design, whether it will be survey, or case study, or content analysis. It
will be survey in case of the topic, ‘‘Impact of automation on the services of academic
libraries in India”. A mention of the number of contacts to be made with the subjects
and period of reference also needs to be made here.
In the research design you should also mention the population under study clearly.
Describe the data that you intend to collect in terms of the dependent and independent
variables. Then you also need to clarify whether you will collect data from the whole of
the population or from only a sample. If it has to be a sample study, you need to
specify what methods of sampling would be used. Whether it would be probability
258 sampling or non- probability sampling. Within probability and non- probability sampling
also state which type of sampling method would be used. The size of the sample should Research Plan
be mentioned here. Next in the research design, the researcher should mention the
techniques and tools of data collection. In the techniques, he/she should mention, whether
it would be observation, questioning, or interview. What tools of data collection would
be used, questionnaire (mailed or self- administered), interview schedule, etc. The
research design should also state when and where the data collection will be done.
After the data collection methods are discussed, the methods of its presentation and
analysis should be described. Here a mention should be made of the types of tables and
graphs that you intend to use to present your data. Also explain how you would analyse
your data. What statistics do you intend to use? If you plan to do the analysis using
some software package like SPSS, MS-Access, or MS-Excel, etc. mention in the
design.
16.6.9 Tentative Chapterisation
The physical structure of the research report is also presented in the research plan as
tentative chapterisation. What will be the chapters in your thesis are presented here.
Normally, the final report also contains the chapters: Introduction, which comprises the
introduction, the problem, scope, objectives, hypothesis, limitations, and operational
definitions. The other chapters are review of literature, conceptual structure, research
design, data collection, analysis of data, discussion, and conclusion.
16.6.10 Limitations
Every research study has limitations. These could be from the point of view of the
contents (coverage of the subject), geographical area, time period of study, etc. The
researcher should very earnestly admit the limitations in his/her study. This is no
drawback for the study. The limitations vary according to the level of study and that of
the researcher. If the limitations are presented, the evaluation of the thesis is done keeping
in view of these.
16.6.11 Operational Definitions
The research like any other work has to deal with vocabulary. We know the nature of
any language is such that there is a lot of flexibility. The occurrence of synonyms,
homonyms, and other such concepts may result in confusion. Thus, in the beginning
itself, terms that are to be used are standardised in the form of operational definitions
given in the research plan.
16.7 FUNDING
Research involves financial investment. The researcher can get support for this investment
from different agencies. In India, these agencies are University Grants Commission,
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
Indian Council of Medical Research, Indian Council of Social Science Research, etc.
Researchers in library and information science can get their research proposals funded
from any of these agencies depending upon their area of study.
Why should an agency fund for your research? It would fund:
to encourage you to do research;
research adds to the intellectual wealth of a nation; and
your research topic lies within the scope of the institution and would be beneficial
for it
259
Research Process The research plan in case of a research for funding should also submit a financial estimate.
The financial estimate should be presented under different heads, i.e., the purpose for
which you are asking for grants. These may be:
space/rooms;
equipment;
books/ journals;
stationary;
travel; and
publishing.
The agency may provide grants for some or even all of these expenses. As far as
publishing is concerned this grant is provided after the completion of the project/ theses.
16.8 MONITORING
Monitoring is an important component of research like any other project. Research
plan should also indicate your plans to monitor your research work. You need to apply
time management and prepare a work plan to be submitted along with your research
plan. The work plan should indicate when (month and year) would you:
start your research;
review related literature;
prepare data collection instruments;
collect data;
do coding of data;
do statistical analysis of data;
prepare draft of your report; and
finally submit report.
It is not possible to follow the time schedule exactly as specified. It is a plan therefore
there may be some fluctuations here and there. It is important while planning to make
adjustments for any possible disturbances in the time schedule. Monitoring should be
done regularly to avoid any delays in fulfilling the schedule. The researcher should be
regular in his/her work and subdivide his plan into short time plans. He/She should
translate the plan into tasks to be undertaken everyday. And should evaluate his/her
days work to focus the cause of delays and overcome the reasons of delay. In case of
academic research for the award of degrees the progress report is to be submitted
quarterly or half- yearly approved by the supervisor to be submitted to the authorities.
Similarly the progress report has also to be submitted to the funding authorities to
prove accountability.
16.9 ETHICS
Researcher should follow a code of ethics in research. We need not overemphasise
that it is important in research as in any other activity. Following ethics in work implies
doing the work in the right way. Right way implies that it is done in a way acceptable to
the society. Ethics has been used interchangeably with morals. Ethics is concerned with
what one ought to do.
To analyse and make it convenient to understand Chris Hart divides the ethical issues in
260 research as those concerned with:
Research; Research Plan
Researcher;
Subjects; and
Sponsoring Body/ University.
While doing the right things the researcher should understand that the above four are
the parties affected which should not suffer through your decisions while doing research.
Let us discuss by way of examples the areas where ethics have to be taken into
consideration:
State the topic in an unambiguous way. It should not be the topic of some other study.
The research should add to the repertoire of knowledge. Acknowledge the works of
others that have been used in the research. Plagiarism should not be resorted to. Ask
for financial grants only where required for research. In data collection the anonymity of
the subjects should be maintained. The privacy of subjects should also be maintained.
In case the subjects are animals or plants as in the case of sciences their treatment
should be ethical. Tampering of data to achieve results should not be done.
Self Check Exercise
5) Discuss the areas where ethical considerations are important in a research plan.
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16.10 SUMMARY
In this Unit we have discussed the various aspects of research plan. We introduced the
concept and discussed the need for, purpose and functions of research plan. The Unit
provides comprehensive details on the structure of a plan. A step-by-step approach
has been followed to explain all the parts of a plan. Adequate examples have been
given at all the stages to make all the steps clear. Research can be funded through
various agencies, which has also been described in the Unit. There is a discussion of the
heads under which funds can be applied. Researcher should take care that he/she
follows ethics while conducting research. What are these areas has been stated for the
help of the researcher. It has been discussed in this Unit so that the researcher gets
conscious of ethics since the start of research. The Units ends with some model plans
given as examples.

1) A research plan is a document to your plans and ideas of carrying out your research.
It is the document that describes all the decisions that have been taken in the
design stage plus the administrative decisions concerned with your research. It
presents systematically everything starting with the title of your project to the tentative 261
Research Process structure of your thesis. Research design is also a strategy of how you are you
going to conduct your research. But it precedes research plan. Research design is
a plan of the technical decisions regarding the what, why, and how of your research.
In research plan, we take decisions regarding the nature of investigation, data
collection methods to be adopted, and number of contacts to be made with the
subjects, and the period of reference with the subjects of study. Research plan can
be formulated only when research design has been decided. In fact, research
design helps to formulate research plan.
2) The introduction to the plan of study provides a contextual background to

the study. It discusses the basic theoretical and philosophical issues related
to your topic. It also discusses the latest trends in the subject and area of
discussion.
3) Let us assume that the title of the study is “ Use of textbook collection in college
libraries”. The objectives of the study could be stated as to know:
a. The adequacy of the text book collection;
b. Subjects whose collection needs to be strengthened; and
c. Improving upon the collection.
4) Hypothesis is an assumption, presumption, or in simple words guess towards

some situation or condition. It is an assumption of relationships between the
dependent and independent variables. It provides the researcher a line of action
along which he moves to find out answers to the problem he is working on. Null
hypothesis is stated as a negative relationship between dependent and independent
variables. The positive relation between the variables is called the alternative
hypothesis.
5) In a research plan, ethical considerations demand that one should not take a topic
of research that has already been studied. If it has to be studied, it should be done
from some different perspective or context. Plagiarism should not be resorted to
and work of others should be acknowledged. Research grants should be asked
for only if genuinely required.
16.12 KEYWORDS
Hypothesis : Assumption regarding the relations between the variables in
a study.
Problem : A description of the problem you shall study in your

research work.
Research Design : The strategy that a researcher adopts to undertake his

research. It concerns the operationalisation of hypothesis,
data collection, and data analysis.
Research Plan : The blue print of your research that states everything from
the title to the limitations of your study. It also includes the
financial estimates of your project and the work plan.
Work Plan : The plan of your research in terms of the tasks to be done
262 along with the time at which they will be done.
Research Plan
Ackoff, Russell. (1953). The Design of Social Research. Chicago: University of
Chicago.
Adams, Gerald R. and Schvaneveldt, Jay. D. (1985). Understanding Research

Methods. New York: Longman.
Hart, Chris (2005). Doing your Masters Dissertation. Delhi: Vistaar.
Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2nd ed.
New Age: Delhi.
Krishan Kumar (1998). Research Methods in Library Science. 2nd ed. Delhi: Har-
Anand
Neuman, W. Lawrence (1997). Social Research Methods. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Ranjit Kumar (1999). Research Methodology: A Step- By- Step Guide for Beginners.
Delhi: Sage.
263
UNIT 17 STATISTICAL INFERENCE
Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Concept of Statistical Inference
17.3 Statistical Estimation
17.4 Concept of Hypothesis Testing
17.5 Critical Regions and Types of Errors
17.6 Testing of Hypothesis for a Single Sample
17.7 Test for Difference between Two Samples
17.8 Contingency Table
17.9 Summary
17.11 Keywords
17.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit you should be in a position to:
explain the concept of a hypothesis;
explain the concept of statistical inference;
test a hypothesis based on a single sample; and
test the difference between two samples.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
As mentioned in Unit 6 of this course we undertake a sample survey instead of complete
census of population because of certain constraints. These constraints could be availability
of money, manpower and time. After collection of data through questionnaire, interview
or participatory observation method we follow certain steps such as tabulation,
presentation and analysis of data. We have discussed these issues in the earlier Units of
this course. As you know, we can present data in the form of tables and graphs. Also
data can be put to various statistical analyses. Thus we can find out i) measures of
central tendency such as mean, median and mode, ii) measures of dispersion such as
variance and standard deviation, and iii) correlation and regression coefficients.
Recall that the objective of our study is to analyse the behaviour of the population or
the universe, not the sample. In order to make things feasible we are studying the
sample and hence whatever results we have got are based on sample information.
Naturally a question arises: Are the sample results valid for the population? In other
words, can we draw inferences on the basis of sample results?
Let us take a concrete example from our daily life. You must have noticed that before
election process starts or just before declaration of election results many newspapers
264 and news channels conduct exit polls. The purpose is to predict election results before
the actual results are declared. At that point of time, it is not possible for the surveyors Statistical Inference
to ask all the voters about their preferences for electoral candidates - the time is too
short, resources are scarce, manpower is not available, and a complete census before
election defeats the very purpose of election!
The above is an example of statistical inference. The surveyor actually does not know
the result, which is the outcome of votes cast by all the voters. Here all the voters taken
together comprise the population. The surveyor has collected data from a representative
sample of the population, not all the voters. On the basis of the information contained in
the sample, (s)he is making forecast about the entire population.
17.2 CONCEPT OF STATISTICAL INFERENCE

As mentioned above, statistical inference deals with the methods of drawing conclusions
about the population characteristics on the basis of information contained in a sample
drawn from the population. Let us recall the example on reading habits of economics
students in Sambalpur University. Suppose a question in the questionnaire is, ‘How
many hours do you study in a day’? We obtain the answer to this question from the
students included in the sample (100 students), calculate arithmetic mean and find that
‘average number of hours devoted to study by economics students in Sambalpur
University is 9.5 hours’. The problem comes up because of two reasons:
i) Sample is a part of the population and there is no reason to expect that sample
mean is equal to population mean (if it does, it is a rare coincidence!). In that case,
what is the population mean?
ii) A number of samples can be drawn from the same population. Suppose we send
two researchers to Sambalpur University on different days and ask them to
administer the same questionnaire (on reading habits) on samples of 100 students
each. Obviously both researchers would come out with different results (say 9.25
hours and 10.5 hours) as the sampling units are different. Which result do we take
to be correct? Can we say that the difference between the studies is negligible?
Remember that population mean is not known to us. We know the sample mean only.
We have posed two types of questions above. First, what would be the value of the
population mean? The answer lies in making an informed guess about the population
mean. This aspect of statistical inference is called ‘estimation’. The second question
pertains to certain assertion made about the population mean. Suppose someone claims
that the average number of hours devoted to study by economics students in Sambalpur
University is 10 hours. On the basis of the sample information can we say that the
population mean is not equal to 10 hours? This aspect of statistical inference is called
hypothesis testing.
Thus statistical inference has two important aspects: statistical estimation and hypothesis
testing (see Fig. 17.1). Estimation could be of two types: point estimation and interval
estimation. In point estimation we estimate the value of population parameter as a single
point. On the other hand, in the case of interval estimation we estimate lower and upper
bounds around sample mean within which population mean is likely to remain.
Hypothesis as you know is an assertion or claim made about the population. It can be
in the form of a null hypothesis and its counterpart, alternative hypothesis. We will
explain these concepts along with examples below.
265
Research Process
Fig. 17.1: Statistical Inference
17.3 STATISTICAL ESTIMATION

As mentioned earlier, we do not know the parameter value and want to guess it by
using sample statistic. Obviously the best guess will be the value of the sample statistic.
For example, if we do not know the population mean the best guess would be the
sample mean. Here, in this case, we use a single value or point as ‘estimate’ of the
parameter and this procedure is called ‘point estimation’.
Interval Estimation
The point estimate may not be realistic in the sense that the parameter value may not
exactly be equal to it. An alternative procedure is to give an interval, which would hold
the parameter with certain probability. Here we specify a lower limit and an upper limit
within which the parameter value is likely to remain. We call the interval as ‘confidence
interval’. Here a question may be shaping up in your mind, ‘How do we find out the
confidence interval’? In order to estimate the confidence interval we have to specify the
‘confidence coefficient’. If the confidence coefficient is 95 percent, we get a 95 percent
confidence interval. If repeated samples are drawn from a population, a 95 percent
confidence interval implies that in 95 out of 100 cases the population mean will remain
within the confidence interval. Similarly, in the case of a 99 percent confidence coefficient,
if repeated samples are drawn, the population mean will remain within the confidence
interval in 99 out of 100 cases.
When we are estimating a 95 percent confidence interval, we expect population mean
to remain within the interval 95 percent times. It implies that in 5 percent cases we are
not sure whether population mean will remain within the interval or not. This 5 percent
is called the ‘level of significance’ and is denoted by (Read as ‘alpha’). We will use
this concept later in the testing of hypothesis.
Statistical Background
Let us recapitulate some basic concepts from sampling theory. As mentioned earlier,
we can draw many samples from a population. Suppose we could draw all possible
samples from a population and calculated sample means ( ) from all the samples. We
can arrange these sample means in the form of a relative frequency distribution (see
Unit 7 for calculation of relative frequency), which is called ‘sampling distribution’. If
the sample size is large ( n 30 ) then the sampling distribution will follow normal
distribution, which looks like a bell-shaped curve when plotted on a graph paper. The
sampling distribution has mean equal to population mean ( ) and standard deviation
266
Statistical Inference
equal to where is the standard deviation of the population from which the
n
sample is drawn. Remember that the standard deviation of the sampling distribution is
called the ‘standard error’.
When we subtract the population mean from the sample mean divide it by the
population standard deviation we obtain the standard normal variable z, which is
equal to . The z variable has the properties that i) it is normally distributed

(implies, it looks like a bell-shaped curve), ii) total area under the curve is =1, and
iii) arithmetic mean of z is = 0. We plot the z variable in Fig. 17.2.
xz 0
n
Fig. 17.2: Standard Normal Curve
Estimation of Interval
x
Remember that z is defined in such a manner that z . Therefore, when sample
n
mean ( x ) is equal to population mean ( ), we find that . When x is greater than
, we obtain a positive value for z. Similarly, when is smaller than we obtain a
negative value for z. Thus, as the value of z increases, the difference between sample
mean ( ) and population mean ( ) increases.
In Fig. 17.2 we have shown that when z=1.96, the area covered under the curve is 95
percent. Therefore, if we add and subtract 1.96 from sample mean ( ) we obtain
a 95 percent confidence interval. In symbols, lower limit and upper limit of the interval
are x 1.96 , x 1.96 .

n n
267
Research Process
Similarly we obtain the 99 percent confidence interval as ,
since 99 percent area under the standard normal curve is covered when z = 2.58.
Confidence coefficient could take any value. We can ask for a confidence level of say
81 per cent or 97 per cent depending upon how precise our conclusions should be.
However, conventionally two confidence levels are frequently used, namely, 95 per
cent and 99 per cent.
Self Check Exercise
1) Define the following concepts:
a) confidence coefficient
b) confidence interval
c) level of significance
d) sampling distribution
e) standard error
2) A sample of 50 employees was asked to provide the distance commuted by them
to reach office. If sample mean was found to be 4.5 km. Find 95 percent confidence
interval for the population. Assume that population is normally distributed with a
variance of 0.36.
3) For a sample of 25 students in school the mean height was found to be 95 cm.
with a standard deviation of 4 cm. Find the 99 percent confidence interval.
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17.4 CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about a characteristic of a population. It could be
an assertion or a claim also. For example, official records for recent years show that
female literacy in Orissa is 51 per cent. Since a statement or a claim about the rate of
female literacy is being made, it could be considered as a hypothesis.
In hypothesis testing there are four important components: i) null hypothesis, ii) alternative
hypothesis, iii) test statistic, and iv) interpretation of results. We discuss each of these
below.
Usually statistical hypotheses are denoted by the alphabet H. There are two types of
hypothesis: null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is the statement
that we consider to be true about the population and put to test by using a test statistic.
Usually we denote null hypothesis by H 0 . In the example on female literacy in Orissa
268 our null hypothesis is
H0 : 0.51 …(17.1) Statistical Inference
where is the parameter, in this case female literacy in Orissa.

There is a possibility that the null hypothesis that we intend to test is not true and female
literacy is not equal to 51 per cent. Thus there is a need for an alternative hypothesis,
which holds true in case the null hypothesis is not true. We denote alternative hypothesis
by the symbol and formulate it as
HA : 0.51 …(17.2)
We have to keep in mind that null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis cannot be true
simultaneously. Secondly, there cannot be a third possibility except for H 0 and H A
about the statement we make. For example, in the case of female literacy in Orissa,
there are two possibilities - literacy rate is 51 per cent or it is not 51 per cent; a third
possibility is not there.
In most cases we find a difference between sample mean ( x ) and population mean
( ). Is the difference because of sampling fluctuation or is there a genuine difference
between the sample and the population? In order to answer this question we need a
test statistic to test the difference between the two. The result that we obtain by using
the test statistic needs to be interpreted and a decision needs to be taken regarding the
acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis.
Let us go back to the standard normal curve given at Fig. 17.1. We mentioned that as
the value of z increases, the difference between sample mean ( ) and population mean
( ) increases. Moreover, higher the difference between and , higher is the absolute
value of z. Thus z-value measures the discrepancy between and , and therefore
can be used as a test statistic for hypothesis testing. Note that we are concerned with
xz A
H
the difference between and . Therefore, negative or positive sign of z does not
matter much.
Our task is to find out a critical value of z beyond which the difference between and
is significant. Hence, we take the absolute value of z (denoted by ) and if it is less
than the critical value we should not reject the null hypothesis. If the absolute value of z
exceeds the critical value we should reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative
hypothesis.
Therefore, in the case of large samples z can be considered as a test statistic for hypothesis
testing such that
x
z …(17.3)
n
The above procedure is often called z-test. By applying sample values in the formula
given at (17.3) above we obtain the observed value of z. We compare it with the critical
value of z (to be discussed below). …(17.4)
When the sample size is small, the sampling distribution does not follow normal
distribution. Hence, we cannot apply z- test. In the case of small samples, however, we
apply t-test, which again is bell-shaped, but has a larger variance compared to normal
distribution. The test statistic for t-test is given by
x
t …(17.4)
s n 269
Research Process A problem here is that the critical value of t depends upon the ‘degree of freedom’,
defined as ( n 1 ) where n is the sample size. For example, when sample size is 20,
degree of freedom is 20 -1 =19. Thus the critical value of t varies according to two
factors: i) degrees of freedom, and ii) requisite level of significance.
Fig. 17.3: Testing of Hypothesis
In Fig. 17. 3 we present the type of test to be applied in different situations. Some of
the factors that guides us in deciding on the test statistic to be used are: i) whether
population is normal or not, ii) whether sample size is small or large, and iii) whether
population variance ( ) is known to us or not. You may wonder that since population
mean is not known to us (our objective is to estimate it from the sample), how do we
know population variance! However, we begin with the simpler case of known variance
and later on consider the more realistic case of unknown population variance.
17.5 CRITICAL REGIONS AND TYPES OF ERRORS

In Section 17.3 we had mentioned that when z = 1.96, we have 5 percent level of
significance (and 95 percent confidence level). An implication of the above is that in 95
out of 100 samples the parameter remains within the confidence interval. Therefore, in
5 out of 100 samples, the parameter will not remain within the confidence interval. The
area on the extreme left and extreme right of the standard normal curve (see Fig. 17.2
above) belong to this 5 percent. This region of the curve is called the ‘critical region’
and the value of z beyond which the critical region starts is called ‘critical value’.
The critical values for z depend upon the level of significance. In Table 17.1 these
critical values for certain specified levels of significance ( ) are given for the tests to
be conducted under the assumption of normal distribution.
Table 17.1: Critical Values for z-statistic
Significance Level ( ) 0.10 0.05 0.01
Critical value of z 1.65 1.96 2.58
Type I and Type II Errors
In hypothesis testing we reject or do not reject a hypothesis with certain level of
270
confidence. As mentioned above, a confidence level of 95 percent implies that in 95
out of 100 samples the parameter remains within the acceptance region and in 5 per Statistical Inference
cent cases parameter remains in the rejection region. Thus in 5 per cent cases the
sample is drawn from the population but sample mean is too far away from the population
mean. In such cases the sample belongs to the population but our test procedure rejects
it. Obviously we commit an error such that H 0 is true but gets rejected. This is called
‘Type I error’. Similarly there could be situations when the H 0 is not true, but on the
basis of sample information we do not reject it. Such an error in decision-making is
termed ‘Type II error’ (see Table 17.2).
Note that ‘Type I error’ specifies how much error we are in a position to tolerate. Type
I error is equal to the level of significance, and is denoted by . Thus implies
that we can tolerate 5 percent error in our decision-making. Remember that confidence
level is equal to ( ).
Table 17.2: Type of Errors
H 0 True H 0 Not true
Reject H 0 Type I Error Correct decision
Do not reject H 0 Correct decision Type II Error
In the case of small samples we have to use t-test and thus critical values need to be
decided on the basis of t-distribution. Application of t-test is a bit complex as we have
to look for the i) degrees of freedom, and ii) the level of significance.
We will work out some examples based on z-test and t-test in the next Section.
As mentioned earlier the convention is to apply 5% or 1% level of significance. For
these two levels of significance we present the critical values of t-destination for different
1 0.05
degrees of freedom in Table 17.3 at the end of this unit.
Self Check Exercise
4) Distinguish between the following:
a) Null hypothesis and Alternative hypothesis
b) Confidence level and Level of significance
c) Type I and Type II errors
5) Suppose a sample of 100 students has mean age of 12.5 years. Show through a
diagram the critical region at 5 per cent level of significance to test hypothesis that
the sample is equal to the population mean. Assume that population mean and
standard deviation are 10 years and 2 years respectively.
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271
Research Process
17.6 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS FOR A SINGLE
SAMPLE
We have so far explained the concepts of null and alternative hypotheses. Also we
have learnt that in the case of large samples we apply z-test and in the case of small
samples we apply t-test. In many situations we are asked to judge whether a sample is
significantly different from a given population. For example, let us assume that we surveyed
a sample of 400 households of Raigarh district of Chhatisgarh state and calculated the
per capita income of these households. Subsequently, our task is to test the hypothesis
that per capita income calculated from the sample is not different from the per capita
income of the district.
In the above example we can have two different situations: i) population (in this case all
the households of the district) variance is known, ii) population variance is not known
to us. We explain the steps to be followed in each case below.
17.6.1 Population Variance is Known
The steps you should follow are:
1) Specify the null hypothesis.
2) Find out whether it requires one-tail or two-tail test. Accordingly identify your
critical region. This will help in specification of alternative hypothesis.
3) Apply sample values to z-statistic.
4) Find out from z-table the critical value according to level of significance.
5) If you obtain a value lower than the tabulated value do not reject the null hypothesis.
6) If you obtain a value greater than the tabulated value reject the null hypothesis and
accept the alternative hypothesis
Example 1
Let us consider the case that we know the per capita income of Raigarh district of
Chhatisgarh as well as its variance. Suppose the data available in official records show
that per capita income of Raigarh district is Rs. 10,000 and standard deviation of per
capita income is Rs. 1,500. However, we did a sample survey of 400 households and
found that their per capita income is Rs. 10,500. Do we accept the data provided in
official records?
In this case = Rs. 10,000
= Rs. 1,500
= Rs. 10,500
n = 400
The sample size is large and variance of the population is known. As given in Fig.17.3
we apply z-test.
Our null hypothesis in this case is
H0 : x
The null hypothesis suggests that sample mean is equal to population mean. In other
words, per capita income obtained from the sample is the same as the data provided in
official records.
272
Our alternative hypothesis is Statistical Inference
HA :x
By substituting values in the above we obtain
10500 10000 500

z
1500 400 500 20
In the above case since z = 6.67, the sample lies in the critical region and we reject the
hypothesis. Thus the per capita income obtained from the sample is significantly different
from the per capita income provided in official records.
Example 2
Suppose the voltage generated by certain brand of battery is normally distributed. A
random sample of 100 such batteries was tested and found to have a mean voltage of
1.4 volts. At 0.01 level of significance, does this indicate that these batteries have a
general average voltage that is different from 1.5 volts? Assume that population standard
deviation is 0.21 volts.
Here, H 0 : = 1.5
Since average voltage of the sample can be different from average voltage of the
population if it is either less than or more than 1.5 volts, our rejection region is on both
sides of the normal curve. Thus it is a case of two-tail test and alternative hypothesis is
Since the population standard deviation s is known, the test statistic is

nH1 :30 1.5 x 1.4 1.5
z 4.8
0.21
n 100
From the Table 17.2 we find that the critical value at 1 per cent level significance is
2.58. Since the actual value of z is greater than 2.58 we reject the null hypothesis at 1%
level and accept the alternative hypothesis that the average life of batteries is different
from 1.5 volts.
17.6.2 Population Variance not Known
The assumption that population standard deviation ( ) is known to us is unrealistic, as
we do not know the population mean itself. When is unknown we have to estimate
it by sample standard deviation (s). In such situations there are two possibilities
depending upon the sample size. If the sample size is large ( ) we apply z-statistic,
that is,
x
z …(17.5)
s n
In case the sample size is small ( n 30 ) we apply t-statistic with n 1 degrees of

freedom. The test statistic is
x
t …(17.6)
s n
273
Research Process The steps you should follow are:
1) Specify the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
2) Check whether sample size is large ( n 30 ) or small ( n 30 ).
3) In case n 30 , apply z-test (17.5).
4) Find out from z-table the critical value according to level of significance ( ).
5) In case , apply t-test (17.6).
6) Find out from t-table the critical value for n 1 degrees of freedom and level of
significance ( ).
7) If you obtain a value lower than the tabulated value do not reject the null hypothesis.
8) If you obtain a value greater than the tabulated value reject the null hypothesis and
accept the alternative hypothesis
Example 3
A tablet is supposed to contain on an average 10 mg. of aspirin. A random sample of
100 tablets show a mean aspirin content of 10.2 mg. with a standard deviation of 1.4
mg. Can you conclude at the 0.05 level of significance that the mean aspirin content is
indeed 10 mg.?
Here, the null hypothesis is
The rejection region is on both sides of 10 mg. Thus it requires a two-tail test
and .
Also, the sample mean is x 10.2 and the sample size n = 100. Since population standard
deviation is not known we estimate it by sample standard deviation s and our test
statistic is . By applying relevant values from the sample we obtain
x 10.2 10
z 1.43
s 1.4
n 100
At 5 per cent level of significance the critical value of z is 1.96. since the z value that we
have obtained is less than 1.96, we do not reject the null hypothesis. Therefore the
mean level of aspirin is 10 mg.
Example 4
The population of Haripura district has a mean life expectancy of 60 years. Certain
health care measures are undertaken in the district. Subsequently, a random sample of
25 persons shows an average life expectancy of 60.5 years with a standard deviation
of 2 years. Can we conclude at the 0.05 level of significance that the average life
expectancy in the district has remained the same?
Here, H 0 : = 60
We have to test for an increase in life expectancy. Thus it is a case of one-tail test and
the rejection region will be on the right-hand tail of the standard normal curve.
Hence our alternative hypothesis is
274
Here population standard deviation s is not known and we estimate it by the sample Statistical Inference
standard deviation s. Here the sample size is small hence we have to apply t-statistic
given at (17.6).
x 60.5 60
t 1.25
s 2
n 25
Since sample size is 25, degrees of freedom are 25-1 = 24. From the t-table we find
that for 24 degrees of freedom, 5 per cent level of significance.
Since t-value obtained above is less than the tabulated value we do not reject the
hypothesis. Therefore, we accept the alternative hypothesis that life expectancy has not
changed after the health care measures.
Self Check Exercise
6) A report claimed that in the ‘School Leaving Examination’, the average marks
scored in Mathematics were 78 with a standard deviation of 16. However, a
random sample of 37 students showed an average of 84 marks in Mathematics. In
the light of this evidence, can we conclude that the average has remained unchanged?
Use 0.05 level of significance.
7) A passenger car company claims that average fuel efficiency of cars is 35 kms per
litre of petrol. A random sample of 50 cars shows an average of 32 kms per litre
with a standard deviation of 1.2 km. Does this evidence falsify the claim of the
passenger car company at 0.01 level of significance?
8) A random sample of 200 tins of coconut oil gave an average weight of 4.95 kg per
tin with a standard deviation of 0.21 kg. Do we accept the hypothesis of net
weight of 5 kg per tin at 0.01 level of significance?
9) According to a report, the national average annual income of the government
employees during a recent year was Rs. 24,632 with a standard deviation of Rs.
1827. A random sample of 49 government employees during the same year showed
an average annual income of Rs. 25,415. On the evidence of this sample, at 0.05
level of significance, Can we conclude that the national average annual income of
government employees was indeed Rs. 24,632?
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17.7 TEST FOR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO

SAMPLES
Many times we need to test for the difference between two samples. The objective
may be to ascertain whether both samples are drawn from the same population or to 275
Research Process check whether a particular characteristic is the same in two populations. For example,
we formulate a hypothesis that the production per worker in plant A is the same as the
production per worker in plant B. We discuss below the procedure for testing of such
a hypothesis.
Here again we deal with two different situations: whether variance of both the populations
are known. Another consideration is sample size: large or small.
The null hypothesis is the statement that population means of both the populations are
the same. In notations
H0 : 1 2 …(17.7)
The alternative hypothesis is the statement that both the population means are different.
In notations
HA : 1 2 …(17.8)
Population Variance is known
When standard deviations (positive square root of variance) of both the populations
are known we apply z statistic specified as follows:
( x1 x2 ) ( 1 2)
z
2 2
1 2 …(17.9)
n1 n2
In (17.8) above, subscript 1 refers to the first sample and subscript 2 refers to the
second sample. By applying relevant data in (17.9) we obtain the actual value of z and
compare it with the tabulated value for specified level of significance.
Example 5:
A bank wants to find out the average savings of its customers in Delhi and Kolkata. A
sample of 250 accounts in Delhi shows an average savings of Rs. 22500 while a sample
of 200 accounts in Kolkata shows an average savings of Rs. 21500. It is known that
standard deviation of savings in Delhi is Rs. 150 and that in Kolkata is Rs. 200. Can
we conclude at 1 percent level of significance that banking pattern of customers in
Delhi and Kolkata is the same?
In this case the null hypothesis is H 0 : 1 2
and the alternative hypothesis is H A : 1 2
We are provided with the information that

x1 = Rs. 22500 1 = Rs. 150
= Rs. 22400 2 = Rs. 200
= 250 n 2 = 200
Since 1 and are known we apply z-test.
The test statistic is .

276
By applying the information provided above we obtain Statistical Inference
22500 22400 100

z
150 2 200 2 90 20
250 200
We find that at 1 per cent level of significance the critical value obtained from Table
17.1 is 2.58.
Since the actual value is greater than the tabulated value the null hypothesis is rejected
and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. Thus the banking pattern of customers in
Delhi and Kolkata are different.
Population Variance is not known
When population variance ( 2 ) is not known we estimate it by sample variance ( s 2 ).
If both samples are large in size (n>30) then we apply z statistic as follows:
( x1 x2 ) ( 1 2)
z
s12 s 22 …(17.10)
n1 n2
On the other hand, if samples are small in size ( n 30 ) then we apply t-statistic as
follows:
( x1 x2 ) ( 1 2)
t
s12 s 22 …(17.11)
n1 n2
2 ( x1 x2 ) ( 1 2)
t
2
s 22 freedom for t-test = (n1 1) (n 2
sDegrees
1
1) n1 n2 2
n1 n 2 6
Example
A mathematics teacher wants to compare the performance of Class X students in two
sections. She administers the same set of questions to 25 students in Section A and 20
students in Section B. she finds that Section A students have a mean score of 78 marks
with standard deviation of 4 marks while Section B students have a mean score of 75
marks with standard deviation of 5 marks. Is the performance of students in both Sections
different at 1 per cent level of significance?
In this case the null hypothesis is H 0 : 1 2
and the alternative hypothesis is H A : 1 2
We are provided with the information that

x1 = 78 s1 = 4
x 2 = 75 s2 = 5
n1 = 25 n 2 = 20
Since 1 and are not known and sample sizes are small we apply t-test.
78 75
= 42 5 2 = 3 = 2.18
1.37
25 20 277
Research Process The degree of freedom in this case is 25+20-2 = 43.
We can find out from Table 17.3 that at the 1 per cent level of significance the t-value
for 43 degrees of freedom is 2.69.
Since the tabulated value of t is less than actual value of t we reject the hypothesis.
Therefore, students in Section A and Section B are different with respect to their
performance in mathematics.
17.8 CONTINGENCY TABLE

The concepts of confidence interval and the procedures of testing a hypothesis discussed
so far relate to numerical. In the case of qualitative data, however, we cannot undertake
such tests, as we do not have parameters. In the qualitative data, therefore, we require
to develop non-parametric tests.
There are many types of non-parametric tests depending upon our need. However,
we confine ourselves to a common procedure, that is, chi-square (pronounced as kai-
squared) test for the test of independence between variables. Recall that qualitative
data can be arranged in categories (see Unit 6) and presented in the form of a two-
way table.
In order to explain the application of chi-square test let us take a concrete example.
Suppose we want to test a hypothesis that number of children in a family is independent
of the occupation of father. We divide occupation of father into five categories - i)
unemployed, ii) unskilled labour, iii) skilled labour, iv) self-employed, and v) professional.
Similarly we divide families into five categories according the number of children - i) no
child, ii) one child, iii) two children, iv) three children, and v) more than three children.
For a sample of 650 families the data obtained is presented in Table 17.3.
Table 17.3: Occupation and Number of Children
Number Occupation Total
of Unemployed Unskilled Skilled Self- Professional
Children Labour Labour Employed
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
0 10 15 10 12 11 58
1 35 25 17 18 25 120
2 22 33 45 40 43 183
3 11 40 48 58 30 187
4 11 33 30 19 9 102
Total89 146 150 147 118 650

Table 17.3 is called contingency table, because we are trying to find whether the number
of children is contingent upon the occupation of the father.
Our purpose is test for possible relationship between the number of children and the
occupation of father. Thus the null hypothesis is specified as:
: Number of children and occupation of father are independent against the
alternative hypothesis
H A : Number of children and occupation of father are dependent
278
Expected Frequency Statistical Inference
In Table 17.3 we have presented the observed frequency for each cell in the table.
What should be the expected frequency when there is no relationship between the
variables under consideration? We will answer this question below.
Expected frequency is calculated under the assumption that there is no relationship
between number of children and occupation of father. For each cell in Table 17.2 the
expected frequency is obtained by
(Row i total) (Column j total

E ij = …(17.12)
Sample size
Where Eij is expected frequency for row ‘i’ and column j. For example, for row 2 and
column 2 the expected frequency is
row 2 total colm. 2 tot

E 22 .
sample size
We find out the row and column totals for the data given in Table 17.3 and estimate the
expected frequency for each cell. These are given in Table 17.4.
Table 17.4: Calculation of Expected Frequency for Each Cell
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5
r5
0 r1 7.94 13.03 13.38 13.12 10.53 58.00
1 r2 16.43 26.95 27.69 27.14 21.78 120.00
2 r3 25.06 41.10 42.23 41.39 33.22 183.00
3 r4 25.60 42.00 43.15 42.29 33.95 187.00
4 13.97 22.91 23.54 23.07 18.52 102.00
Total 89.00 146.00 150.00 147.00 118.00 650.00

The next step is to compare the observed frequency with the expected frequency. In
order to compare the observed frequency with the expected frequency we construct
the chi-square statistic, which is given by
2 (Oi Ei ) 2
Ei
…(17.3)
where O refers to observed frequency and E refers to expected frequency.

The chi-square statistic has degrees of freedom (r 1)(c 1) . For example, if there are
3 rows and 4 columns, then degrees of freedom is (3 1)(4 1) 6 .
Let us summarise the steps to be followed in chi-square test. These are:
1) specify the null and alternative hypotheses
2) calculate the expected frequency for each cell by using (20.5) 279
Research Process
3) calculate the observed value of statistic by using (20.6)
4) determine degrees of freedom according to the formula (r 1)(c 1)
5) check the level of significance ( ) required
6) Find out the critical value of for and relevant degrees of freedom
2
7) compare the observed value of with the critical value of
8) if observed value is less than critical value, then do not reject H 0
9) if observed value is greater than critical value, then reject H 0 and accept H A
2
For the data given in Table 17.4 let us find out the observed value of .
(Oi Ei ) 2
Table 17.5: Calculation of Ei
for each Cell

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
0 0.53 0.30 0.86 0.10 0.02 1.80
1 20.99 0.14 4.13 3.08 0.47 28.81
2 0.37 1.60 0.18 0.05 2.88 5.08
3 8.33 0.10 0.54 5.84 0.46 15.26
4 0.63 4.44 1.77 0.72 4.89 12.46
Total 30.85 6.58 7.48 9.77 8.72 63.41
Since there are 5 rows and 5 columns, the degrees of freedom is .

2
The critical values of x for 5% & 1% level of significance for different degrees of
freedom are given in Table 17.7 at the end of the Unit. We find from the table that for
16 d.f. the critical value of at 5 per cent level of significance is 26.30. The observed
value of 2 to be 63.41. Since the observed value is greater than the critical value we
reject the null hypothesis and accept the null hypothesis. Therefore, we conclude that
the variables ‘number of children’ and ‘occupation of father’ are not independent.
Self Check Exercise
10) Explain the following concepts.
a) expected frequency
2
b) critical value of
11) There are three brands (orange, cola and lemon) of soft drinks produced by a
company. A survey of 160 persons in two states (one form north- Punjab and
one from south- Tamil Nadu) provides the following information.
Orange Cola Lemon
Punjab 33 26 31
Tamil Nadu 17 24 29
280
Test the hypothesis that there is no preference for particular brand of soft drink on both Statistical Inference
the states ( 0.05 ).
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17.9 SUMMARY
Drawing conclusions about a population on the basis of sample information is called
statistical inference. Here we have basically two things to do: statistical estimation and
hypothesis testing.
An estimate of an unknown parameter could be either a point or an interval. Sample
mean is usually taken as a point estimate of population mean. On the other hand, in
interval estimation we construct two limits (upper and lower) around the sample mean.
We can say with stipulated level of confidence that the population mean, which we do
not know, is likely to remain within the confidence interval. In order to construct confidence
interval we need to know the population variance or its estimate. When we know
population variance, we apply normal distribution to construct the confidence interval.
In cases where population variance is not known, we use t distribution for the above
purpose. Remember that when sample size is large (n>30) t-distribution approximates
normal distribution. Thus for large samples, even if population variance is not known,
we can use normal distribution for estimation of confidence interval on the basis of
sample mean and sample variance.
Subsequently we discussed the methods of testing a hypothesis and drawing conclusions
about the population. Hypothesis is a simple statement (assertion or claim) about the
value assumed by the parameter. We test a hypothesis on the basis of sample information
available to us. In this Unit we considered two situations: i) description of a single
sample, and ii) comparison between two samples.
In the case of qualitative data we cannot have parametric values and hypothesis
testing on the basis of z statistic or t-statistic cannot be performed. Chi-square test is
applied to such situations. Chi-square test is a non-parametric test, where no assumption
about population is required. There are various types of non-parametric tests beside
chi-square test. Moreover, chi-square test can be applied to many situations. We learnt
about a particular application of chi-square test - contingency table. In contingency
table we test the null hypothesis that variables under consideration are independent
against the alternative hypothesis that variables are related. We compare expected
frequency with observed frequency and construct the chi-square statistic. If the
observed value of chi-square exceeds the expected value of chi-square we reject the
null hypothesis.
281
Research Process
1) Go through the text and define these terms.
2) Since it is large sample we apply z-statistic. The confidence interval is
3) Since it is small sample and population variance is not given we apply t-statistics
with degrees of freedom 24. The tabulated value of t at 99 per cent confidence
level is 2.49. The confidence interval is .
5) It is large sample and is unknown. In order to show the rejection regions we

use the standard normal curve. Accordingly draw the diagram.
6) Since it is large sample with known variance, we apply z-statistic. The alternative
hypothesis is . The observed value of z is 2.28 and critical value of z at
5% level of significance is 1.96. Since the observed value is greater than the
critical value we reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, we conclude that the average
marks were different from 78.
7) It is a large sample with unknown variance. It requires two-tail test. The observed
value of z is 17.68 and critical value of z at 1% level of significance is 2.58. Since
the observed value is greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected.
8) It is a large sample with unknown variance. We test the null hypothesis with z-
statistic. Observed value of z is 3.37. Null hypothesis is rejected.
9) Since it is large sample with known standard deviation, we apply z-statistic.

Observed value of z is 3.00. Critical value of z at 5% level of significance is 2.58.
Null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, the national average of annual income of
government employees was different from Rs. 24632.
11) The expected frequency are
Orange Cola Lemon

Punjab 28.13 28.13 33.75
Tamil Nadu 21.88 21.88 26.25
The observed value of chi-square statistic is 2.98. Degrees of freedom is 2. The critical
value of chi-square at 5 per cent level of significance at 2 degrees of freedom is 5.99.
Hence null hypothesis is not rejected and soft drink consumption is independent of the
region.
17.11 KEYWORDS
Confidence Level : It gives the percentage (probability) of samples where
the population mean would remain within the confidence
interval around the sample mean. If is the significance
282 level the confidence level is (1- ).
Contingency Table : A two-way table to present bivariate data. It is called Statistical Inference
contingency table because we try to find whether one
variable is contingent upon the other variable.
Degrees of Freedom : It refers to the number of pieces of independent

information that are required to compute some
characteristic of a given set of observations.
Estimation : It is the method of prediction about parameter values on

the basis of sample statistics.
Expected Frequency : It is the expected cell frequency under the assumption

that both the variables are independent.
Nominal Variable : Such a variable takes qualitative values and do not have
any ordering relationships among them. For example,
gender is a nominal variable taking only the qualitative
values, male and female; there is no ordering in ‘male’
and ‘female’ status. A nominal variable is also called an
attribute.
Parameter : It is a measure of some characteristic of the population.

Population : It is the entire collection of units of a specified type in a
given place and at a particular point of time.
Random Sampling : It is a procedure where every member of the population

has a definite chance or probability of being selected in
the sample. It is also called probability sampling. Random
sampling could be of many types: simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling and stratified random
sampling.
Sample : It is a sub-set of the population. It can be drawn from the

population in a scientific manner by applying the rules of
probability so that personal bias is eliminated. Many
samples can be drawn from a population and there are
many methods of drawing a sample.
Sampling Distribution : It is the relative frequency or probability distribution of

the values of a statistic when the number of samples tends
to infinity.
Sampling Error : In the sampling method, we try to approximate some

feature of a given population from a sample drawn from
it. Now, since in the sample all the members of the
population are not included, howsoever close the
approximation is, it is not identical to the required
population feature and some error is committed. This error
is called the sampling error.
Significance Level : There may be certain samples where population mean

would not remain within the confidence interval around
sample mean. The percentage (probability) of such cases
is called significance level. It is usually denoted by . 283
Research Process When = 0.05 (that is, 5 percent) we can say that in
5 per cent cases we are likely to reach an incorrect
decision or commit Type I error. Level of significance could
be at any level but it is usually taken at 5 percent or
1 percent level.
Statistic : It is a function of the values of the units that are included in

the sample. The basic purpose of a statistic is to estimate
some population parameter.
17.12 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Kiess, H.O. (1989). Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.
IGNOU Course Material (2005). EEC 13: Elementary Statistical Methods and
Survey Techniques. Block 7.
284
UNIT 18 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Research Reports and their Types
18.3 Importance and Significance of Research Reports
18.4 Preparation of a Research Proposal
18.5 Research Reports: Plan Outline, Format and Contents
18.6 Preparation and Organisation of Research Notes
18.7 Drafting of Research Reports
18.7.1 Language and Grammar
18.8 Physical Production

18.8.1 Preparation of Manuscripts
18.8.2 Final Phase of Physical Production
18.9 Summary
18.11 Keywords
18.0 OBJECTIVES
• grasp the value, significance and purpose of presentation of research results;
• comprehend the meaning of research reports and their different types;
• preparation of research notes as a prerequisite for presentation of research reports;
• draft a research report plan comprising the preliminaries, contents etc.;
• write the research report, using appropriate aids and tools;
• present the final product in a standard physical format; and
• get acquainted with the knowledge of printing, publishing, graphics and other
related techniques.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
As the old adage succinctly puts, the proof of the pudding is in the eating, not merely in
its making, the report of research work, requires to be presented in an appropriate
standard qualitative form that alone would bring credibility to the research work, no
matter how well the research work is done. Report writing being a very important
facet of the research process, needs to be given the fullest attention to every detail. In
terms of presentation of contents, the language should be simple, clear, lucid and
unambiguous. The physical form of the final document must also conform to accepted
quality standards that aids its use and also gets an aesthetic appeal. 285
Research Process This Unit deals with all aspects of report writing and the physical production of a
document, which culminates a research work. The most important and an invaluable
prerequisite in the preparation of the final document of research, is the research notes.
As a researcher commences his work, he studies a number of documents, extracts
useful, relevant and significant information from consulted documents, prepares
summaries of useful ideas, consults experts and guides at different stages of his work,
records his/her own thoughts and ideas as the work progresses, and a number of similar
activities go along with the work. These very valuable data serve as a handy tool aiding
the final preparation of the research report. These types of notes must also be properly
recorded, documented, filed and stored so that the task of writing the report becomes
easier. Indeed, this preliminary effort is worth taking, as it would save a good deal of
tension, worry and anxiety, as the time for the final submission of the research document
approaches. This aspect of work is dealt with some detail in this Unit.
The research work would culminate with the production of an M.Phil thesis, a doctoral
dissertation, a research paper or a corporate research project report. Each one of
these types of documents has special elements that must get the appropriate treatment.
Drafting a report is, in particular, a very highly skilled activity. A number of factors
contribute to writing a good research report. These aspects are given specific attention;
especially useful to research students and junior research workers.
The physical presentation of the final product is also an important aspect of the work,
which contributes substantially, in obtaining a commendable impression of the work
done.
All these aspects of work in the final preparation of a research report are examined in
detail in this Unit.
18.2 RESEARCH REPORTS AND THEIR TYPES

“Research reports are detailed and accurate accounts of the conduct of disciplined
studies accomplished to solve problems or to reveal new knowledge.” (Busha and
Harter, 1988). Research reports must be complete, well organised and carefully drafted
if their contents are to contribute to fields in which the research efforts are made. This is
an essential means of communication to the peers in the field to judge the value of the
research work done.
There are a variety of research reports. The audience to whom a research report is
addressed has to be kept in view in the preparation of a research report. Some of
these types are detailed below.
Research reports of students and research fellows of academic or research institutions
are generally submitted to the University or other similar professional research institutions
in fulfillment of conditions for the award of a research degree. The first research
degree is the Master of Philosophy. If research studies are further pursued by a
student, he or she would work towards the award of a degree of Doctor of Philosophy
or Doctor of Science. In some universities research students could take up research
work leading to Doctoral degrees without qualifying for M.Phil.
Most research complexes, learned societies and professional institutions have
responsibilities for specific areas of research and development. Particularly in applied
research and development, research efforts are geared to achieve targets in scientific,
industrial and economic growth, technological innovations, market research, etc. with
an orientation towards social goals. These research efforts are related to the country’s
286 development planning and growth targets. The outputs of these organisations appear in
the form of research papers to learned journals, research/technical reports, various Presentation of
forms of promotional literature with reference to technology transfer from research to Results
commercial organisations for exploitation. Marketing of technologies developed by
these research institutions have become increasingly necessary to sustain indigenous
research.
Research done in research complexes and corporate institutions are usually team work
and most of them may also be relay research. The team leader along with his/her colleagues
would prepare this report, in most cases, one of them may be entrusted with the task of
writing the first draft. This will be refined and edited before final submission.
Sponsored research most often may be done by industries, conducted by universities
or specialised research institutions, to obtain results with reference to a new product or
process development or solving a problem. These reports are prepared by the project
team.
Research funded by governments, industries or by other bodies is also teamwork.
Persons with high qualifications and research experience in different disciplines of science,
technology and related social sciences like economics; sociology, etc. are involved in
these R & D activities. They produce different types of research documents resulting
from their research efforts. The team prepares the reports. Such research projects
may be entrusted to specific bodies of research.
Research papers may be produced by researchers to announce their preliminary results
through publication in research journals. The editorial office of the research journals
have their own system of quality control to ensure the quality standards of the research
work reported.
For research projects of long duration, interim reports or status/stage reports are also
brought out to disseminate preliminary results. This will be followed a consolidated final
report when the project is completed.
Self Check Exercise
1) What are research reports? List their types.
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18.3 IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF

RESEARCH REPORTS
Whatever may be the types of research reports, its importance and significance can
never be exaggerated. They are the final product of communication of research done
without which the research work done is incomplete.
287
Research Process The time and effort required to produce a good outline are worthwhile; the
framework can conserve energy and assist writers in preparing reports that present
research in a logical manner.
The results of research and their validity are examined through a system of evaluation in
the case of academic research reports like M.Phil theses or doctoral dissertations.
If the research work is of commendable value and meritorious, contributing to the pool
of knowledge, it would become eligible for the consideration of the award /reward
system, at the national or international levels.
Primary publications, which are research papers carried by research journals, specialised
research reports, and such others, are stocked in libraries and cognate institutions for
the use of the research communities and others.
Secondary sources, like indexes and abstracts, state-of-art reports, etc. disseminate
these types of research reports which are available for those who look for specific
information on research done. They are cited by other research scholars in their research
papers/reports. This system of citation has led to the citation index, introducing a novel
method to measure the quality of research conducted.
Individuals, who are involved in high quality research work, enhance their status and
positions among the research community and become sooner or later guides and leaders
of research in their respective fields of research.
In sum, the pool of knowledge gets burgeoned with new inputs of value to the already
existing knowledge. Numerous primary publications are a source of information and
knowledge for the research community.
The secondary sources provide access to these primary documents and also make
them available for consultation.
Citation indexes providing scope for citation studies gives a new method of evaluating
research work of excellence.
Persons of eminence sprout in such conditions and provide leadership to research
efforts in different disciplines, heading specialised research complexes.
All these efforts contribute and eventually accrue to the benefits of the community at
large in giving them better living.
Self Check Exercise
2) What are the usefulness and significance of research reports?
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Presentation of
18.4 PREPARATION OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL Results
For students, pursuing higher and research studies always require financial support.
Universities and research institutes also need adequate financial aids to take up research
projects. While seeking funding for research projects, proposals have to be prepared
with great attention so that the funding agency gets convinced about the utility of the
research efforts and sanction the funds asked for. This section deals with the preparation
of research proposals. A research proposal is a request for getting financial and other
support for a research project. The proposal is a formally prepared document which is
sent to a funding agency, requesting financial and other aids.
Agencies like the University Grants Commission and the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research and such other agencies, have a selection process enlisting fellows
for research at junior and senior levels. Students, therefore, do have avenues like
these to get selected for doing research in their respective fields.
There are agencies, both at the national and international levels which invite research
proposals for funding research projects.
It would, therefore, be worthwhile to get some ideas in the preparation of research
proposals for those who seek such financial assistance in their research careers.
Regardless of the environment in which a person functions, proposals may have to be
prepared for getting research projects and programs, or obtain contracts for research
projects, change a career position and improve professional prospects.
Generally a proposal is a written statement of: 1) intention, 2) willingness 3) qualifications
and expertise to accomplish a particular research task within a given time frame. The
most important function of a research proposal is to convince the peers to win approval
and get financial and other support for tasks that the proposer wishes to make.
Proposals generally have the following components:
Letter of transmittal: A formal proposal is always accompanied by letter which
usually identifies and highlights the problem and offers to work on it on mutually agreed
conditions.
Title page: This gives a succinct statement of the problem, name of the organisations
to whom the proposal is submitted with an identifying number, date of submission and
the period during which the work would be accomplished and completed, etc.
Executive Summary: This is a brief summary of the total proposal. Busy executives
seldom find time to go through detailed text of a proposal but they area the ones that
approve and sanction funding. Hence the executive summary needs to carefully drafted
to get a favourable response, particular from financial officer who approves the funding.
It must be expressly stated as to who are likely to be beneficiaries of the research
effort.
Table of contents: Any proposal having more than five to six pages should have a
table of contents.
Statement of Request: If the proposal is in response to a request, the statement of
request is sometimes given that may include the terms of reference.
Preliminary Section: States the subject of the report, scope, purpose and plan of
execution. 289
Research Process Introduction: It should include an elaborate statement of the problem and its
background. The scope of the proposal has to be spelled out in a short form but very
expressively.
The body including the methodology: Contains the procedure, equipment to be
used for study, analysis, results, discussions, conclusions, and recommendations that
logically follow from the conclusions, etc. This explains how the work is going to be
accomplished and hence is perhaps the most important section of the proposal.
Facilities: The facilities required to execute the task have to be stated unambiguously
to avoid any problem at a later stage. These include equipment, machinery, literature
support facilities such as books, photocopies of documents, internet services, etc.
transport if the research tasks require travel, communication facilities like telephone
expenses, fax, etc. and such others.
Personnel: This includes professionals and secretarial staff their quality and number,
depending upon the nature of the project.
Duration: It should indicate milestones, phases and completion time of the task.
Cost and Funding: This is the most crucial aspect of the proposal. It includes
salaries, capital expenditure, if any, expendable equipment, miscellaneous expenses
and overheads. The estimates should be realistic and properly stated showing the
approximate costs.
Summary: Busy executives would also read the summary and conclusion to assess the
proposal and hence be written with utmost care and attention. The summary should
reiterate the beneficiaries of the research results.
Given below are contents to go into a proposal for a library automation project of a
medium size library, specialising in a set of new disciplines. The contents should be
fleshed to fit into the different components suggested above.
• A vision of the future of the library in terms of users, collection, computerisation of
house keeping operations, databases creation and maintenance, new and innovative
services, human resources development, — in general to derive all advantages of
library automation;
• A short design plan in which all aspects stated above are spelled out, with reference
to the library’s current status and inputs needed;
• Selection of the automation software, reasons for any particular choice and its
application;
• An operational strategy to evolve a pragmatic method and to apply it in a phased
manner, identifying milestones and specific targets to fit into achievable time frame;
• Identifying every component of the operational strategy and estimate requirements
in terms of quality and quantity;
• Cost factors and approximate estimates for capital and recurring expenditure; and
• A workable management strategy dealing with professional personnel, operational
analysis and transitional problems.
The drafting of the proposal is a highly skilled activity which not only takes care of every
idea in library automation but must indicate effectively data and information to be collected
290 and used.
Self Check Exercise Presentation of
Results
3) What is a research proposal? State its components.
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18.5 RESEARCH REPORTS: PLAN OUTLINE,

FORMAT AND CONTENTS
Research reports are always precluded by a plan outline, which serves as a guide
in the preparation of the final product. An outline is essentially a skeletal framework
upon which a report is constructed from systematically collected and organised
materials. A complete outline assists the writer in recognising logical relationships
between narrative elements of reports. Outlines are also useful for the construction
of cohesive paragraphs and sections that are effectively connected.
Most of the research reports outlines are structured more or less on the following
format, although alterations of the format may be necessary for every type of report.
Preliminaries
• Title Page with author’s name, affiliation and contact address;
• Acknowledgements, if any;
• Conspectus;
• Table of contents;
• Lists of tables, illustrations, etc.;
• Abstract/Synopsis, Executive Summary.
Introduction
• Statement of the problem;
• Explanation of the theoretical or practical context out of which the research
problem originated;
• Need and Purpose of the study and research: their rationale;
• Review of the literature;
Description of the Study
• Conceptual Framework of the Study:
• Definitions of terms.
• Explanation of the Assumptions, Hypothesis of the research problem.
• Foot Notes 291
Research Process Collection of Data and Analysis
• Data collection, Explanation of procedures and methods;
• Data Analysis techniques.
Results
• Data tables and figures;
• Statistical presentation;
• Graphics.
Discussions
• Support or Nonsupport of hypothesis;
• Practical and theoretical implications;
• Inferences, Conclusions and Recommendations, if any.
Summary
Glossary
References
Bibliography
Appendix
Index
Preliminaries
The preliminaries are the formalities in the presentation of a document that precede the
main part of the presentation, giving details of information that follow.
The first page of research report is the title page. The title should be crisp, concise and
expressive and self-explanatory. It may sometimes have a sub-title explaining the main
title if need be. The title should not claim more for the study than it actually offers.
Title indexes like Citation Index, and other types of title services, use the titles of
documents, which would help users to decide to seek the original document for study
or consultation. Therefore titles should be very carefully drafted to give an exact
statement of the work done. The drafting of the title should never be done casually.
The details about the author, his/her affiliation and address are information that would
enable a person to get in touch with the author, in case there is a need. This has become
a common practice, today in practically every type of research reports.
Acknowledgements are the expression of thanks to those who have helped or assisted
the author in his research work. This should include the sponsors, agency that might
have financial and other supports, those that have assisted in the preparation of
manuscripts, those that have provided library and information support facilities, those
who have helped in the preparation of the manuscripts and others.
Conspectus of lengthy research reports is a useful aid in giving an overview of the
different chapters of a research document, chapter by chapter. Conspectus is however,
written for a document which has a number of chapters reporting different dimensions
very extensively. It is different from a synopsis or an executive summary which gives a
quick overall review of a research document. For documents of smaller sizes, a synopsis
is quite sufficient. For research reports, which are sponsored, the practice is to provide
292 an executive summary.
Executive Summary or Synopsis are meant for those who don’t have the time to study Presentation of
the full document. Research reports of a sponsored research invariably should have Results
an executive summary for the authorities to get a quick idea of a research report.
Table of contents may be just simple statements of the titles of each chapter or
more details of the subsections of each of the chapters. It all depends upon the length
of the chapters that are organised to help users to access with ease any section of
the chapters.
The lists of tables, figures, illustrations, maps, photographs, etc. again provide instant
access to these parts of a research document – lists of tables, illustrations, photographs,
maps, etc. give an idea of additional facilities to get a total view of the document.
Introduction
The Statement of the problem taken up for research should be expressed precisely
and crisply so that the rest of the write-up follows a similar pattern.
Explanation of the theoretical or practical context, out of which the research problem
has originated should be exactly stated.
The need and purpose of the study and research should be expressed properly; the
rationale of the study is also provided so that the inquiry can be placed in its proper
setting. In addition, the scope and limitations of the study should be stated.
Review of the literature; Literature review is an important aspect of a research study.
It may form part of the introduction or can be given in a separate section, depending
upon its size and importance. A review of literature provides a background for the
study, identifies gaps, highlighting some important work already done. It may sometimes
be a state-of-art report, which gives a total picture of the area taken up for research.
Description of the Study
The real meat of the research work done, begins with this section. Not only the
contents of this section should be weighty giving full explanation of the research effort
but also written with absolute clarity.
Assumptions are carefully and precisely identified in this section and the general research
problem is narrowed down and restated in terms of specific hypothesis or research
questions. Hypothesis and questions are often discussed in terms of their relationship
to objectives of the study. Operational definitions of concepts in the hypothesis or in
the research problem are clearly stated to provide their meanings in the context in
which they area used. If a study is not designed to test hypotheses, such as descriptive
research, the overall research study has to be clearly identified. The theoretical and
practical implications of the study should be discussed in this section.
Foot notes constitute information provided with references to any idea or anything
that needs support evidences. Such notes are given at the bottom of the page with
indicators to correlate the references. Sometimes such notes are consolidated and
given at the end of the chapter or at the end of the report. These types of notes may
feature throughout the body of the report also.
Data collection and Analysis

This section focuses attention on how the research problem is handled and the sources
of the relevant data, including methods used in obtaining them. An exact, detailed
description of all steps taken to collect data is stated; for example selection of topical
headings, their location in the study, instruments of measurements and special problems
pertaining to the design of the study. Adequate descriptions of procedures will facilitate 293
Research Process better understanding of how the study is accomplished. When pertinent, methods used
to validate and to pretest instruments are also described. In addition, sometimes,
limitations in the study’s methodology should be discussed in terms of actual or possible
negative effects on the results of inquiry.
Data analysis includes the method of methods of analysis, statistical methods used, and
other related methods. These methods should enable the data to be organised
systematically for proper and appropriate interpretation.
Results
Data assembled and organised should be presented in tables which can be graphically
displayed to give a visual view of the data analysis. This would enable proper interpretation
of data analysis to arrive at a conclusion that may permit some generalisation.
Conclusions may be formed and the possible application should also be stated.
Discussions
This section should deal with the results obtained with reference to the hypotheses
formed at the beginning whether or not the results support them or reject them. This
should be appropriately and convincingly argued.
If there are suggestions and recommendations for further study that should complement
the research work pursued, these should be precisely and concisely stated.
Summary
Summary at the end of the research report is different from the synopsis or abstracts of
research papers, which are usually given at the beginning. Summaries are at the end of
a report that gives a short narrative description of the different chapters and the
conclusions arrived at.
This will give a quick methodic and systematic overview of the work done.
Glossary
Glossary is a useful aid in getting clear understanding of the technical jargons or other
specialised words employed in the report. It may be optional to provide a glossary,
depending upon the necessity.
References and Bibliography
References are the most essential part of a research report. This should include references
that are actually cited in the report with reference to the pages in which the ideas are
discussed or actual quotations.
A separate section may carry bibliographical references, which are additional references
to those that there are actually used and cited. This will help users to seek other
sources that may contribute to the further study of the research area.
Appendix
Appendices are those items of information that would add further to the
information given in main document.
Index
An index to a research report is a must whether or not the document is
mimeographed or printed or in other form. An index is a summary of the
document in terms of the ideas and thoughts discussed in the document. It brings
294 together all the different aspects of an idea and maps them out in the context in
which they are discussed in the body of the report. It is totally different from the Presentation of
contents even if the contents are presented in detail. If possible the index may be Results
presented in a graphical form to get the different dimensions of the ideas discussed
in the document. There are national and international standards that would
provide guidelines for preparing a document index. Graphic presentation of
indexes is available for some of the international abstracting and indexing services
which provide guidelines in the presentation of graphic indexes.
The plan for the different types of research reports will vary, although the general format
model suggested above remains more or less the same. For M.Phil research, which
usually, is first research degree and the time span is also of a shorter duration, the
outline need not go into such details as are required for a doctoral dissertation for a
PhD. programme. For other types of research reports, it depends on the institution that
undertakes the research, to include its objectives and goals. The research papers
should conform to the required format of the host journal in which the paper is to be
published. Every report, should, therefore keep the requirements and necessarily should
prepare the outline according to the situation and need.
Self Check Exercise
4) What is the function of plan outline of a research report? State its components.
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18.6 PREPARATION AND ORGANISATION OF

RESEARCH NOTES
One of the most important and invaluable activities in research work is note taking
and recording the collected information in a standard format for consultation and
reference during the course of research. A researcher consults numerous documents,
many of them read intensively. Notes of different kinds get generated from this effort,
which also is to be systematically recorded and filed. These may include by and large
groups like:
• Bibliographical references, both directly related to the topic of research and
additional references;
• Subject notes that get formulated as the research work progresses;
• Quotations, Paraphrases, Summaries, Abstracts; and
• Evaluative notes or remarks and such others.
N.B. This type of detailed notes taking would be absolutely necessary for research
projects, which takes a few years to complete. For research work of shorter duration, 295
Research Process reference notes may be considerably small and could be easily managed even recorded
in slips and properly organised and maintained for easy reference and use.
A word of caution is necessary in taking notes. Notes files should not grow in bulk, lest
it would defeat its very purpose. While taking notes, the researcher should carefully
weigh every note in terms of its utility and aid in the preparation of the final report.
Bibliographical References
Literature pertaining to the field of research has to be collected through effective search
procedures of information storage and retrieval databases. These searches throw number
of bibliographical references to be consulted for obtaining all background information
and knowledge of the field of research. Many of these references may be of direct
relevance to the research study and are to be read thoroughly. There are also references,
which may not be directly relevant to the topic of research but may be useful as additional
sources of information. These references, therefore, constitute two categories namely
those that are directly concerned with the topic of research and those that are of peripheral
value. It is out of these information sources notes are prepared.
These references ought to be very carefully and systematically recorded with one hundred
percent accuracy for the simple reason that they are constantly referred to during the
course of the research study and even later stages. They ought to be legibly written
without any overwriting or just scribbled. The general tendency of most research students
is take this work in a casual manner, which may create serious problems at later stages
of the work when such documents need to be consulted.
The references should be recorded in standard form prescribed for bibliographic citations
for books, journal articles, technical and research reports, conference papers and
proceedings, and others.
There are style manuals that prescribe standard practice of citations and the format for
recording bibliographic references.
The libraries and other institutions from which the reference source has been obtained
have also to be recorded with accuracy. The Call Number of the book, or the Journal
title from which the reference has been selected and such other details for other kind of
documents ought to be recorded accurately. No effort should ever be spared in doing
this work.
A suggested format for bibliographical reference is given below:
• Title of the document with the author and whatever other details necessary. Edition
statement, if any. Year of publication. Publisher and Place, collation, if necessary.
• Subject heading of the document.
• Name of the Library form where the reference was sought and address, if need
be; Call No. of the document.
• Relevant chapter or section to which the document is related.
• Specific indication of its reference value to the researchers work.
This information is to be stored in a 4” X 6” card and filed alphabetically by title or
subject, depending upon the researcher’s need or choice with an index for other
approaches.
Subject Notes
These are notes of ideas or thoughts that occur to a researcher at different stages of
research work. These should be recorded as topical outlines or descriptive subject
296
description and filed according to standard subject headings with reference to the Presentation of
chapter(s) of the research report. Results
Such thoughts or ideas may arise while travelling, in the toilet, during listening to lectures,
at seminar or conference discussions and at such other odd times. These are the most
valuable information in the research process that would provide considerable substance
to the research work. Such thoughts or ideas keep coming to the minds of active
researchers who are so deeply involved in the work and are constantly or intensively
thinking of their research work. The important point to be noted here is that they should
be recorded immediately lest easily forgotten. Scribbling slips should always be kept
at hand in readiness for recording such thoughts which ought not to be ignored as they
occur at odd times.
These thoughts may arise at any stage of the research process i.e. while reviewing
literature, formulating assumptions and/or hypothesis, selecting research methods,
methods of data collection, their assembly in systematic order, analysis, presentation
with graphic representation, interpretation, making inferences, conclusions, generalisation
and possible applications of results.
Not only are these notes recorded in a systematic format, but they also are to be filed
in a manner, easy for consultation. The way in which these notes are recorded or
organised may vary from individual to individual, yet a few suggestions are given below
for general guidance, especially for students and junior researchers.
These ideas and thoughts may be classified into two or three sets.
1) Ideas pertaining to a particular aspect i.e. data to provide evidences to testing
hypothesis, or methods of data analysis, interrelations between different types of
data and so on.
2) Critical comments on any aspect while reading relevant literature to be considered
at the stage of discussions or to be rejected.
3) Points that have emerged while discussing these ideas with seniors, peers and
colleagues or even students.
Suggested format: Subject Heading
Chapter reference
Topical statement(s); Descriptive subject heading
Comments
Document Reference, if any
Date/Time of occurrence of ideas
Names of persons consulted
Any other important reference
The data can be stored in 4” X 6” cards and filed subject wise.
Bibliographical References: Documents that are directly used. Documents that provide
additional references.
Information that should be recorded is full bibliographical details. Name of the library/
other institution(s) at which the document was available for consultation with location
details, i.e. call no. of the document and other details to identify the document when
needed.
Subject heading of the document. Chapter heading(s) of the research report.
These references should be filed alphabetically or subject wise. 297
Research Process Quotations, Paraphrases, Summaries, Evaluative notes are to be recorded systematically
and filed with reference to chapters, under subject headings.
Quotations from the writing of outstanding authors/writers, scholars always give
weightage to any serious work of any scholarly nature.
These may general ones or pertaining to the field of the researcher. The quotation should
be used in an appropriate place.
Paraphrases/Summaries are usually condensed notes from long passages in a document
which are written in the language of the researcher for use at an appropriate place in the
report.
Evaluative comments pertain to notes that are critically examined with reference to the
research aspects which may or may not be used in the final report. Yet, they may be
useful to show that every aspect of the research work had been studied.
Some aspects of drafting ideas in an attractive style both in terms of contents and
language may also occur to a researcher during the course of research work. It may
be a few sentences or a paragraph or even longer passages of writing. Such drafts may
form part of this file.
All these notes are recorded in 4” X 8” cards. The notes may be in three distinct files
or in a single file with indexes for easy access. They may be profitably arranged subject
wise with indexes to have approaches from any other approach as decided by the
researcher.
These cards should be kept in a box for easy transportation if necessary to be carried.
They should be updated at regularly intervals.
Self Check Exercise
5) What are the three kinds of notes taken for research work? State the format of
notes for subject files.
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Foot Notes
Foot notes are citations, comments, explanations, illustrations , etc. that are placed at
the end of a page of a research report, with an indication mark in the appropriate place
in the body of the report. The information collected in the notes files are used for this
purpose.
It is also a practice to collect them at the end of a chapter or at the end of the report
along with References and Bibliography. It all depends where the author would like
have them.
298
Presentation of
18.7 DRAFTING OF RESEARCH REPORTS Results
Drafting a research report is the communicatory stage in research. The preliminary

work, as we have emphasised already, are careful outlining and notes-taking which
provide the necessary outfits for drafting the final report.
Communication skills, both oral and written are indispensable for library and information
professionals. Other professional skills being equal, those that have communication
skills get invariably greater preference in job markets. While both writing and oral
communications are equally important, we are concerned in this Unit, with writing skills.
Any type of writing is a skill acquired through cultivation. It takes fairly a long time to be
a consummate writer. Picking up skills in writing requires a great lot of reading. In fact
writing and reading go hand in glove. Writing abilities stabilise only through repeated
attempts at writing in the form of general articles and professional papers. Good writing
stems from extensive reading of the works of outstanding authors. Extensive reading
over a range of topics for breadth of background and intensive reading on selected
themes for analytical, evaluative purposes are desirable for research students. (Good
and Scates, 1954). Reading should be much wider than reading professional literature.
While research reports are not classed as creative writing, yet they are results of creative
work and therefore should also reflect the effects of creative writing.
In writing one should always be very clear as to whom the writing is meant for. In other
words who are the potential readers of the writer. Research reports are for those who
are peers in the field, research colleagues, students and those that are likely to use the
report findings for their possible applications and such others. This important factor
should always be kept in mind while drafting a research report.
Self Check Exercise
6) What constitutes good writing? How is it cultivated?
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18.7.1 Language and Grammar
The hall mark of good writing is its lucidity and ease of understanding of the contents.
Keeping this as a fundamental principle, the language employed has to conform to all
other attributes of writing like style, diction, semantics and syntactic and rules of grammar.
Style is a natural ability to write in a captivating manner. This requires perfect
understanding of the subject written about, a flair for writing, command of the language
and a clear vision of those who are likely to read the output. This skill can also be
acquired by reading excellent research reports/technical written eminent research scholars
some of whom have great writing capabilities.
299
Research Process Diction refers to the choice of words, their arrangement and the force, accuracy and
distinctions with which they are used. Need less to say that choice of words and
phrases are to be in a form that helps a reader to get a clear idea of the contents of any
writing. Apt words and phrases greatly enhance readability. This skill will have to be
cultivated through extensive reading and constant writing.
Semantics deals with different meanings of words. English language is full of synonyms
and the choice of a word should be selected from among the shades of differences in
the meaning of a word which perfectly represents the correct sense, the writer wishes
to convey. There are excellent dictionaries which not only provide the meanings of a
word but also the meanings of all its synonyms and their usage. In many examples are
also given. Roget’s thesaurus of synonyms and antonyms of words in dictionary form
is a valuable tool that could be very effectively used for good writing. This natural
language thesaurus gives for every word its synonyms as nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs.
Syntactics deals with the pattern of structure of the word order in a sentence or phrase
to convey ideas effectively. While diction pertains choice of appropriate words and
phrases, the syntax fixes the chosen words and phrases in a meaningful order in a
sentence. This skill again comes through reading and writing.
Grammar provides the basic principles for writing good prose in the form of a set of
rules. Although grammar is learnt even at the school stage, correct writing has to be
cultivated. Some elementary rules such as sentences must use correct form of verbs
tenses. They should agree in number with the subjects of sentences. Pronouns should
agree with their antecedents. Prepositions should be used very carefully to connect
words. The rules of grammar for sentence formation for simple, compound and complex
must be carefully adopted. Although these are very simple rules, quite often not much
attention is paid to these aspects, particularly at the student level which invariably hampers
readability.
Self Check Exercise
7) What aspects of language would ensure quality writing? Explain Syntactics.
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Organisation of the Report
Keeping in view all these aspects of language and grammar and the framework for the
preparation of research reports, two types of drafting outlines viz. sentence outline or
topical outline may help in the presentation of the theme(s) of the research report,
pertaining to any section i.e. from Introduction to Interpretation, Discussion and
300 Summary. The sentence outline consists of statements that can be expanded in each
section of the report. The topical outline, on the other hand, is a list of topics and sub- Presentation of
topics that are covered in the report. Results
Illustrative examples of the two types of outlines for drafting are given below. The
examples pertain to using information technology for various library operations and
information support services to optimise the use of collections in a library and at providing
the best possible information support systems and services, attending maximally to
users’ information needs with speed and efficiency.
A drafting sentence outline for a library automation project with building up systems
and services for optimum use of the collections is as follows:
Drafting sentence outline for a Library Automation Research Project
The hypothesis of this research project may be ‘Optimal facilities and best users’
systems and services can be provided in a modern library, only with the use of information
technology with collection development oriented towards the needs of users. The
modern library should renovate at periodical intervals to keep the system and services
alive and dynamic to changes.’
Sentence Outlines According to the Fifth Law of Library Science of Ranganathan, “A
Library is a Growing Organism.” This implies that a library is ever changing due to
various environmental developments and advances in technology. Currently libraries
are switching to automating their operations with the applications of special software
systems, making use netting soft wares and also availing Web and internet services.
I) So a self-renovating library has to respond to changes in all dimensions. If not,
the problems likely to arise are:
• Hampered growth in size, the quality of service getting poorer and poorer;
• Undue delay in every service, increasing waiting time for getting any required
material;
• Shelf failures becoming numerous, failing to locate even oft used items;
• The library catalogue too often fails to respond to requests;
• Circulation counter getting slower in operation and services;
• Few meetings of reference staff and library leaders;
• Mechanical operations with no human element in each and every service.
II) If this condition is allowed to continue, it results in huge fall in standards and the
entire facility becoming obsolete;
• Collection grow without adequate shelving facilities, resulting hampering easy
movement of collections;
• Browsing becomes almost impossible, in open access systems;
• Stacking areas encroach on reading areas;
• Less facilities for user service, readers getting very little space;
• Financial allocations get imbalanced, attention given to provision for space
for stacks, budgets for collection getting reduced;
301
Research Process III) The only alternative is to choose alternatives that will arrest the unmanageable and
undesirable growth and yet maintain high quality of service.
• Automate library operations with a soft ware that provide a highly user
oriented services’
• The collection development should totally concentrate on active areas of
knowledge and should be highly oriented towards to user needs;
• Acquire alternate forms of materials to print materials;
• Use more and more networking facilities for providing items;
• Adopt a vigorous policy for weeding and wherever possible digitizing
technology;
• Use extensively internet facilities for accessing data bases and providing
user services;
• Employ professional staff with considerable knowledge in subjects handled
by the library with high skills in computer operations, systems and services.
These outlines should be used at the appropriate sections to expand the ideas they
carry, justifying the changeover to renovating the library.
Topical Outlines
• A library is a growing Organism;
• Goal to provide high quality service;
• Problems of disjointed growth;
• Collections, Shelf Space, Readers facilities, staff and others.
• Fall in standards; Disproportionate allocations of funds;
• Services and staff;
• Alternatives:
• Library automation
• Collection development –user oriented.
• Services development using network systems;
• Alternative forms to print material;
• Highly professional and computer skilled personnel;
• Use of Internet and Web services.
The sentences outline generally is rather difficult to formulate, unless there is a clear
vision of the renovated library. But once they are formed, it helps drafting the sections
with greater ease and connecting coordinating and coordinating the ideas logically and
convincingly.
The topical outline is easy to draft but requires considerable skill in expanding them. It
also requires a high degree of organising skill in fleshing ideas with an excellent vision of
a renovated library.
302
Self Check Exercise Presentation of
Results
8) What are the aids that help drafting a research draft?
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18.8 PHYSICAL PRODUCTION

Two aspects need careful attention in the production of the final Copy of the Research
Report viz. 1) Preparation of the manuscript and 2) the physical production including
printing.
18.8.1 Preparation of Manuscripts
Manuscript here refers to the researcher’s final draft of the research report which goes
to the typesetter for the final production of the research report. For theses and
dissertations which are lengthy, the preparing the final draft should be given careful
attention so that the typesetting work does not get into any unnecessary and avoidable
problem. If the draft is prepared using Micro Soft Word processor, it can provide a
clean and accurate copy of the final draft for typesetting using a Desk Top Publishing
Software. In fact, if the researcher has training and experience in using MS Word, it
would considerably save time and an assurance of accuracy of the draft. It is highly
desirable for a library and information professional to cultivate and acquire expert skills
in word processing.
The composition and page layout and related organization of the manuscript for the
physical production of the Research Report is a specialist job who may not have any
idea of the contents of the Research Report. Hence the researcher has to give clear
instructions to the typesetter for every detail e.g. Founts and sizes of letters, headings
and sub-headings, footnotes, their format and founts, size, words in bold, or in italics or
underlined, graphics to be placed at the right places, tables and figures at the appropriate
places and similar other instructions. A Style Manual would give the right format for
bibliographical citations for every type document, footnotes, graphics and illustrations,
tables and figures and to many other details in the preparation of the final copy. Spell
Check facilities available in Software should be utilized to correct any error which had
come inadvertently or by oversight.
Self Check Exercise
9) State the two steps of physical production.
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Research Process 18.8.2 Final Phase of Physical Production
Once the final copy of the manuscript is ready, the physical production of the manuscript
is taken up. This involves four operations viz.
• Composing the matter
• Page layout of the composed matter
• Production of the final document
• Binding and final finish
• Publishing aspects, if the report is published.
Composing
Advances in information and communication technology are changing the entire process
of writing and publishing scenario. The emergence of personal computers with a number
of features of DTP facilities, have virtually enabled an author to become a publisher too.
The results of these facilities brought about amazing speed in the processes of composing,
layout of pages, printing and binding. All these have also ensured excellence in quality of
the final product.
The standard features of most word processing software packages with reference to
text formatting and text editing. The former provides for setting left, right, top and
bottom margins, line spacing, justification, page size, page numbering, centered and
shoulder headings, etc. The latter facilitate deletion of words, blocks of texts or move
sentences or blocks to any other place desired or move to another file, types of founts
and their sizes, facilities for insertion of tables and figures, graphics, appending text from
a floppy file, insertion of new text, global search and replacement of occurrence of one
word with another and easy movement backwards and forwards, and the like. Latest
versions of MS Word and other similar software packages handle graphic images, spell
checks, thesaurus, indexing, calculations, etc. Top range softwares such as Word
Perfect offer features close to Desktop publishing in addition to all the features mentioned
here.
Page Layout of Composed Matter
Desktop Publishing (DTP) software is user friendly package that enables documents to
be produced with a quality approaching that of documents produced by professional
printing. An important feature of DTP is that it includes text formatting, page layout,
features of word processing, spread sheets (Excel) for tables and some graphics, insertion
of graphics and illustrations in the body of text and such others.
Production of the final document
The physical production of the final Research report depends on a clean and errorless
manuscript and detailed instructions to the typesetter on every aspect of the production.
Print-outs obtained by computer printers, depends very much on their quality. Laser
printers are the best choice. Expensive models of laser printers provide for storage for
a range of founts and type sizes for Roman scripts and English and other scripts of
languages.
Scanners can be very useful to capture data from printed pages, images of various
kinds. These have to be inserted in appropriate pages along with the text and well laid
out.
If the document has to be printed and a great number of copies are to be produced,
modern printing technology offers several alternatives.
304
Binding and final finish of the physical production should also be given considerable Presentation of
attention for their aesthetic value which always creates a feeling of pleasure in using a Results
well brought out document.
If the report is to be published, the researcher does well to discuss the publisher and
act according to the suggestions given by the publisher with reference to the manner of
publication and marketing.
Self Check Exercise
10) What are the four operations involved in the final production of a research report?
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18.9 SUMMARY
This section deals with last major step in the conduct of a research project. Effective
reports of completed research should communicate the procedures and results of
research studies both to peers, scholars and professionals and students. This requires
a clear understanding of the different types reports, their importance and significance.
Research projects that need financial support, a research proposal has to be prepared
which is outlined. The research Outline is discussed in detail and a model outline is
suggested for the different types of research reports. The Note taking is an important
aspect of research studies. This is explained in detail and the different categories notes
file are given as a guide, particular for students and junior research fellows.The
preparation of the manuscript and the production aspects are explained.

1) Research reports are detailed and accurate accounts of the conduct of disciplined
studies accomplished to solve problems or to reveal new knowledge.
Research reports include 1) Research degrees: M.Phil. P.hd. ,etc. 2) Research
reports of projects funded/sponsored by research institutions and industries 3)
Research reports which are in the nature of technical reports and 4) Research
papers published by research journals.
2) The usefulness and significance of research reports are:
The pool of knowledge gets burgeoned with new inputs of value to the already
existing knowledge. Numerous primary publications are a source of information
and knowledge for the research community.
The secondary sources provide access to these primary documents and also make
305
them available for consultation.
Research Process Citation indexes providing scope for citation studies gives a new method of
evaluating research work of excellence.
Persons of eminence sprout in such conditions and provide leadership to
research efforts in different disciplines, heading specialized research complexes.
3) A research proposal is a formal document with a letter of transmittal sent to a
research funding agency, applying for financial and other aids for a research
program.
Its components are: Letter of Transmittal, Title page, Executive Summary, Table
of contents, Statement of Request, Introduction, Preliminary section, The body
and methodology, Facilities, Personnel, Duration, Cost and Funding, Summary.
4) An plan outline of a research report is essentially a skeletal framework upon which
a report is constructed from systematically collected and organized materials. A
complete outline assists the writer in recognizing logical relationships between
narrative elements of reports. Outlines are also useful for the construction of
cohesive paragraphs and sections that are effectively connected.
The components include: Preliminaries, Introduction, Description of study,
Collection of data and analysis, Results, Discussion, Summary, Glossary,
References, Appendix, Index.
5) Bibliographical references, both directly related to the topic of research and
additional references; Subject notes that get formulated as the research work
Progresses; Quotations, Paraphrases, Summaries, Abstracts,
Evaluative notes or remarks and such others.
The subject notes file may have the following format:
Subject Heading
Chapter reference
Topical statement(s); Descriptive subject heading
Comments
Document Reference, if any
Date/Time of occurrence of ideas
Names of persons consulted
Any other important reference
6) Good writing is a communication process, keeping the target audience in mind. It
should be lucid, simple, logical and organized to help understanding the contents
by those for whom it is written. Good writing stems from extensive reading of the
works of outstanding authors. Extensive reading over a range of topics for breadth
of background and intensive reading on selected themes for analytical, evaluative
purposes are desirable for research students. Reading should be much wider than
reading professional literature. While research reports are not classed as creative
writing, yet they are results of creative work and therefore should also reflect the
effects of creative writing.
7) The aspects that contribute to good writing are Style, Diction, Semantics, Syntactics,
306 Rules of Grammar. Syntactics deals with the pattern of structure of the word order
in a sentence or phrase to convey ideas effectively. While diction pertains choice Presentation of
of appropriate words and phrases, the syntax fixes the chosen words and phrases Results
in a meaningful order in a sentence. This skill again comes through reading and
writing.
8) The aids that help drafting are the two types of drafting outlines viz. sentence
outline or topical outline may help in the presentation of the theme(s) of the research
report, pertaining to any section i.e. from Introduction to Interpretation, Discussion
and Summary. The sentence outline consists of statements that can be expanded
in each section of the report. The topical outline, on the other hand, is a list of
topics and sub-topics that are covered in the report.
9) The two steps involved in the final production of a research report are:
1) Preparation of the Manuscript, and 2) the physical production including printing.
10) This involves four operations involved in the final stage of production of a research
report are:
• Composing the matter
• Page layout of the composed matter
• Production of the final document
• Binding and Final finish
18.11 KEYWORDS
Creative Writing : Original writing with a flair for writing, induced by intuition
and ability to imagine events dramatically.
Desktop Publishing : Publication using computer software packages to manage or
create data to be printed, as well as that used to make up
the pages of a final document. Word processors, spreadsheets
and database packages are, therefore, an essential part of
DTP. As most routine publications can be produced literally
on the top of a desk using a computer, it is known as desktop
publishing.
Peers : Persons who are equal or above to another in position,
abilities, qualification and experience.
Target Readers : Readers for whom a particular writing is meant.

Best, John W. and Kahm. James V. (1999). Research in Education. Ed.2. New
Delhi : Prentice Hall of India.
Busha, Charles H. and Harter, Stephen H. (1988). Research Methods in
Librarianship: Techniques and Interpretations. New York : Academic Press.
Busha, Charles H. (1976). Research Report. In: Allen Kent [et.al.]. (eds.).
Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Vol. 25. New York: Marcell
Dekker. Pp. 285-86.
De Vaus, David (2001). Research Design in Social Research. New Delhi: Sage.
Ghosh B N (1984). Scientific Method and Social Research. Ed.2. Delhi: Sterling.
Good, Carter V and Scates, Doughlas E. (1954). Methods of Research: Educational,
307
Research Process Psychological, Sociological. New York: Appelton-Century-Crofts, Inc.
Goode, William J and Hart, Paul K.(1981). Methods of Social Research. London:
McGraw Hill.
IGNOU Course Material (1994). MLIS-E4. Technical Writing. Block 1.Units 1
and 2.
Kerlington, Fred. (Ed.) (1964). Foundations of Behavioural Research, Educational
and Psychological Inquiry. New York: Rinehart and Winston.
Hawkins, Clifford and Sorgi, Marco (1985). Beralin :Springer-Verlag. How to Plan,
Speak and Write about it.
Ed.2. New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications.
Deep and Deep Publications.
Trochim, William M (2003). Research Methods. Ed. 2. New Delhi: Biztantra.
Young, P V (1984). Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall of India Ltd.
308

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UNIT 1 RESEARCH: MEANING, CONCEPT,

1.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

R = Rational way of thinking

Self Check Exercise

1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF RESEARCH

Theory — Hypothesies - Variables - Data Collection -

- Organisation - Analysis - Interpretation

- Conclusions - New Findings - Generalisation - Test

Fig. 1.1: A Schematic Diagram of a Research Process Model

Reliability is used to characterise stable, consistent, and dependable research methods,

Intuition is an important element in research. A person who is involved in a research

1.5 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN

Research is a highly intellectual activity: It is usually long drawn, painfully slow,

Modern Research and Development is multi-disciplinary: It is becoming more

Modern research is highly professional: Research professionals with expertise

University Research: Expansion of knowledge horizon is one of the basic functions

Dissemination and publication activity: Research results are always reported

Citation Analysis: This method of publication of research papers with citations of

Funding: Another characteristic of modern research is financial support. Apart from

1.6 CRITERIA FOR A TOPIC TO BE RELEVANT

Research projects of industries or governments wherein information is a component for

Self Check Exercise

1.7 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1.7.1 Ranganathan’s Spiral of Scientific Method

Fig. 1.2: Spiral of Scientific Method

1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN

• The significance of this investigation is that it would give guidelines in building a

1.9 VALUE OF STUDYING RESEARCH

1.11 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

2.3 Scope of Application

2.3 SCOPE OF APPLICATION

Impact of technology on library services in UK during the last fifty years

2.5 IMPORTANCE IN LIS

2.6 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH

For evaluation, one may use the following criteria:

2.8 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

2.11 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

2.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

3.1.1 Library Survey

3.2 Data Collection

3.3 How to Conduct a Survey

3.5 Instruments of Survey Research

3.6 Some Exercises for Survey Research

3.8 Answers to Self Check Exercises

3.10 References and Further Reading

3.2 DATA COLLECTION

3.3 HOW TO CONDUCT A SURVEY

3.5 INSTRUMENTS OF SURVEY RESEARCH

3.6 SOME EXERCISES FOR SURVEY RESEARCH

3.8 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

4.7 Design of the Experiment

4.8 Another Example

• Identify situations where it is applicable in social sciences with special focus as

4.4 RESEARCH PROCEDURE

Constants Unknowns Variables

Independent Moulding Dependent

Fig. 4.1: Factors affecting Research