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Solids, Liquids & Gases

Solids
 Solids have a fixed volume and shape and they have a high density.
 The atoms vibrate in position but can’t change location
 The particles are packed very closely together in a fixed and regular pattern
Liquids
 Liquids also have a fixed volume but adopt the shape of the container
 They are generally less dense than solids (an exception is water), but much denser
than gases
 The particles move and slide past each other which is why liquids adopt the shape of
the container and also why they are able to flow freely
Gases
 Gases do not have a fixed volume, and, like liquids, take up the shape of the
container
 Gases have a very low density
 Since there is a lot of space between the particles, gases can be compressed into a
much smaller volume
 The particles are far apart and move randomly and quickly (around 500 m/s) in all
directions
 They collide with each other and with the sides of the container (this is
how pressure is created inside a can of gas)

State Changes
Melting
 Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid
 Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to
move
 Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (m.p.)
Boiling
 Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas
 Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid,
allowing for liquid particles to escape from the surface and within the liquid
 Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.)
Freezing
 Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid
 This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting,
hence the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same. Water,
for example, freezes and melts at 0 ºC
 Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs
at a specific temperature
Evaporation
 Evaporation occurs when a liquid changes into a gas and occurs over a range of
temperatures
 Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can
escape from the liquid's surface at low temperatures, below the b.p. of the liquid
 The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid surface, the more quickly a
liquid can evaporate
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Condensation
 Condensation occurs when a gas changes into a liquid on cooling and it takes place
over a range of temperatures
 When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other
they lack the energy to bounce away again, instead they group together to form a
liquid
Sublimation
 Sublimation occurs when a solid changes directly into a gas
 This only happens to a few solids, such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide
 The reverse reaction also happens and is called desublimation or deposition

State Changes & Kinetic Theory

 When substances are heated, the particles absorb thermal energy which is converted
into kinetic energy. This is the basis of the kinetic theory of matter
 Heating a solid causes its particles to vibrate more and as the temperature increases,
they vibrate so much that the solid expands until the structure breaks and the solid
melts
 On further heating, the now liquid substance expands more and some particles at
the surface gain sufficient energy to overcome the intermolecular forces
and evaporate
 When the b.p. temperature is reached, all the particles gain enough energy to escape
and the liquids boils
 These changes in state can be shown on a graph called a heating curve
 Cooling down a gas has the reverse effect and this would be called a cooling curve
 These curves are used to show how changes in temperature affect changes of state
 The horizontal sections occur when there is a change of state but there is no change
in temperature

Diffusion
 This is the process by which different gases or different liquids mix and is due to the
random motion of their particles
 Diffusing particles move from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration
 Eventually the concentration of particles is even as they spread out to occupy all of
the available space
 Diffusion happens on its own and no energy input is required although it occurs
faster at higher temperatures

Diffusion & Molecular Mass

 Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous particles move much
quicker than liquid particles
 At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at the same rate.
 This is due to the difference in their relative molecular masses
 Lighter gas particles can travel faster and hence further, therefore the lower its
relative mass the faster a gas will diffuse
 This can be demonstrated in the reaction between ammonia, NH3, and hydrogen
chloride gas, HCl, inside a long glass tube
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 Where the two gases meet a white smoke of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, is formed
 This does not occur in the middle of the tube as you might expect, but much closer
to the end with the hydrogen chloride (Mr = 36.5) and the ammonia (Mr = 17)
molecules are smaller and lighter

Elements, compounds and mixtures

 All substances can be classified into one of these three types
Element
 A substance made of atoms that all contain the same number of protons and cannot
be split into anything simpler
 There are 118 elements found in the Periodic Table
Compound
 A pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined
 There is an unlimited number of compounds
 Compounds cannot be separated into their elements by physical means
 E.g. copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), carbon dioxide (CO2)
Mixture
 A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that
are not chemically combined
 Mixtures can be separated by physical methods such as filtration or evaporation

Atomic Structure
 All substances are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms which are the
building blocks of all matter
 Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons
 The protons and neutrons are located at the centre of the atom, which is called
the nucleus
 The electrons move very fast around the nucleus in orbital paths called shells
 The mass of the electron is negligible, hence the mass of an atom is contained within
the nucleus where the protons and neutrons are located

Protons, Neutrons & Electrons

 The size of atoms is so tiny that we can't really compare their masses in conventional
units such as kilograms or grams, so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used
 One relative atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
 All other elements are measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom, so
relative atomic mass has no units
 Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of
hydrogen would have exactly the same mass as 1 atom of carbon
 The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom
 The symbol for atomic number is Z
 It is also the number of electrons present in a neutral atom and determines
the position of the element on the Periodic Table
 The Nucleon number (or mass number) is the total number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom
 The symbol for nucleon number is A
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 The nucleon number minus the proton number gives you the number of neutrons of
an atom
 Note that protons and neutrons can collectively be called nucleons.
 The atomic number and mass number of an element can be shown using atomic
notation
 The Periodic Table shows the elements together with their atomic (proton) number
at the top and relative atomic mass at the bottom - there is a difference between
relative atomic mass and mass number, but for your exam, you can use the relative
atomic mass as the mass number (with the exception of chlorine)
Deducing protons, neutrons & electrons
Finding the protons
 The atomic number of an atom and ion determines which element it is
 Therefore, all atoms and ions of the same element have the same number of protons
(atomic number) in the nucleus
o E.g. lithium has an atomic number of 3 (three protons) whereas beryllium has
atomic number of 4 (four protons)
 The number of protons equals the atomic (proton) number
 The number of protons of an unknown element can be calculated by using its mass
number and number of neutrons:
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of protons = mass number – number of neutrons
Finding the electrons
 An atom is neutral and therefore has the same number of protons and electrons
Finding the neutrons
 The mass and atomic numbers can be used to find the number
of neutrons in ions and atoms:
Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons

Electronic configuration
 We can represent the structure of the atom in two ways: using diagrams
called electron shell diagrams or by writing out a special notation called
the electronic configuration (or electronic structure or electron distribution)
Electron shell diagrams
 Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells (or energy levels) and each shell has a different
amount of energy associated with it
 The further away from the nucleus, the more energy a shell has
 Electrons fill the shell closest to the nucleus
 When a shell becomes full of electrons, additional electrons have to be added to the
next shell
 The first shell can hold 2 electrons
 The second shell can hold 8 electrons
 For this course, a simplified model is used that suggests that the third shell can hold
8 electrons
o For the first 20 elements, once the third shell has 8 electrons, the fourth shell
begins to fill
 The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and an atom is much more
stable if it can manage to completely fill this shell with electrons
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 The arrangement of electrons in shells can also be explained using numbers

 Instead of drawing electron shell diagrams, the number of electrons in each electron
shell can be written down, separated by commas
 This notation is called the electronic configuration (or electronic structure)
o E.g. Carbon has 6 electrons, 2 in the 1st shell and 4 in the 2nd shell
 Its electronic configuration is 2,4
 Electronic configurations can also be written for ions
o E.g. A sodium atom has 11 electrons, a sodium ion has lost one electron,
therefore has 10 electrons; 2 in the first shell and 8 in the 2nd shell
 Its electronic configuration is 2,8
 although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the filling of the shells follows a
more complicated pattern after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the
third shell holds 8 and the remaining electrons (for reasons of stability) occupy the
fourth shell first before filling the third shell.

Electron Shells & The Periodic Table

 There is a clear relationship between the electronic configuration and how the
Periodic Table is designed
 The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of
occupied shells of electrons the atom has, showing the period in which that element
is in
 The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing
the group that element is in (for elements in Groups I to VII)
 Elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons
 In most atoms, the outermost shell is not full and therefore these atoms react with
other atoms in order to achieve a full outer shell of electrons (which would make them
more stable)
 In some cases, atoms lose electrons to entirely empty this shell so that the next shell
below becomes a (full) outer shell
 All elements wish to fill their outer shells with electrons as this is a much more stable
configuration
The noble gases
 The atoms of the Group VIII elements (the noble gases) all have a full outer shell of
electrons
 All of the noble gases are unreactive as they have full outer shells and are thus very
stable

Defining Isotopes
 Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that contain the same number
of protons but a different number of neutrons
 The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and
then the mass number
 So C-14 ( or carbon-14) is the isotope of carbon which contains 6 protons, 6 electrons
and 14 - 6 = 8 neutrons
o It can also be written as 14C or 146 C (6 should be below 14)

Why Isotopes Share Properties

 Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics
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 This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells and,
therefore, the same electronic configuration and this is what determines an atom's
chemistry
 The difference between isotopes is the number of neutrons which are neutral particles
within the nucleus and add mass only
 The difference in mass affects the physical properties, such as density, boiling point
and melting point
 Isotopes are identical in appearance, so a sample of C-14 would look no different
from C-12
 Water made from deuterium oxide is known as 'heavy' water, and has a relative
formula of mass 20, compared to 18 for water, so it is 20% heavier, but it would look,
taste and feel just like normal water

Calculating Relative Atomic Mass

Relative Atomic Mass
 The symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar
 The relative atomic mass for each element can be found in the Periodic Table along
with the atomic number
 The atomic number is shown above the atomic symbol and the relative atomic mass is
shown below the atomic symbol
 Atoms are too small to accurately weigh but scientists needed a way to compare the
masses of atoms
 The carbon-12 is used as the standard atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units
 It is against this atom which the masses of all other atoms are compared
 Relative atomic mass (Ar) can therefore be defined as:
o the average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass
of an atom of 12C
 The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12
o The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24 which means that magnesium is
twice as heavy as carbon
o The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 which means it has one-twelfth the
mass of one carbon-12 atom
 The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated from the mass
number and relative abundances of all the isotopes of a particular element using the
following equation:

The top line of the equation can be extended to include the number of different isotopes of a
particular element present.

Is mass number and relative atomic mass the same thing?

 On the Periodic Table provided in your exam you will see that lithium has a relative
atomic mass of 7
 Although it seems that this is the same as the mass number, they are not the same
thing because the relative atomic mass is a rounded number
 Relative atomic mass takes into account the existence of isotopes when calculating the
mass
 Relative atomic mass is an average mass of all the isotopes of that element
 For simplicity relative atomic masses are often shown to the nearest whole number
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The Formation of Ions

 An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by
the loss or gain of electrons
 An atom will lose or gain electrons to become more stable
 The loss or gain of electrons takes place to gain a full outer shell of electrons which is
a more stable arrangement of electrons
 The electronic configuration of an ion will be the same as that of a noble gas – such as
helium, neon and argon
Ionisation of metals and non-metals
 Metals: all metals can lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged ions,
known as cations
 Non-metals: all non-metals can gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively
charged ions, known as anions
The Formation of Ionic Bonds
 Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms react with non-metal atoms
 Metal atoms lose their outer electrons which the non-metal atoms gain to form
positive and negative ions
 The positive and negative ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between opposite charges
 This force of attraction is known as an ionic bond and they hold ionic compounds
together
Dot-and-cross diagrams
 Dot and cross diagrams are diagrams that show the arrangement of the outer-shell
electrons in an ionic or covalent compound or element
o The electrons are shown as dots and crosses
 In a dot and cross diagram:
o Only the outer electrons are shown
o The charge of the ion is spread evenly which is shown by using brackets
o The charge on each ion is written at the top right-hand corner
Ionic Bonds between Group I & Group VII Elements
Example: Sodium Chloride, NaCl
 Sodium is a Group I metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to gain a
full outer shell of electrons
 A positive sodium ion with the charge 1+ is formed
 Chlorine is a Group VII non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full outer
shell of electrons
 One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the outer
shell of the chlorine atom
 A chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negatively charged chloride ion with a
charge of 1-
 The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction
 The ionic compound has no overall charge
Formula of ionic compound: NaCl
Lattice structure
 Ionic compounds have a giant lattice structure
 Lattice structure refers to the arrangement of the atoms of a substance in 3D space
 In lattice structures, the atoms are arranged in an ordered and repeating fashion
 The lattices formed by ionic compounds consist of
a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions
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Ionic Bonds between Metallic & Non-Metallic Elements

Ionic compounds
 Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms and non-metal atoms react
 The ionic compound has no overall charge
Example: Magnesium Oxide, MgO
 Magnesium is a Group II metal so will lose two outer electrons to another atom to
have a full outer shell of electrons
 A positive ion with the charge 2+ is formed
 Oxygen is a Group VI non-metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a full
outer shell of electrons
 Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the magnesium atom to the
outer shell of the oxygen atom
 Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge 2-
 Magnesium oxide has no overall charge

Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature
 They have high melting and boiling points
 Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in the molten state or in solution
 They are poor conductors in the solid state
Explaining the Properties of Ionic Compounds
Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points due to the presence of strong
electrostatic forces acting between the oppositely charged ions
These forces act in all directions and a lot of energy is required to overcome them
The greater the charge on the ions, the stronger the electrostatic forces and the higher the
melting point will be
For example, magnesium oxide consists of Mg2+ and O2- so will have a higher melting
point than sodium chloride which contains the ions, Na+ and Cl-
For electrical current to flow there must be freely moving charged particles such as
electrons or ions present
Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in the molten state or in solution as
they have ions that can move and carry a charge
They are poor conductors in the solid state as the ions are in fixed positions within the
lattice and are unable to move
The Formation of Covalent Bonds
 Covalent compounds are formed when pairs of electrons are shared between atoms
 Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding
 As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons, giving them a
noble gas electronic configuration
 When two or more atoms are covalently bonded together, we describe them as
‘molecules’
 Dot-and-cross diagrams can be used to show the electric configurations in simple
molecules
 Electrons from one atom are represented by a dot, and the electrons of the other atom
are represented by a cross
 The electron shells of each atom in the molecule overlap and the shared electrons are
shown in the area of overlap
 The dot-and-cross diagram of the molecule shows clearly which atom each electron
originated from
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 When drawing dot-and-cross diagrams for covalent compounds, make sure that the
electron shell for each atom is full (remember that the 1st shell can only hold 2
electrons).
Single Covalent Bonds
 Many simple molecules exist in which two adjacent atoms share one pair of electrons,
also known as a single covalent bond (or single bond)
Covalent Bonds in Complex Covalent Molecules
 Some atoms need to share more than one pair of electrons to gain a full outer shell of
electrons
 If two adjacent atoms share two pairs of electrons, two covalent bonds are formed,
also known as a double bond
 If two adjacent atoms share three pairs of electrons, three covalent bonds are formed,
also known as a triple bond
Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds
 Small molecules are compounds made up of molecules that contain just a few
atoms covalently bonded together
 They have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are
usually liquids or gases at room temperature
 As the molecules increase in size, the melting and boiling points generally increase
 Small molecules have poor electrical conductivity
Explaining the Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds
 Small molecules have covalent bonds joining the atoms together, but intermolecular
forces that act between neighbouring molecules
 They have low melting and boiling points as there are only weak
intermolecular forces acting between the molecules
 These forces are very weak when compared to the covalent bonds and so most small
molecules are either gases or liquids at room temperature
 As the molecules increase in size the intermolecular forces also increase as there are
more electrons available
 This causes the melting and boiling points to increase
Electrical Conductivity
Molecular compounds are poor conductors of electricity as there are no free ions or electrons
to carry the charge.
 Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state and are
thus insulators
 Common insulators include the plastic coating around household electrical wiring,
rubber and wood

Structure of Graphite & Diamond

 Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon which have giant covalent structures
 Both substances contain only carbon atoms but due to the differences in bonding
arrangements they are physically completely different
 Giant covalent structures contain billions of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent
atoms by covalent bonds forming a giant lattice structure
Diamond
 In diamond, each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron
 All the covalent bonds are identical, very strong and there are no intermolecular
forces
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Graphite
 Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagons,
leaving one free electron per carbon atom which becomes delocalised
 The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong, but the layers are attracted to
each other by weak intermolecular forces
Uses of Graphite & Diamond
Properties of Diamond
 Diamond has the following physical properties:
o It does not conduct electricity
o It has a very high melting point
o It is extremely hard and dense
 All the outer shell electrons in carbon are held in the four covalent bonds around each
carbon atom, so there are no freely moving charged particles to carry the current thus
it cannot conduct electricity
 The four covalent bonds are very strong and extend in a giant lattice, so a very large
amount of heat energy is needed to break the lattice thus it has a very high melting
point
 Diamond ́s hardness makes it very useful for purposes where extremely tough
material is required
 Diamond is used in jewellery due to its sparkly appearance and as cutting tools as it is
such a hard material
 The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with diamonds
 Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond-tipped
Properties of Graphite
 Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagonal-shaped
forms, leaving one free electron per carbon atom
 These free (delocalised) electrons exist in between the layers and are free to move
through the structure and carry charge, hence graphite can conduct electricity
 The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the layers are connected to
each other by weak forces only, hence the layers can slide over each other making
graphite slippery and smooth
 Graphite thus:
o Conducts electricity
o Has a very high melting point
o Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond
 Graphite is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks
 It is also used to make non-reactive electrodes for electrolysis
Structure of Silicon(IV) Oxide
 Silicon(IV) oxide (also known as silicon dioxide or silica), SiO 2, is a macromolecular
compound which occurs naturally as sand and quartz
 Each oxygen atom forms covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms and each silicon atom in
turn forms covalent bonds with 4 oxygen atoms
 A tetrahedron is formed with one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms, similar to
diamond
Comparing Diamond & Silicon(IV) Oxide
 SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent bonds and no intermolecular forces so it has
similar properties to diamond
 It is very hard, has a very high boiling point, is insoluble in water and does not
conduct electricity
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 SiO2 is cheap since it is available naturally and is used to make sandpaper and to line
the inside of furnaces
Metallic Bonding
 Metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding in a giant metallic lattice
 Within the metallic lattice, the atoms lose the electrons from their outer shell and
become positively charged ions
 The outer electrons no longer belong to a particular metal atom and are said to
be delocalised
 They move freely between the positive metal ions like a 'sea of electrons'
 Metallic bonds are strong and are a result of the attraction between the positive metal
ions and the negatively charged delocalised electrons
Properties of Metals
 Metals have high melting and boiling points
o There are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures between the
positive metal ion and delocalised electrons
o A lot of heat energy is needed to break these bonds
 Metals conduct electricity
o There are free electrons available to move through the structure and carry
charge
o Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to
displace itself from the other end
o Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted
 Metals are malleable and ductile
o Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different
positions
o Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the outer electrons do not belong to any
particular metal atom so the delocalised electrons will move with them
o Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result metals are strong
but flexible
o They can be hammered and bent into different shapes or drawn into wires
without breaking

Stoichiometry
Element symbols
 Each element is represented by its own unique symbol as seen on the
Periodic Table
o E.g. H is hydrogen
 Where a symbol contains two letters, the first one is always
in capital letters and the other is small
o E.g. sodium is Na, not NA
 Atoms combine together in fixed ratios that will give them full outer
shells of electrons
 The chemical formula tells you the ratio of atoms
o E.g. H2O is a compound containing 2 hydrogen atoms which
combine with 1 oxygen atom
 The chemical formula can be deduced from the relative number of atoms
present
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o E.g. If a molecule contains 3 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of

nitrogen then the formula would be NH3
 Diagrams or models can also be used to represent the chemical
formula
Chemical formulae
 The structural formula tells you the way in which the atoms in a particular molecule
are bonded
o This can be done by either a diagram (displayed formula)
or written (simplified structural formula)
 The molecular formula tells you the actual number of atoms of each element in one
molecule of the compound or element
o E.g. H2 has 2 hydrogen atoms, HCl has 1 hydrogen atom and 1 chlorine atom
Deducing formulae by Combining power(valency)
 The concept of valency is used to deduce the formulae of compounds (either
molecular compounds or ionic compounds)
 Valency or combining power tells you how many bonds an atom can make with
another atom or how many electrons its atoms lose, gain or share, to form a
compound
o E.g. carbon is in Group IV so a single carbon atom can make 4 single bonds or
2 double bonds
Empirical Formulae
The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each atom in a
molecule
 E.g. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2
 The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each
element present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
o E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH 2O
 Organic molecules, such as ethanoic acid, often have different empirical and
molecular formulae
 The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula
Deducing Formulae of Ionic Compounds
 The formulae of these compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on the
ions
 The Periodic Table can help work out the charge on many elements:
o Group I elements form ions with a 1+ charge
o Group II elements form ions with a 2+ charge
o Group III elements form ions with a 3+ charge
o Group V elements form ions with a 3- charge
o Group VI elements form ions with a 2- charge
o Group VII elements form ions with a 1- charge
 Below are some other common ions and their charges
 Note that a Roman numeral next to the element tells you the charge on the ion, e.g.
copper(II) ions have a charge 2+
 There are several common compound ions included in the table
o Some chemists call these polyatomic ions
 The overall sum of the charges of an ionic compound should be 0
 You therefore need to work out the ratio of the ions to ensure this is the case
 When you write the formula of a compound ion it is necessary to use brackets around
the compound ion where more than one of that ion is needed in the formula
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o For example copper(II) hydroxide is Cu(OH) 2

Writing Word Equations & Symbol Equations
Word equations
 These show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full chemical
names
 The arrow (which is spoken as “goes to” or “produces”) implies the conversion of
reactants into products
 Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst can be written above the arrow
 An example of a word equation for neutralisation is:
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water
 The reactants are sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
 The products are sodium chloride and water
Names of compounds
 For compounds consisting of 2 atoms:
o If one is a metal and the other a non-metal, then the name of the metal atom
comes first and the ending of the second atom is replaced by adding -ide
 E.g. NaCl which contains sodium and chlorine thus becomes sodium
chloride
o If both atoms are non-metals and one of those is hydrogen, then hydrogen
comes first
 E.g. Hydrogen and chlorine combined is called hydrogen chloride
 For other combinations of non-metals as a general rule, the element that has a lower
group number comes first in the name
o E.g. carbon and oxygen combine to form CO2 which is carbon dioxide since
carbon is in Group 4 and oxygen in Group 6
 For compounds that contain certain groups of atoms:

o There are common groups of atoms which occur regularly in chemistry

 Examples include the carbonate ion (CO32-), sulfate ion (SO42-),
hydroxide ion (OH-) and the nitrate ion (NO3-)
o When these ions form a compound with a metal atom, the name of
the metal comes first
 E.g. KOH is potassium hydroxide, CaCO3 is calcium carbonate
Writing and balancing chemical equations
 Chemical equations use the chemical symbols of each reactant and product
 When balancing equations, there needs to be the same number of atoms of each
element on either side of the equation
 The following non-metals must be written as diatomic molecules (i.e. molecules that
contain two atoms): H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2
 Work across the equation from left to right, checking one element after another
 If there is a group of atoms, for example a nitrate group (NO3-) that has not changed
from one side to the other, then count the whole group as one entity rather than
counting the individual atoms.
o Examples of chemical equations:
 Acid-base neutralisation reaction:
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) ⟶ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
 Redox reaction:
2Fe2O3 (s) + 3C (s) ⟶ 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)
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 In each equation there are equal numbers of each atom on either side of
the reaction arrow so the equations are balanced
 The best approach is to practice lot of examples of balancing equations
 By trial and error change the coefficients (multipliers) in front of the formulae, one by
one checking the result on the other side
 Balance elements that appear on their own, last in the process
Deducing Symbol Equations
 For some reactions, you will not be given the unbalanced equation but you will be
expected to use your knowledge learnt throughout the course to know or deduce the
formula of compounds and then balance the equations.

Relative Atomic Mass

 The symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar

 The relative atomic mass for each element can be found in the Periodic Table along
with the atomic number
 The relative atomic mass is shown underneath the atomic symbol and is larger than
the atomic number (except for hydrogen where they are the same)
 Atoms are too small to accurately weigh but scientists needed a way to compare the
masses of atoms
 The carbon-12 is used as the standard atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units
 It is against this atom which the masses of all other atoms are compared
 Relative atomic mass (Ar) can therefore be defined as:
o The average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12 th of the mass
of an atom of 12C
 The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12
o The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24 which means that magnesium is
twice as heavy as carbon
o The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 which means it has one twelfth the
mass of one carbon-12 atom

Relative molecular (formula) mass

 The symbol for the relative molecular mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the
molecule
 To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of
all the atoms present in the formula
 Relative formula mass is used when referring to the total mass of
an ionic compoundReacting masses
 The Law of Conservation of mass tells us that mass cannot be created or destroyed
 In a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of the products
 We can use this, along with relative atomic/formula masses to perform calculations to
identify the quantities of reactants or products involved in a chemical reaction
 Example:
 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
 Relative atomic masses: Ca = 40; O = 16
 Using the balanced symbol equation shows that 2 x 40 = 80 units of mass of calcium
react with 2 x 16 = 32 units of mass of oxygen to form 2 x (40 + 16) = 112 units of
mass of CaO:
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 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
 80 + 32 = 112
 The ratio of the mass of calcium and oxygen reacting will always be the same,
regardless of the units
 E.g. 80 g of calcium will react with 32 g of oxygen to form 112 g of calcium oxide
 Or, 40 tonnes of calcium will react in excess oxygen to form 56 tonnes of calcium
oxide

The Periodic Table

 There are over 100 chemical elements which have been isolated and identified
o Each element has one proton more than the element preceding it
o This is done so that elements end up in columns with other elements which
have similar properties
o Elements are arranged on the periodic table in order of increasing atomic
number
o The table is arranged in vertical columns called groups and in rows
called periods

 Period: These are the horizontal rows that show the number of shells of electrons an
atom has and are numbered from 1 - 7
o E.g. elements in period 2 have two electron shells, elements in period 3 have
three electron shells

 Group: These are the vertical columns that show how many outer electrons (also
known as valency electrons) each atom has and are numbered from I – VII, with a
final group called Group 0 (instead of Group VIII)
o E.g. Group IV elements have atoms with 4 electrons in the outermost shell,
Group VI elements have atoms with 6 electrons in the outermost shell and so
on

 The group number can help determine the charge that metal and non-metal ions form
 For metals, the group number corresponds to the number of electrons it will lose to
achieve a full outer shell and the charge of the metal ion
o E.g. sodium is in Group I, it will lose 1 electron and form an ion with a 1+
charge
o Magnesium is in Group II, it will lose 2 electrons and form an ion with a 2+
charge

 For non-metals in Group VII and VI, they will gain 1 and 2 electrons respectively to
gain a full outer shell
o E.g. non-metals in Group VII gain 1 electron to form ions with a 1- charge
o Non-metals in Group VI gain 2 electrons to form ions with a 2- charge

Valency

 Valency (or combining power) tells you how many bonds an atom can make with
another atom or how many electrons its atoms lose, gain or share, to form a
compound
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o E.g. carbon has a valancy of 4 as it is in Group IV so a single carbon atom can

share 4 electrons to make 4 single bonds or 2 double bonds

The Metallic Character of Elements

 The metallic character of the elements decreases as you move across a Period on the
Periodic Table, from left to right, and it increases as you move down a Group
 This trend occurs due to atoms more readily accepting electrons to fill
their valence shells rather than losing them to have the previous, already full, electron
shell as their outer shell
 Metals occur on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table and non-metals on the right-
hand side
 Between the metals and the non-metals lie the elements which display some
properties of both
 These elements are referred to as metalloids or semi-metals

Periodic Trends & Electronic Configuration

 The electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons into shells for an atom
(e.g: the electronic configuration of carbon is 2,4)
 There is a link between the electronic configuration of the elements and their position
on the Periodic Table
 The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of
occupied shells of electrons the atom has, showing the period
 The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing
the group number

 lements in the same group in the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties
 When atoms collide and react, it is the outermost electrons that interact
 The similarity in their chemical properties stems from having the same number of
electrons in their outer shell
 For example, both lithium and sodium are in Group I and can react with elements in
Group VII to form an ionic compound (charges of Group I ions are 1+, charges of
Group VII ions are 1-) by reacting in a similar manner and each donating one electron
to the Group VII element
 As you look down a group, a full shell of electrons is added to each subsequent
element
o Lithium's electronic configuration: 2,1
o Sodium's electronic configuration: 2,8,1
o Potassium's electronic configuration: 2,8,8,1

Predicting Properties

 Because there are patterns in the way the elements are arranged on the Periodic Table,
there are also patterns and trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements and their
physical properties
 These trends in properties occur down groups and across the periods of the Periodic
Table
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 As a result, we can use the Periodic Table to predict properties such as:

o boiling point
o melting point
o density
o reactivity
 Some common properties / trends in properties include:
o Group I elements react very quickly with water
o Noble gases are unreactive
o Transition elements are denser than Group I elements
o Reactivity decreases going down Group VII
o Melting point decreases going down Group I
 In this way the Periodic Table can be used to predict how a particular element will
behave

Identifying Trends

 Using given information about elements, we can identify trends in properties

 An example of when this might be used is to determine the trend in reactivity of
Group I metals
 The table below shows the reactions of the first three elements in Group I with water

Group I Properties & Trends: Basics

The Group I metals

 The Group I metals are also called the alkali metals as they form alkaline
solutions with high pH values when reacted with water
 Group I metals are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium
 They all contain just one electron in their outer shell

Physical properties of the Group I metals

 The Group I metals:

o Are soft and easy to cut, getting even softer and denser as you move down the
Group (sodium and potassium do not follow the trend in density)
o Have shiny silvery surfaces when freshly cut
o Conduct heat and electricity
o They all have low melting points and low densities compared to other metals,
and the melting point decreases as you move down the Group; some would
melt on a hot day

Chemical properties of the Group I metals

 They react readily with oxygen and water vapour in air so they are stored under oil to
stop them from reacting
 Group I metals will react similarly with water, reacting vigorously to produce
an alkaline metal hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas
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 The Group I metals get more reactive as you look down the group, so only the first
three metals are allowed in schools for demonstrations

Predicting the Properties of Group I Elements

 Knowing the reactions of elements at the top of the group allows you to predict the
properties of other elements further down Group I

Properties of other Alkali Metals (Rubidium, Caesium and Francium)

 As the reactivity of alkali metals increases down the group, rubidium, caesium and
francium will react more vigorously with air and water than lithium, sodium and
potassium
 Lithium will be the least reactive metal in the group at the top, and francium will be
the most reactive at the bottom
 Francium is rare and radioactive so is difficult to confirm predictions

 You can also look at other properties such as boiling point, melting point and density
of Group I elements and use them to predict whether the other properties are likely to
be larger or smaller going down the group

Group VII Properties & Trends

The halogens

 These are the Group VII non-metals that are poisonous and include fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine and astatine
 Halogens are diatomic, meaning they form molecules of two atoms
o The formulae of the halogens are F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and At 2
 All halogens have seven electrons in their outer shell
 They form halide ions by gaining one more electron to complete their outer shells
 Fluorine is not allowed in schools so observations and experiments tend to only
involve chlorine, bromine and iodine

Properties of the halogens

 At room temperature (20 °C), the physical state of the halogens changes as you go
down the group
 Chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas, bromine is a red-brown liquid and iodine is
a grey-black solid
 This demonstrates that the density of the halogens increases as you go down the
group:

 Reactivity of Group VII non-metals increases as you go up the group (this is the
opposite trend to that of Group I)
 Each outer shell contains seven electrons and when the halogen reacts, it will need to
gain one outer electron to get a full outer shell of electrons
 As you go up Group VII, the number of shells of electrons decreases (period number
decreases moving up the Periodic Table)
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 This means that the outer electrons are closer to the nucleus so there
are stronger electrostatic forces of attraction, which help to attract the extra electron
needed
 This allows an electron to be attracted more readily, so the higher up the element is in
Group VII then the more reactive it is

Predicting Group VII Properties

 You may be given information about some elements and asked to predict the
properties of other elements in the group
 The information you might be given could be in relation to melting/boiling point or
physical state/density so it is useful to know the trends in properties going down the
group

Melting and boiling point

 The melting and boiling point of the halogens increases as you go down the group
 Fluorine is at the top of Group VII so will have the lowest melting and boiling point
 Astatine is at the bottom of Group VII so will have the highest melting and boiling
point

Physical states
 The halogens become denser as you go down the group
 Fluorine is at the top of Group VII so will be a gas
 Astatine is at the bottom of Group VII so will be a solid

Colour
 The colour of the halogens becomes darker as you go down the group
 Fluorine is at the top of Group VII so the colour will be lighter, so fluorine is yellow
 Astatine is at the bottom of Group VII so the colour will be darker, so astatine is black

ransition Elements

General properties of the transition elements

 They are very hard and strong metals and are good conductors of heat and electricity
 They have very high melting points and are highly dense metals
 For example, the melting point of titanium is 1,688ºC whereas potassium in Group I
melts at only 63.5ºC, slightly warmer than the average cup of hot chocolate!
 The transition elements form coloured compounds and often have more than
one oxidation state, such as iron readily forming compounds of both Fe 2+ and Fe3+
 These coloured compounds are responsible for the pigments in many paints and the
colours of gemstones and rocks
 Transition elements, as elements or in compounds, are often used as catalysts to
improve the rate or reaction in industrial processes
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o Transition element catalysts of platinum or rhodium are also used in car

exhausts in the 'catalytic convertor' to reduce the levels of nitrous oxides and
carbon monoxide produced

Transition Elements Oxidation Numbers

 The transition elements have more than one oxidation number, as they can lose a
different number of electrons, depending on the chemical environment they are in
 For example. iron either:
o Lose two electrons to form Fe2+ so has an oxidation number of +2
o Loses three electrons to form Fe3+ so has an oxidation number of +3
 Compounds containing transition elements in different oxidation states will have
different properties and colours

Uses of the transition elements

 The transition elements are used extensively as catalysts due to their ability to
interchange between a range of oxidation states
 This allows them to form complexes with reagents which can
easily donate and accept electrons from other chemical species within a reaction
system
 They are used in medicine and surgical applications such as limb and joint
replacement (titanium is often used for this as it can bond with bones due to its high
biocompatibility)
 They are also used to form coloured compounds
in dyes and paints, stained glass jewellery

Noble Gases Properties & Electronic Configuration

The Noble Gases

 The noble gases are in Group VIII (or Group 0); they are non-metals and have
very low melting and boiling points
 They are all monoatomic, colourless gases
 The Group 0 elements all have full outer shells
 This electronic configuration is extremely stable so these elements are unreactive and
are inert
 Electronic configurations of the noble gases:
o He: 2
o Ne: 2,8
o Ar: 2,8,8
o Kr: 2,8,18,8
o Xe: 2,8,18,18,8

Experimental techniques and chemical analysis

Time, Temperature, Mass & Volume

Time
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 Time can be measured using a stopwatch or stopclock which are usually accurate to
one or two decimal places
 The units of time normally used are seconds or minutes although other units may be
used for extremely slow reactions (e.g. rusting)
 1 minute = 60 seconds

Temperature

 Temperature is measured with a thermometer or digital probe

 Laboratory thermometers usually have a precision of a half or one degree
 Digital temperature probes are available which are more precise than traditional
thermometers and can often read to 0.1 oC
 Traditional thermometers rely upon the uniform expansion and contraction of a liquid
substance with temperature; digital temperature probes can be just as, if not,
more accurate than traditional thermometers
 The units of temperature are degrees Celsius (ºC)

Mass

 Mass is measured using a digital balance which normally gives readings to two
decimal places
 Balances must be tared (set to zero) before use
 The standard unit of mass in kilograms (kg) but in chemistry grams (g) are most often
used
 1 kilogram = 1000 grams

Volume-liquids

 The volume of a liquid can be determined using several types of apparatus, depending
on the level of accuracy needed
 For approximate volumes where high accuracy is not an important factor, measuring (
or graduated) cylinders are used
 These are graduated (have a scale so can be used to measure) and are available
typically in a range of sizes from 10 cm3 to 1 litre (1 dm3)
 Volumetric pipettes are the most accurate way of measuring a fixed volume of liquid,
usually 10 cm3 or 25 cm3
o They have a scratch mark on the neck which is matched to the bottom of the
meniscus to make the measurement
 Burettes are the most accurate way of measuring a variable volume of liquid between
0 cm3 and 50 cm3 (e.g. in a titration)
 The tricky thing with burettes is to remember to read the scale from top to bottom as
0.00 cm3 is at the top of the column
 Whichever apparatus you use, you may see markings in ml(millilitre) which is the
same as a cm3

Volume-gases

 The volume of a gas sometimes needs to be measured and is done by collecting it in a

graduated measuring apparatus
 A gas syringe is usually the apparatus used
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 A graduated cylinder inverted in water may also be used, provided the gas isn't water-
soluble
 If the gas happens to be heavier than air and is coloured, the cylinder can be used
upright

Advantages & Disadvantages of Methods & Apparatus

 In the lab we often have choices of different apparatus to do the same job
 Evaluating what is the best one to use is part of good experimental planning and
design
 This means appreciating some of the advantages and disadvantages of laboratory
apparatus

Planning your method

 Good experimental design includes the answers to questions like

o Have I chosen a suitable apparatus for what I need to measure?
o Is it going to give me results in an appropriate time frame?
o Is it going to give me enough results to process, analyse and make
conclusions?
o Does it allow for repetitions to check how reliable my results are?
o Does my plan give a suitable range of results?
o How can I be sure my results are accurate?
o Have I chosen an appropriate scale of quantities without being wasteful or
unsafe?
 You may be asked about experimental methods in exam questions and your
experience and knowledge of practical techniques in chemistry should help you to
spot mistakes and suggest improvements

Solutions

 You need to know all the following terms used when describing solutions:

Terminology About Solutions Table

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Acid-Base Titrations
 Titrations are a method of analysing the concentration of solutions
 They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralise a quantity of acid
– and vice versa
 You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount,
the concentration or volume required to neutralise an acid or a base
 Titrations can also be used to prepare salts

Describing how to carry out a titration

 The typical materials needed are:

o 25 cm3 volumetric pipette
o Pipette filler
o 50 cm3 burette
o 250 cm3 conical flask
o Small funnel
o 0.1 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution
o Sulfuric acid – concentration unknown
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o A suitable indicator
o Clamp stand, clamp & white tile

Describing the method:

1. Use the pipette and pipette filler and place exactly 25 cm3 sodium hydroxide solution
into the conical flask
2. Place the conical flask on a white tile so the tip of the burette is inside the flask
3. Add a few drops of a suitable indicator to the solution in the conical flask
4. Perform a rough titration by taking the burette reading and running in the solution in 1
– 3 cm3 portions, while swirling the flask vigorously
5. Quickly close the tap when the end-point is reached (sharp colour change) and record
the volume, placing your eye level with the meniscus
6. Now repeat the titration with a fresh batch of sodium hydroxide
7. As the rough end-point volume is approached, add the solution from the burette one
drop at a time until the indicator just changes colour
8. Record the volume to the nearest 0.05 cm3
9. Repeat until you achieve two concordant results (two results that are within 0.1 cm3 of
each other) to increase accuracy

Indicators

 Indicators are used to show the endpoint in a titration

 Wide range indicators such as litmus are not suitable for titration as they do not give a
sharp enough colour change at the endpoint
 However, methyl orange and phenolphthalein are very suitable
 Some of the most common indicators with their corresponding colours are shown
below

Paper Chromatography
 This technique is used to separate substances that have different solubilities in a given
solvent (e.g. different coloured inks that have been mixed to make black ink)
 A pencil line is drawn on chromatography paper and spots of the sample are placed on
it. Pencil is used for this as ink would run into the chromatogram along with the
samples
 The paper is then lowered into the solvent container, making sure that the pencil line
sits above the level of the solvent so the samples don´t wash into the solvent container
 The solvent travels up the paper by capillary action, taking some of the coloured
substances with it
 Different substances have different solubilities so will travel at different rates, causing
the substances to spread apart. Those substances with higher solubility will travel
further than the others
 This will show the different components of the ink / dye

Interpret Simple Chromatograms

 If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical chromatograms
 It is common practice to include a known compound as a reference spot
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o This can help match up to an unknown spot or set of spots in order to identify
it
 If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all the different
components as separate spots
 An impure substance will show up with more than one spot, a pure substance should
only show up with one spot

Locating Agents

 For chromatography to be useful the chemist needs to be able to see the components
move up the paper, which is not the case for colourless substances such as amino
acids or sugars
 Locating agents are substances which react with the sample and produce a coloured
product which is then visible
 The chromatogram is treated with the agent after the chromatography run has been
carried out, making the sample runs visible to the naked eye

Retention Factor (Rf) Values

 These values are used to identify the components of mixtures

 The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same
 Calculating the Rf value allows chemists to identify unknown substances because it
can be compared with Rf values of known substances under the same conditions

Calculation

 The formula to calculate the retention factor is:

Filtration & Crystallisation

 The choice of the method of separation depends on the nature of the substances being
separated
 All methods rely on there being a difference of some sort, usually in a physical
property such as boiling point between the substances being separated

Separating a mixture of solids

 Differences in solubility can be used to separate solids

 For a difference in solubility, a suitable solvent must be chosen to ensure the desired
substance only dissolves in it and not other substances or impurities, e.g. to separate a
mixture of sand and salt, water is a suitable solvent to dissolve the salt, but not the
sand

Filtration
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 Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid and a liquid /
solution ( e.g. sand from a mixture of sand and water). Centrifugation can also be used
for this mixture
 Filter paper is placed in a filter funnel above another beaker
 The mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured into the filter funnel
 Filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass through in the filtrate
 Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so will stay behind as a
residue

Crystallisation

 Used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid is more soluble in
hot solvent than in cold (e.g. copper sulphate from a solution of copper (II) sulphate in
water)
 The solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate and leaving a saturated
solution behind
 You can test if the solution is saturated by dipping a clean, dry, cold glass rod into the
solution
o If the solution is saturated, crystals will form on the glass rod when it is
removed and allowed to cool
 The saturated solution is allowed to cool slowly and solids will come out of the
solution as the solubility decreases, and crystals will grow
 Crystals are collected by filtering the solution
 They are then washed with distilled water to remove any impurities and then allowed
to dry

Distillation: Simple & Fractional

Simple Distillation

 Used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution (e.g. water from a solution
of saltwater) or a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids
 The solution is heated and pure water evaporates producing a vapour which rises
through the neck of the round-bottomed flask
 The vapour passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into
pure water which is collected in a beaker
 After all the water is evaporated from the solution, only the solid solute will be left
behind

 Simple distillation can be used to separate the products of fermentation, such as

alcohol and water
 However, more effective separation is to use fractional distillation where the liquids
are closer to boiling point and a higher degree of purity is required

Fractional distillation

 Used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another (e.g. ethanol
and water from a mixture of the two)
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 The solution is heated to the temperature of the substance with the lowest boiling
point
 This substance will rise and evaporate first, and vapours will pass through a
condenser, where they cool and condense, turning into a liquid that will be collected
in a beaker
 All of the substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other
components(s) of the mixture
 For water and ethanol: ethanol has a boiling point of 78 ºC and water of 100 ºC. The
mixture is heated until it reaches 78 ºC, at which point the ethanol boils and distills
out of the mixture and condenses into the beaker
 When the temperature starts to increase to 100 ºC heating should be stopped. Water
and ethanol are now separated

 An electric heater is safer to use when there are flammable liquids present
 The separation of the components in petroleum is achieved by fractional distillation
on an industrial scale
 Fractional distillation of crude oil is not carried out in school laboratories due to the
toxic nature of some of the components of the crude oil, but it can sometimes be
simulated using a synthetic crude oil made specially for the demonstration

Assessing Purity

 Pure substances melt and boil at specific and sharp temperatures. Eg water has a
boiling point of 100°C and a melting point of 0°C
 Mixtures have a range of melting and boiling points as they consist of different
substances that melt or boil at different temperatures
 Melting and boiling point data can therefore be used to distinguish pure substances
from mixtures
 An unknown pure substance can be identified by experimentally determining its
melting point and boiling point and comparing them to literature values / data tables
o Boiling points are commonly determined by distillation
 Melting point analysis is routinely used to assess the purity of drugs for example
 This is done using a melting point apparatus which allows you to slowly heat up a
small amount of the sample, making it easier to observe the exact melting point

 This is then compared to data tables

 The closer the measured value is to the actual melting or boiling point, the purer the
sample is
 If the sample contains impurities:
o The boiling point may appear higher than the sample's actual boiling point
o The melting point may appear lower than the sample's actual melting point
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CHEMISTRY TERM 1 NOTES