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The Villainous Pontianak? Examining Gender, Culture and Power in Malaysian

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 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016)

SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/

The Villainous Pontianak? Examining Gender, Culture and

Power in Malaysian Horror Films
Lee, Y. B.
School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800 Penang, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
The pontianak is widely recognised as the most dreaded supernatural being in Malay
folklore and mythology. Often described as a fearsome mythical creature with vampire-like
qualities, she is said to have fangs, possesses ghost-like traits and can only be subdued using
a sharp object which is usually a nail struck to the back of her neck. She is also recognised
through her high-pitched shrieks, long flowing hair and a fondness for the blood of children.
Despite possessing such fearsome and horrifying characteristics, the pontianak peculiarly
remains popular among Malaysians as the horror film genre has always been popular
among Malaysian and Asian audiences due to its deep roots in religious and superstitious
beliefs. Many Asian nations have shared cultural, historical and social characteristics.
Cross cultural influences across borders are common in shaping each other’s culture and a
number of Malaysian horror films have been influenced by the Noh and Kabuki-influenced
‘shunen’ (revenge) and ‘kaidan’ (ghost mystery) stories. While the horror film is in fact a
commercial venture, the genre is also filled with socio-cultural and political contestations.
As such, these narratives reflect certain socio-cultural and political anxieties of given
moments within the location of the film’s production. This paper therefore examines the
pan-Asian cultural influences in the current wave of Malaysian horror. As the pontianak is
also always female, this paper then examines how the employment of female monstrosity
articulate male fears around female empowerment and suggests a broader challenge to a
sense of normality, cultural and religious beliefs.

Keywords: Malaysian cinema, pontianak, horror, female monstrosity, power, cinematic villains

INTRODUCTION
ARTICLE INFO The pontianak has become one of the
Article history:
Received: 7 September 2015 most recognisable figures in Malaysian
Accepted: 23 March 2016
cinema. To date, there are more than
E-mail address:
[email protected] (Lee, Y. B.) 10 films produced from the 1950s until

ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

 Lee, Y. B.

the early 2000s about this iconic and vampire, witch, possessed monster, castrator
instantly recognisable mythical creature. and castrating mother, is represented as
Notable films about this fearsome mythical abject, a being which threatens the stability
creature with vampire-like qualities are of the symbolic order (Creed, 1996). The
Pontianak (1957), Sumpah Pontianak monstrous feminine while arousing dread
(1958), Pontianak Gua Musang (1964), and horror, problematises the symbolic
Pontianak Harum Sundal Malam (2004) and order through the evocation of fear, unease,
Pontianak Menjerit (2005). In these films, disquiet and gloom (Creed, 2004). For the
the pontianak is always female, have fangs, restoration of order to occur, the abject
possesses ghost-like traits, and can only be needs to be rejected before it becomes
subdued by striking a nail to the back of her too threatening (Creed, 2004). This paper
neck. The pontianak is also known to shriek therefore examines the emergence of
in a high-pitched tone, has long flowing pontianak films in Malaysia and their pan-
hair, and dons a long white robe. Despite Asian horror film connection. Secondly,
possessing such fearsome and horrifying this paper examines Pontianak Harum
characteristics, the pontianak peculiarly Sundal Malam as a case study to suggest
remains popular among Malaysians as the how the employment of female monstrosity
horror film genre has always been popular in Malaysian horror films poses a broader
among Malaysian audiences due to its deep challenge to a sense of normality, and
roots in religious and superstitious beliefs. cultural and religious beliefs within a
The popularity and to a certain extent patriarchal society. This case study also
fascination of horror films is also one that examines if the pontianak exists as a
transcends both time and space and has villain that needs to be destroyed for the
a popular following in Asia. Japan for re-establishment of a sense of normalcy or
example, is well known for its J-Horror a protagonist to defend and boost a status
films depicting blood and gore while quo under threat.
horror films from Thailand are often laden
with psychological elements. Horror films DEFINING THE HORROR GENRE
belonging to this wave of pan-Asian horror The characteristics that constitute the horror
often contain distinctive characteristics but genre are not fixed, as horror is a flexible
the one thing that is commonly shared is the genre open to varying interpretations. It
gender of its monster/supernatural entity, varies according to the different audiences
which is often female. This employment of located within different contexts and
female monstrosity in such films however, moments, and is built on a set of familiar
does not merely articulate male fears of conventions and at the same time using
female empowerment. The monstrous different cultural resources drawn upon
female, which can present itself as the by both filmmaker and audience (Tudor,
archaic mother, with a monstrous womb, 1989). The horror genre therefore, should

1432 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016)
 The Villainous Pontianak? Examining Gender, Culture and Power in Malaysian Horror Films

be understood as a collection of related and political anxieties of the time of its

but often very different categories. As an making. It explores fundamental questions
overlapping and evolving set of conceptual about the nature of human existence and
categories, the horror genre is in a constant the contemporary sense of the world by
state of flux rather than being a distinct and intensely conveying synchronic associations
unified set of films with shared conventions and ideological and social messages of a
(Cherry, 2009). The simplest definition of a certain historical moment (Prince, 2004).
horror film is a film that intends to horrify As the horror film is meant to draw negative
and thrill a captive audience (Creed, 2005; emotions from the audience, it was once
Davis & Natale, 2010). This statement in seen as a low form of culture (Prince,
itself is a paradox; it is contradictory as it 2004), as an ‘outsider’, ‘forbidden fruit’,
contains two very opposing emotions. The ‘distasteful’, ‘tainted’, and ‘cultural other’,
paradox of the horror film lies in its alluring existing at the margins of the mainstream
appeal of horrifying audiences. While the with a taboo status (Cherry, 2009). Despite
term ‘horror’ itself denotes feelings of fear, its marginal status, the horror genre has
shock, disgust, and abjection, when put persisted since the inception of cinema.
to screen, horror films can cross cultural, Audience perception of the horror genre
religious, and class boundaries by drawing has evolved since the days of early cinema.
on and appealing to a range of audiences Horror has been a durable genre that has
from different classes, localities and beliefs. evolved from one generation to the next.
As one of the most lucrative genres in the The turnaround of horror from a genre
cinema industry, the ability of the horror existing on the fringes to a driving force
genre to continue drawing audiences to in the mainstream locates it as possibly
experience new frights and horrifying sights the most sustainable genre in cinematic
through morbid preoccupations with fear, history. In order to continually scare its
death and monsters leads to the question audience, the boundaries of the genre
that has fascinated and bewildered critics have been completely shifted over time to
and academics alike: How do audiences constantly revitalise, evolve, transform,
continue to be attracted to something that and hybridise into an extremely diverse
causes fear and disgust? set of sub-genres and new forms to offer
This phenomenon of horror film’s thematic variations to its audience (Cherry,
remarkable popularity and its continued 2009). The durability of the horror genre can
acceptance by audiences has made the therefore, be explained through its ability to
horror film one of the most provocative and relate to the audience’s perception of fear in
controversial genres in cinema (Hutchings, line with shifting times.
2008). The horror film emerges from
being seen as a form of low culture to a
form that often reflects the social, cultural,

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016) 1433
 Lee, Y. B.

THE MALAYSIAN PONTIANAK AND fish and is easily recognisable by her green
THE FILEM SERAM robe, long fingernails, and long jet-black
In one of the most contemporary discussions hair. Cutting her nails and hair and stuffing it
about the pontianak in folklore and popular into a hole may subdue her. In doing so, she
culture, Ng (2009) attributes the pontianak becomes a woman and is capable of being
as possessing similar qualities to the Western a wife and mother. While Skeat states that
vampire, as a hybrid creature that blends the pontianak should theoretically be termed
Eastern and Western characteristics of a as the langsuyar, this female vampire,
vampire. The cinematic representations of however has been commonly referred to
the pontianak have blurred the boundaries as the pontianak in societal folklores and
between traditional belief and popular popular culture. The pontianak should also
culture. This is because the pontianak not be mistaken for a certain place by the
has become a recalibration of Malay and name of Pontianak located in the province
Western folklore and popular culture, as she of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. In fact, there
was created with fangs, ghost-like traits, and is a myth that states how the place got its
is subdued using a sharp object (striking a name as the early settlers at Pontianak were
nail at the back of the neck). haunted by sightings of the pontianak. As
Skeat’s 1965 study on Malay folklore in such, the myth and belief in the existence
Malaysia however, highlights the erroneous of the pontianak stretches transnationally
belief in the use of the term pontianak in throughout Southeast Asian countries. In
current cinematic representations. According Indonesia, it is known as the “kuntilanak”, in
to Skeat, the pontianak is actually the the Philippines, “tiyanak” and in Singapore
child of the langsuyar/langsuir, a creature and Malaysia, the “pontianak”.
that shares similar characteristics? The In Malaysian cinemas, the Malaysian
langsuyar/langsuir is an incredibly beautiful horror film or filem seram were most
lady who dies shortly after giving birth. popular during the 1950s–1960s and again
She dies of shock upon hearing of her in the early 2000s. During these times,
stillborn child and returns from the dead it was films with pontianak themes that
in the form of a pontianak. Upon returning popularised this genre while other films
from the dead, she claps her hands and used localised monsters, entities, beliefs,
flies onto a tree. In order to prevent such mythologies and superstition. This has
a transformation, glass beads are placed allowed Malaysians to develop a deep sense
into her mouth, a chicken egg is placed of ‘cultural verisimilitude’ that invokes
under her armpits, and needles are pierced a deep sense of plausibility, motivation,
through her palms. This is done so that the justification and belief due to familiarity
dead woman is prevented from shrieking with the monsters in these films (Lee,
and flying, as her arms and movements 2012). For example, the release of the
have been limited. The langsuyar is fond of first pontianak, film Pontianak (1957),

1434 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016)
 The Villainous Pontianak? Examining Gender, Culture and Power in Malaysian Horror Films

caused certain members of the audience feature films to continue telling familiar
to lose consciousness as the images were stories with familiar characters in familiar
reported to be too shocking. The release of situations’ (Grant, 2003). Two pontianak
Pontianak by B.N. Rao led to an intense films - Pontianak Kembali (1963) and
rivalry between the two largest film studios Pontianak Gua Musang (1964) - were
Cathay-Keris and Malay Film Productions directed by B.N. Rao. The Cathay-Keris
(MFP) of the Shaw Brothers. pontianak films proved to be a winning
Pontianak starred Maria Menado formula with a total of five films released and
and her husband Abdul Razak was the the pontianak until today remains the most
scriptwriter. The film narrates the tale of the recognisable monster. The genre’s success
female protagonist Chomel’s transformation eventually led to spin-offs and copycat
into a pontianak who was abandoned as a movies by MFP. In 1958, MFP released
baby and adopted by an old man who was an Ramon Estella’s Anak Pontianak. However,
author. She grows up ugly and hunchbacked MFP only produced two pontianak films,
and is ostracised by the villagers. When the the other being Pusaka Pontianak (1964).
old man dies, he instructs her to burn all Pontianak (1975) became the eighth and
his belongings. As she is carrying out his final pontianak film released before the 30
instructions, she finds a book that reveals year hiatus in the production of pontianak
a secret potion to obtaining good looks. films. Locally made horror films also lost
During a full moon, she makes the mixture, their lustre with Malaysian audiences
drinks it and passes out. However, she fails and the horror genre became almost non-
to notice a clause prohibiting her to ever existent.
taste blood. She awakens as a beautiful In 2004, the pontianak returned to
woman and eventually marries the son of Malaysian cinema through Shuhaimi Baba’s
a village head. Her transformation into a Pontianak Harum Sundal Malam. As the
pontianak happens when her husband is first pontianak film to be released in more
bitten by a snake. In a bid to rescue him, she than 30 years since the review of the Film
sucks the venom from his leg but the taste Act in 1971 and the introduction of the
of blood tempts her to ultimately drain his VHSC (Violence, Horror, Sex, Counter-
body of blood. She vanishes but emerges culture) policy, the film script was rewritten
as a pontianak who returns during the night five times, given a rating of 18PL (A film
to visit her daughter, terrorises the village, that may contain a combination of either
and kills men after seducing them. The horror, violence, sex, politics, religion),
film’s success led to two sequels, Dendam and a disclaimer at the beginning to remind
Pontianak (1957) and Sumpah Pontianak viewers that the film was fictional and that
(1958). the pontianak is merely a figment of one’s
Being a commercial enterprise, these imagination.1 The film achieved critical
sequels were produced as ‘commercial and commercial success by exploiting

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016) 1435
 Lee, Y. B.

the infamous pontianak myth which has attributed to this film. The above illustration
deep mythical roots in Malaysia. The film exemplifies the continued attraction and
became a local success as it was screened fascination of Malaysians towards horror
at 29 commercial cinemas, made a return films. This phenomenon will form the
of MYR3.2 million (US$1.07 million), and basis of my examination of contemporary
received numerous accolades such as Best Malaysian horror films and to explain its
Editing and Best Male Supporting Actor sudden (re)popularisation in Malaysian
at the Festival Filem Malaysia 17 (17 th cinema. As a result, another two pontianak
Malaysian Film Festival), and 10 awards films were released, namely Pontianak
(including Best Film Production, Best Menjerit (2005), Pontianak Harum Sundal
Cinematography and Best Editing) at the Malam 2 (2006) and Tolong! Awek Aku
2004 Malaysian Film Workers Association Pontianak (2011) The (re)popularisation
(PPFM) Oscars. of Malaysian horror films thus, marks the
According to Shuhaimi Baba, the film return of a repressed genre.
was more popular than Japanese and Korean
horror films as Malaysian audiences could THE MALAYSIAN-PAN-ASIAN
easily relate to the Malay language and HORROR CONNECTION
the localised pontianak (Looi, 2011). That Horror films have always been popular in
film was the first local horror film in the Asia. Throughout the years, its audiences
post-2000 era to be commercially screened have been entertained by Malaysian
overseas and at festivals in Spain, London, pontianak films such as Sumpah Pontianak
Bangkok, and Singapore; and to win awards and Anak Pontianak in the 1950s–1970s;
for Best Director, Best Cinematography, Indonesian horror films Mystics in Bali
and Best Music at the Estepona Horror (1981) and Pengabdi Setan (1982)
and Fantasy Film Festival (Spain, 2004), explored the mystical and supernatural in
and Best Actress at the Asia Pacific Film the 1980s, and the Hong Kong Chinese
Festival (Japan, 2004). The local media, (hopping) vampire films in the 1990s such
which covered the film’s accomplishments as Encounters of the Spooky Kind (1980)
extensively, helped the film gain extensive and Mr. Vampire films. As Asian countries
popularity while (re)popularising the horror have much in common culturally, there exist
genre. The popularisation and success many similarities in the characteristics of
achieved by this film then led to the their horror films. For example, James Lee’s
emergence of a new ‘wave’ of filem seram Claypot Curry Killers from Malaysia bears
in Malaysia. In 2011 alone, an average of certain similarities to the cannibalistic acts
one filem seram was released per month in Fruit Chan’s short film Dumplings in
with various horror sub-genres and sequels the Three...Extremes (2004) compilation:
being produced. The ‘wave’ of popular here, human flesh is used to enhance the
horror films in Malaysia can therefore, be flavour and saleability of a certain dish. As

1436 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016)
 The Villainous Pontianak? Examining Gender, Culture and Power in Malaysian Horror Films

such, it makes sense to examine how the and worldwide, as this image and storyline
Malaysian horror films are influenced by tore down the boundaries between what
the current wave of pan-Asian cinematic was possible and factual while questioning
horror. This is not to be confused with the the fragility of life. The success of Ringu
Hollywood remakes of popular Asian titles (Ring) and the theatrical releases of its
such as Ringu and Dark Water (2002) that sequels Ringu 2 (Ring 2) (1999) and Ring O:
were produced using big budgets, stars, and Birthday (2000) led to the emergence of the
special effects, Asian horror movies began J-Horror movement and eventual rise of the
as low-budget and independent productions horror movie wave across Asia. Worldwide,
without the presence of renowned stars or the success of Ringu and J-Horror led to the
special effects (Rawle, 2010). This current film being remade by DreamWorks as The
wave of cinematic horror is greatly aided by Ring (2002). This wave occurred as horror
the rise of digital film-making technology is a cinematic genre capable of transcending
and the internet, and the release of Ringu borders, because fear as a universal emotion
and its subsequent sequels and prequel, that has allowed the horror genre to move easily
created shockwaves across the region and across cultures.
worldwide. The pan-Asian horror film represents an
Beginning regionally in Asia, the Ringu incorporation of contemporary regionalism
phenomenon sparked immense discussions and globalisation that exists at the intra-,
on the Internet, media, academia, and in inter-, and extra textual levels. It is
the cinematic world. Ringu, a low-budget successfully exhibited and distributed across
independent production, has similarly the Asian region and globally through
impacted on Malaysian horror films. The Hollywood adaptations and taps into themes
image of a slim figured Sadako dressed in with strong regional and international
a long white garment, with long straight significance (Knee, 2009, p. 69). The
hair parted to reveal only her left eye, success of J-Horror, low-budgeted digital
crawling out of a television set and the film-making and the ability of horror films
curse of certain death after the viewing to cross cultures and borders across Asia
of a videocassette tape and the receiving has led to the emergence of prominent
of a phone call has greatly influenced the titles from a number of Asian nations;
horror genre (this image of Sadako has from South Korea: Kim Ji-woon’s The
influenced the portrayal of Meriam the Quiet Family (1998); Thailand: Nonzi
pontianak in Pontianak Harum Sundal Nimibutr’s Nang Nak (1999); Indonesia:
Malam and the hantu nombor ekor in Sini Rizal Mantovani’s Jelangkung (2001);
Ada Hantu (2011)). The possibility of Singapore: Djinn’s Return to Pontianak
such a horrendous being emerging from (2001); The Philippines: Chito S. Roño’s
simple everyday appliances shocked and Feng Shui (2004); and Malaysia: Shuhaimi
horrified millions of viewers regionally Baba’s Pontianak Harum Sundal Malam

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016) 1437
 Lee, Y. B.

(2004). While this list is by no means cultural exchanges illustrated by the current
exhaustive, the above films represent some horror boom across Asia are caused by the
of the pioneering works from different transnationality of human and technological
Asian countries, emerging after the success capital, their themes, style, and exhibition
of Ringu. patterns, however, carry strong regional and
In pan-Asian horror cinema, the international significance.
majority of filmmakers and producers Many Asian nations have shared
have a preference for regional and global cultural, historical and social characteristics
production approaches because of their as cultural flows have easily occurred
cosmopolitan backgrounds and overseas across borders. A great number of horror
educations; while the rise and popularity of films in the current wave of Asian horror
the internet and digital media have allowed while shaped extensively by the Noh and
audiences access to information regarding Kabuki-influenced ‘shunen’ (revenge) and
local and national cinemas across Asia (Choi ‘kaidan’ (ghost mystery stories) of Ringu,
& Wada-Marciano, 2009). The cultural also employ localised elements of religious
exchanges illustrated by the current horror beliefs, customs, traditions and values.
boom across Asia are also caused by the Common themes often explored in Asian
transnationality of human and technological horror movies are curses, urban legends and
capital. Cinematic representations in mythical tales such as the masked woman
pan-Asian horror, however, differ from with a mutilated face in Carved (2007),
Hollywood-established patterns as Asian vengeance for a transgression in Shutter
horror films began as low-budget and (2004), and tales of haunted buildings or
independently produced productions houses that represent a displacement of being
without the presence of renowned stars ‘unreconciled to the past and unconsoled by
or special effects (Rawle, 2010). Many the present’ (Parry, 2004) through spectral
‘ghosts’ in Asian horror films are created nationalities and postcolonial hauntings as
with likenesses and traits similar to Sadako’s captured in The Maid (2005). The use of
and the movies contain excessive images regional themes places their works within an
of blood and gore. Known as the ‘onryo’, ‘Asian Cinematic Imagined Community’ of
they are females dressed in the long flowing different locations, classes and nationalities.2
white gown of the burial kimono, have In short, these phenomena represent a sense
long straight hair, lifeless eyes on a vacant of postcolonial fear in Southeast Asian
face, move by crawling in a spider-like nations such as Malaysia, Singapore, and
motion and embody female murder victims The Philippines.
returning from the dead as spirits seeking
revenge as seen in Takashi Shimizu’s
Ju-on: The Grudge 2 (2003). While the

1438 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016)
 The Villainous Pontianak? Examining Gender, Culture and Power in Malaysian Horror Films

THE CINEMATIC MALAYSIAN him and his family. In order to protect his
PONTIANAK: PONTIANAK HARUM family and lineage, he attempts to prolong
SUNDAL MALAM
his lifespan by undergoing plastic surgery
The story of Pontianak Harum Sundal and ozone treatments. One day, a girl by
Malam takes place in pre-independence the name of Maria, who bears similar looks
Malaysia in a local village known as with Meriam, emerges in his life. Marsani
Kampung Paku Laris. Pontianak Harum becomes distraught not only because of
Sundal Malam tells the story of Meriam, her striking resemblance with Meriam,
a distinguished “gamelan” dancer, whose but also because strange events once again
beauty many covet. Even the local ruler start happening to those close to Marsani.
grants her the honorary title of “Primadona” Marsani’s paranoia becomes even more
due to her prominence and talent as a intense as he is quite certain that Maria is
dancer. Two friends, Marsani and Danial, actually Meriam who has returned to exact
who also live in Kampung Paku Laris fall her vengeance upon him. He then fears for
in love with her at the same time. Meriam the lives of his grandson Norman and his
eventually weds Danial and when she is wife Ana as unexplained shadows begin to
heavily pregnant, her merchant husband is emerge around them. One day, they discover
killed in an accident at sea. Marsani then a tomb at the place where Norman works
attempts to fill in the void left by Danial. and the scent of a tuber rose lingers at their
He tries to force himself onto Meriam but home. These paranormal activities affect the
as she resists and flees, she is stabbed in the marriage of Norman and Ana and even the
abdomen by one of Marsani’s thugs standing sanity of Maria, as she herself wonders if
watch outside her home. As she lies dying, indeed she is a pontianak as Marsani finds
her unborn child is miraculously saved. a scar at the back of her neck.
Strange events eventually start taking place In Pontianak Harum Sundal Malam,
at Kampung Paku Laris and those closely much emphasis is placed on the careful
aligned with Marsani are found dead. It is construction of costumes that reflect 1940s
believed that Meriam has returned in the Malaya, an era when the early pontianak
form of a pontianak seeking vengeance and films were produced. The portrayal of the
retaliation upon those who have wronged pontianak in Pontianak Harum Sundal
her. Malam bears certain similarities as well as
The story then continues to 2003 and differences with the pontianak of the 1960s.
Marsani is now in his golden years. He First, Meriam differs from the early day
continues to be haunted by the death of pontianak in the films produced by Cathay-
Meriam and is still obsessed about her Keris and MFP. This is because Meriam has
rejecting his love and advances. Marsani also supernatural powers that enable her to fly
remains paranoid as he continues to worry and climb trees. Second, the advancement
about Meriam’s continuous vengeance upon of technology and computer generated

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016) 1439
 Lee, Y. B.

images (CGI) has led to the evolution in the Malay adat and themes of folktales and
make-up and costume of the modern day superstition in pan-Asian horror films. This
pontianak. Meriam does not wear a rubber is because in Malaysia, adat (culture) and
mask and neither does she have fangs. Islam play a significant role in the lives of
The pontianaks however, bear certain the Malay community. Adat has its roots
similarities. First, the pontianak from embedded in remnants of Hinduism, as
films such as Pontianak Gua Musang Islam only arrived during the 15th century
and Tolong! Awek Aku Pontianak have reign of the Malacca Sultanate Empire
the capability to disguise themselves as (Verma, 2004). The existence of adat and
a beautiful woman to seduce, charm and customs (magic, superstition, spirit worship,
lure their male targets using their beauty. taboos), shamanic practices (pawang,
Once they have trapped their targets, they dukun or bomoh) and beliefs (jin [genie]
then transform back into an unsightly and iblis [Devil]) which predate Islam have
form before killing their victims. Very existed continuously in Malay culture, but
often, these targets are individual men who are viewed by Islamic fundamentalists as
have wronged them during their lifetime. challenging Islam (Shamsul, 2005).
As such, the pontianaks in such movies As such, the pontianak emerges as a
employ the Noh and Kabuki-influenced nebulous figure. The pontianak is a nebulous
‘shunen’ (revenge) plot. This is similar to figure not only because of her existence as a
the horror movies from Japan, South Korea being neither dead nor alive but also because
and Thailand whereby the murdered woman of her ambiguous role as it is not clear if she
returns from afterlife seeking justice. She is a villain or hero. While she is brutally
is portrayed as a phantom or apparition and murdered and at times possibly slandered
kills her perpetrators and their allies. It is before her death, her return from the afterlife
only after achieving this her soul is able to seeking death and destruction to those who
rest and justice restored. have murdered her or her loved ones could
The emergence of the pontianak as a either be read as a form of vigilance or
form of ‘living dead’ however, transgresses revenge. On one hand, she could be seen
Islamic beliefs as the pontianak that as a villain or antagonist due to the chaos,
continues living after death defies Barzakh destruction and murder of those regardless
or the timeframe between death and akhirat of their innocence; on the other, she could
(afterlife). During Barzakh, the soul of be read as a hero or the protagonist as she
the dead hovers above the body in the seeks justice for those who are oppressed.
grave and is in a state of repentance while It must however, be noted here that her
waiting to be resurrected on akhirat. The role either as antagonist or protagonist
belief in the pontianak transforming into a represents the changing role of women
human however, defies this Islamic belief in Malaysia. The increased number of
but echoes the superstitious beliefs in the women holding important portfolios and

1440 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016)
 The Villainous Pontianak? Examining Gender, Culture and Power in Malaysian Horror Films

significantly contributing economically, The role of the pontianak can also be

socially, politically and culturally can either seen as a positive departure from the usual
be viewed as an empowerment of women or stereotypical roles given to women as the
as a threat towards the patriarchal order in pontianak destabilises the plot of the film.
society. In addition, Malaysian films such as The transformation of the pontianak from a
Penarek Becha (1955), Sembilu (1995) and beautiful woman into a horrifying creature
Ombak Rindu (2011) have conventionally challenges the scopophilic pleasure (Mulvey,
stereotyped women as weak, passive and 1989) obtained through the cinematic
submissive within a male-dominant and gaze. This transformation challenges the
Malay-centric culture. The pontianak notion that women need to be objectified
however, is a different representation of as beautiful sexual objects to be noticed in
woman as she has supernatural strength terms of looks, body shape and reflection.
and abilities and is capable of destabilising The transformation of the pontianak from
the equilibrium of the film’s plot. Yet, the beautiful to horrifying demonstrates how
need to restore equilibrium through the the pontianak empowers herself by being
destruction of the pontianak in which the in charge of her sexuality without having
transgressor must be punished occurs. As to succumb to classical narrative structures
such, the pontianak as a threat needs to that often objectify the woman as passive
be destroyed so that social order can be and as sources of visual pleasures. The
restored. This can be achieved by getting rid pontianak therefore does not play the
of the villains and redrawing the boundaries role of a submissive housewife, nagging
by repressing the threat of the pontianak. mother-in-law or a scantily dressed female
The empowerment of the pontianak can be character with a low IQ or as sexual prey.
seen as a method of bolstering patriarchy in The pontianak is instead portrayed as a
society as the pontianak is projected as the figure of authority and intelligence who can
unfamiliar threat that needs to be feared as it think, manipulate and cunningly presents
causes harm and destruction. The pontianak the threat of castration towards her nemeses
metaphorically represents a ‘castration who are often men who have wronged
threat’ or the empowerment of women in her in the past. She achieves this by her
society that is threatening patriarchy. In loud shrieks and costume designs which is
creating ‘landscapes of fear’ through the meant to cause shock and horror among the
pontianak, the pontianak generates a social audiences. As the pontianak is often dressed
construction of the fearful in society (Tudor, in a long, white flowing robe with long hair,
1989, p. 5). In order for a return to normalcy this image of horror is shared by the horror
and departure from a fearful landscape, the films of other Asian cinemas. For example,
solution is to destroy the pontianak, which Sadako from Ringu similarly wears a
is in effect, a dismissal and rejection of long white robe which is a burial kimono
the castration threat which could possibly indicating how this female figure has been
destabilise the patriarchal order. provided with “carte blanche” to carry out
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016) 1441
 Lee, Y. B.

her destructions. While the pontianaks do more iconic, memorable and feared than
not wear a Japanese burial kimono due to their male counterparts. The empowerment
cultural and religious differences, the white of this female figure through its ability
costume would metaphorically symbolise to return from the underworld in order to
her new sense of power, innocence and the exact her vengeance on those who have
completion of a life cycle as she has been wronged her articulates a sense of fear about
given a new lease of life by returning from the empowerment of women. It leaves the
the dead. The long flowing hair while aiming pontianak in a state of ambiguity of not
to scare its audiences, also indicates how being alive nor dead. As such, the act of
the pontianak retains her female identity vengeance of the pontianak who returns to
and does not need to succumb to the needs kill those who have murdered her as an act
and wants of gender identity as defined by of righteousness can also be ambiguously
society. Her ability to move from one realm interpreted. Her sense of notoriety for such
to another and travelling without being reasons could either place the pontianak as
confined to gravitational rules also indicates a hero or villain – depending on whether her
how the female body is no longer confined acts of vengeance are interpreted as acts of
to the shackling and authority of male cruelty or vigilance. Whatever the status one
regulation and control. As such, the role confers on the pontianak, of being either a
played by the pontianak either as a villain hero or villain, it is important to note that the
or hero eventually becomes a threat towards cinematic portrayal of the pontianak itself
the social order and status quo of patriarchy as a protagonist breaks away from the usual
in any given Asian society and reflects the weak and submissive portrayal of women
increasing empowerment and liberation of in Malaysian cinema. This characteristic of
women in societies across Asia. female empowerment, which is shared by
the horror films of Japan, South Korea and
CONCLUSION Thailand, becomes a positive departure from
For many years, Malaysian-made horror the usual stereotypical portrayal of women
films have been popular among its audiences. in cinema while challenging patriarchy in
While there exists numerous mythological such Asian societies.
and fearsome creatures supernaturally or
within one’s state of mind, the pontianak ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
has become the most popular and feared This research was funded by the Universiti
creature in Malaysian folklore and cinema. Sains Malaysia Short Term Research Grant.
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Verma, V. (2004). Malaysia. State and civil society in ENDNOTES

transition. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner. 1
Introduced in 1996, films released in Malaysian
Wood, R. (2004). Foreword. In Schneider, S. J. (Eds.), cinemas were rated according to six categories:
Horror film and psychoanalysis: Freud’s worst U; PG-13; 18SG; 18SX; 18PA; and 18PL. Under
the new censorship guidelines released in 2010,
nightmare. New York: Cambridge University
these ratings have been revised to U (Suitable
Press.
for general viewing); PG-13 (Children under
13 may not be admitted unless with parental
guidance); and 18 (For adults aged 18 and above
for the film may contain mild violence, horror,
sex scenes, nudity, sexual dialogues/references,
religious, social or political aspects). It was also
verbally agreed that scenes of ghosts emerging
from graves and too much blood would not
be shown, and that the pontianak could only
appear in dream-like sequences.
2
I borrow Benedict Anderson’s concept of the
Imagined Community (1991).

1444 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (4): 1431 - 1444 (2016)

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