TOS 3: UNIT 3A: CONCRETE

TECHNOLOGY AND
STANDARD R.C.C. SECTION

Objectives:
1: To Understand Various Grades of
Concrete and their Composition and Good
Concrete Requirements
2. To Understand the Ingredients of
Concrete.
3.To Understand the Process of Concreting CONCRETE
4.To Understand Various Tests Conducted TECHNOLOGY
on Concrete.
STANDARD
5.To Understand Why Reinforcement and R.C.C.FLEXURAL
only in the form of Steel is provided and the SECTION
Role of Steel in R.C.C.

6.To Understand the different Grades of L.S.M FOR R.C.C

Steel used in R.C.C

7.To Understand a Standard R.C.C Flexural

Section.
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TOS 3: Unit 3a: Concrete Technology and Standard R.C.C Section

3a.1 Concrete Technology
Introduction: History
The ancient Romans used a material that is
remarkably close to Modern Cement Concrete to
build many of their Architectural Marvels, such as the
Colosseum and the Pantheon. The Romans also used
animal products in their cement as early form of
Admixtures (additions to a mix to achieve certain
goals)
Cement Concrete consists of hard inorganic
materials called aggregates such as gravel, sand,
crushed sand, slag etc. cemented together with
Portland cement and water. When the above
materials are mixed together to form a workable
mixture, it can be molded or cast into beams and
slabs. A few hours after mixing, the materials
undergo a chemical combination and the mixture solidifies and hardens. Concrete attains great strength with age.

3.a1.1 Requirements of a Good Concrete are as follows:

1. The aggregates should be hard and durable.

2. The aggregates should be properly graded from fine to coarse.

3. Cement should be of sufficient quantity to produce the required water tightness and strength.

4. The water used for mixing shall be free from organic materials and deleterious material

5. The quantity of water should be such as to produce the needed consistency.

6. Mixing should be done thoroughly to produce the needed homogeneity

7. Concrete should fill every part in the forms. This is done by ramming and puddling

8. Until the concrete is thoroughly hard it is necessary to keep the temperature above freezing point to
avoid retarded hardening.
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate mixed in a specific proportion with water. The concrete mix is
generally referred to as 1: X: Y wherein 1 refers to the weight of cement, X refers to the weight of sand and Y refers
to the weight of aggregate. The mixes are designated as Mz wherein Z refers to the strength of the concrete mix.

Hence M 20 Grade concrete is one of which a 150mm cube of concrete cured for 28 days under
standard testing conditions will yield at a compressive stress of 20N/mm².

The different grades of concrete along with their proportions are mentioned as under.

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Characteristic Strength means the strength of material below which not more than 5% of the test results are
expected to fail.
Group Grade Specified Characteristic Proportion Mix
Designation Compressive Strength of 150mm
cube after 28 days curing
Ordinary M 10 10 1:3:6 For P.C.C base below
footings and load bearing walls
M 15 15 1:2:4
M 20 20 1:1.5:3

Standard Concrete M 25 25 1:1:2

M 30 30 e.g. Used in
M 35 35 Pre-stressed Concrete
M 40 40
M 45 45
M 50 50
M 55 55

High Strength M 60 and Above

Concrete
As can be easily seen the proportion of cement increases in each mix as we move down and cement is the main
ingredient contributing to the strength of concrete. For mixes M 55 and above, design parameters given in I.S.456
are not applicable and values will have to be obtained from specialized literatures.

3.a1.2 Ingredients of Concrete Cement, fine, Coarse Aggregate and Water.

a) Cement
 Cement Types and Grades: The cement used shall be any of the following and the type selected should be
appropriate for the intended use.
1. 33 Grade ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS 269
2. 43 Grade ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS 8 112
3. 53 Grade ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS 12269
4. Rapid hardening Portland cement, Portland slag cement, Low heat Portland cement, Sulphate resisting Portland
cement etc. etc.
 Manufacturing: Cement was first discovered by an English brick layer named Joseph Aspdin in 1824. He called
it Portland cement for the reason that the cement he discovered resembled the limestone found in Portland.
The approximate composition of Portland cement is given below
1. Lime (CaO) 60 - 70%
2. Silica (SiO2) 20 - 25%
3. Alumina (Al2O3) 5 - 10%
4. Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 2 - 3 %.
The raw materials used for the manufacture of Portland cement are limestone (which provides CaO) and clay
(provides SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3) which are finely powdered and then mixed in the ratio 3:1 by mass. The mixture
is again ground to a fine powder and water is added. The finely ground powder called slurry is heated to 1773K in a
rotary kiln. On heating, lime, silica, alumina and ferric oxide react together and produce a mixture of dicalcium
silicate, tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate called clinker. The clinker is cooled and a small amount of
gypsum (2 - 5%) is added to it, to delay the setting time of cement. The mixture of clinker and gypsum is then

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ground to a fine powder which is called cement. It is stored in tall structures called silos. The cement is then
packed in water-proof bags and sold in markets. When cement is mixed with water, it becomes hard over a period
of time. This is called setting of cement. Gypsum is often added to Portland cement to prevent early hardening or
"flash setting, allowing a longer working time.
 What are Different Grades of Cement?
The grade 33, 43 and 53 in cement mainly corresponds to the average compressive strength attained after 28 days
in N/mm² of at least three mortar cubes (area of face 50cm², i.e. cubes of sides of 70.6mm) composed of one part
Cement, 3 parts of standard Sand by mass and Water ((P/4) + 3) percent of combined mass of cement and sand,
where P is the percentage of water required to produce a paste of standard consistency. Cubes after moist curing
of 24 Hours are submerged in water (Changed after every 7 days) and cured for 28 days
1. 33 Grade Ordinary Portland cement: This ordinary 'Portland' cement is used maximum in our country. It
is more suitable cement for masonry and general concrete works where the members are not taken to
very high stresses. It is not suitable where ‘Sulphate’ is in the soil or in the ground water.
2. 43 Grade Ordinary Portland cement: 43 grades of cement are used where high early strength in 1 to 28
days range is required. These days the ‘Structural Engineers’ propose these cements mainly for RCC works
where a member takes high tensile stress.
3. 53 Grade Ordinary Portland cement: 53 grades of cement are used where high early strength in 1 to 28
days range is required. These days ‘Structural Engineers’ propose these cements mainly for R.C.C. works,
where a member takes high tensile stress.

b) Fine Aggregate – Sand:

 Types: Aggregate most of which passes 4.75mm I.S. Sieve and contains only so much coarser material as
permitted can be fine aggregate
1. Natural Sand: Fine aggregate resulting from the natural disintegration of rock and which has been deposited
by streams or glacial agencies.
2. Crushed Stone Sand: Fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone
3. Crushed Gravel Sand: Fine aggregate produced by crushing natural gravel.
1. Natural or River sand are weathered and worn out particles of rocks and are of various grades or sizes
depending upon the amount of wearing. Now-a-days good sand is not readily available; it is transported from
a long distance. Those resources are also exhausting very rapidly. So it is a need of the time to find some
substitute to natural river sand.
2. The Artificial Sand produced by proper machines can be a better substitute to river sand. The sand must be of
proper gradation (it should have particles from 150 microns to 4.75 mm in proper proportion). When fine
particles are in proper proportion, the sand will have fewer voids and the cement quantity required will be
less. Such sand will be more economical. Demand for manufactured fine aggregates for making concrete is
increasing day by day as river sand cannot meet the rising demand of construction sector. Natural river sand
takes millions of years to form and is not repleneshible.
Because of its limited supply, the cost of Natural River sand has sky rocketed and its consistent supply cannot
be guaranteed. Under these circumstances, use of manufactured sand becomes inevitable. River sand in many
parts of the country is not graded properly and has excessive silt and organic impurities and these can be
detrimental to the durability of steel in concrete whereas manufactured sand has no silt or organic impurities
However, many people in India have doubts about quality of concrete / mortars when manufactured or artificial
sand is used. Manufactured sand has been regularly used to make quality concrete for decades in India and
abroad. Pune - Mumbai expressway was completely built using artificial/manufactured sand.

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 Issues with Manufactured Sand:

1. The Civil engineers, Architects, Builders, and Contractors agree that the river sand, which is available today, is
deficient in many respects. It does contain very high silt fine particles (as in case of Filter sand).
2. Presence of other impurities such as coal, bones, shells, mica and silt etc. makes it inferior for the use in
cement concrete. The decay of these materials, due to weathering effect, shortens the life of the concrete.
3. Now-a-days, the Governments have put ban on lifting sand from River bed.
4. Transportation of sand damages the roads.
5. Removing sand from river bed impact the environment, as water table goes deeper & ultimately dry.

 General Requirements of Manufactured Sand:

1. All the sand particles should have higher crushing strength.
2. The surface texture of the particles should be smooth.
3. The edges of the particles should be grounded.
4. The ratio of fines below 600 microns in sand should not be less than 30%.
5. There should not be any organic impurities
6. Silt in sand should not be more than 2%, for crushed sand.
7. In manufactured sand the permissible limit of fines below 75 microns shall not exceed 15%.

 Advantages of Manufactured Sand

 More cost effective than natural sand: Manufactured sand can be produced in areas closer to construction
sites, bringing down the cost of transportation
 Compliant with the new European Standards
 Less disruptive to the environment
 Lesser impurities and good working properties

 Disadvantages of Manufactured Sand

 Workability issues: Manufactured sand can be of a coarser and angular texture than natural sand, leading to
more water and cement requirement to achieve the expected workability, leading to increased costs.
 Larger proportion of micro fines: This again can affect the strength and workability of the screed or concrete

c) Coarse Aggregates: Aggregate most of which is retained on 4.75mm I.S. Sieve and containing only so much
finer material as is permitted for the various types described in the standard.
 Types: Coarse aggregate may be described as:
i. Uncrushed Gravel or stone which results from natural disintegration of rock,
ii. Crushed Gravel or Stone when it results from crushing of gravel or hard stone
iii. Partially Crushed Gravel or stone when it is a product of the blending a and b
 Properties: Aggregates shall comply with the requirements of IS 383. As far as possible one should prefer
natural aggregates. Other types of aggregates such as slag and crushed over-burnt brick or tile, which may be
found suitable with regard to strength, durability of concrete and freedom from harmful effects may be used
for plain concrete members, but such aggregates should not contain more than 0.5 percent of sulphates as SO,
and should not absorb more than 10 percent of their own mass of water.
 Size of Aggregate: The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should be as large as possible within the
limits specified but in no case greater than one-fourth of the minimum thickness of the member, provided
that the concrete can be placed without difficulty so as to surround all reinforcement thoroughly and fill the
comers of the form.

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 For most work, 20mm aggregate is suitable. Where there is no restriction to the flow of concrete into sections
40mm or larger size may be permitted. In concrete elements with thin sections, closely spaced reinforcement
or small cover, consideration should be given to the use of 10mm nominal maximum size.
 For heavily reinforced concrete members as in the case of ribs of main beams, the nominal Maximum size of
the aggregate should usually be restricted to 5mm less than the minimum clear distance between the main
bars or 5mm less than the minimum cover to the reinforcement whichever is smaller.
 Slab and Beams – 12mm to 18mm to 25mm size aggregate are used.
Coarse and fine aggregate shall be batched separately. All-in-aggregate may be used only where it is specifically
permitted by the engineer-in-charge.

d) Water:
 Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis,
salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel. Potable
water is generally considered satisfactory
 As a guide the following concentrations represent the maximum permissible values: To neutralize 100ml
sample of water, using phenolphthalein as an indicator, it should not require more than 5ml of 0.02
normal NaOH
 To neutralize 100ml sample of water, using mixed indicator, it should not require more than 25ml of 0.02
normal H2SO4.
 The pH value of water shall be not less than 6.
 Water used for mixing shall also be good for curing of concrete. However this water used for curing
should not produce any objectionable stain or unsightly deposit on the concrete surface. The presence of
tannic acid or iron compounds is objectionable.

 Water Cement Ratio

Definition: The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement used in
a concrete mix and has an important influence on the quality of concrete produced. A lower water-cement ratio
leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the mix more difficult to place. Placement difficulties can be
resolved by using plasticizers or super-plasticizers.
The concept of water–cement ratio was developed by Duff A. Abrams and first published in 1918.
Understanding: Concrete hardens as a result of the chemical reaction between cement and water (known
as hydration, this produces heat and is called the heat of hydration). For every weight of cement, about 0.25weight
of water is needed to fully complete the hydration reactions. This requires a water-cement ratio of 1:4 often given
as a proportion: 0.25.
Typical Ratios: However, a mix with a w/c ratio of 0.25 may not mix thoroughly, and may not flow well enough to
be placed, so more water is used than is technically necessary to react with the cement. More typical water-
cement ratios of 0.4 to 0.6 are used. For higher-strength concrete, lower water: cement ratios are used, along with
a plasticizer to increase flow ability.

Too much water will result in segregation of the sand and aggregate components from the cement paste. Also,
water that is not consumed by the hydration reaction may leave the concrete as it hardens, resulting in
microscopic pores (bleeding) that will reduce the final strength of the concrete. A mix with too much water will
experience more shrinkage as the excess water leaves, resulting in internal cracks and visible fractures (particularly
around inside corners) which again will reduce the final strength.

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e) Properties of Concrete
 Increase of strength with age. Where it can be shown that a member will not receive its full load within 28
days after the casting of its member the characteristic strength of the member may be increased by
multiplying with a factor e.g. factor for loading after 12 months is 1.2
 Tensile Strength: The tensile strength of concrete may be obtained from the formula given as, Flexural
Strength fct = 0.7√fck N/mm².
 Elastic Deformation: In the absence of test data the value of EC = 5000√fck
 Shrinkage of Concrete :
 The total shrinkage of concrete is dependent mainly upon the total amount of water present in the concrete at
the time of mixing and to a lesser extent on the cement content. The approximate value of shrinkage strain
may be taken as 0.0003.
 Creep: This is defined as a time dependent deformation at elevated temperature and under constant stress.
For concrete creep depends on 1. Constituents 2. Size of the member 3. Environmental conditions. 4. Water 5.
Stress in concrete 6. Age at loading. 7. Duration of loading.
 Thermal Expansion: Value may range from 0.6 x 10-⁵/⁰c – 1.3 x 10-⁵/⁰c

3.a1.3 The overall process of Concreting shall include
1) Mixing
2) Making of Formwork
3) Transporting Concrete
4) Placing Concrete in the Formwork
5) Compacting
6) Curing
7) Stripping of Formwork and removal of Props
1. Mixing of Concrete: Concrete is mixed by any two methods, based on requirement as per quality and quantity
of concrete required. Normally for mass concrete, where good quality of concrete is required, mechanical
mixer is used. Mixing by hand is employed only in specific cases. The mixing shall be continued until there is a
uniform distribution of the materials and the mass is uniform in color and consistency. If there is segregation
after unloading from the mixer, the concrete should be remixed. Mixing time shall be at-least 2 minutes or as
per manufacturer’s instruction.
Batching of Concrete: The constituents should be mixed by the weight of each constituent. Quantities of the
materials for the production of the required quantity of Concrete (of given mixture proportions) can be calculated
by the “Absolute Volume Method”.
 Calculations of masses of individual components for M25 Grade Concrete
Assuming Bulk Densities as follows:
 Cement - 15kN/m³,
 Sand - 17kN/m³
 Aggregate - 16.5kN/m³
The mix proportion of 1:1:2 by dry volume of materials is expressed in terms of masses
Cement = 1 x 1500 = 1500, Sand = 1 x 1700 = 1700, Coarse aggregate = 2 x 1650 = 3300
Hence ratio of masses w.r.t cement will be 1: : = 1 : 1.13 : 2.2
Ratio of masses of cement, sand and coarse aggregates = 1 : 1.13 : 2.2
In other words if you take 1 Ghamelas of Cement, Take 1.13 Ghamelas of Sand and 2.2 Ghamelas of Coarse
Aggregate.
The water to cement ratio = 0.45

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(@ 140 Ghamelas of 400mm dia and 100mm height will give 1cubic meter volume of material)
 Volume of Concrete Produced with one bag of cement for Concrete Grade M25:
Now we will calculate the volume of concrete that can be produced with one bag of cement (i.e. 50 kg cement) for
the mass proportions of concrete materials.
Thus, the absolute volume of concrete for 50kg of cement
.
Volume of Concrete = + + .
+ .

(Specific gravity of cement is 3.15 and of coarse and fine aggregate are 2.6)
. . .
Vc = + .
+ .
+ .

Thus, for the proportion of mix considered, with one bag of cement of 50kg, 0.102m³ of concrete can be produced.

 Quantities of materials for 1m³ of concrete for Concrete Grade M20:

We have considered an entrained air of 2%. Thus the actual volume of concrete for 1 cubic meter of compacted
concrete construction will be = 1 - 0.02 = 0.98m3.
Thus, the quantity of cement required for 1 cubic meter of concrete = 0.98/0.102 = 9.6 bags of cement.
The quantities of materials for 1m3 of concrete production can be calculated as follows:
Weight of cement required =9.6 x 50 = 480kg. (@ 45 Ghamelas)
Weight of fine aggregate (sand) =1 x 480kg = 480kg. (@ 39.5 Ghamelas)
Weight of coarse aggregate = 2 x 480 = 960kg (@ 82 Ghamelas)
Let us assume we want to cast a slab of 4m x 4m x 0.15m (Thickness) in M25 Grade Concrete
Then quantities required will be as follows: 2.4m³ of Concrete (The Practices of Design Mix may vary from one
Construction company to another)
1. Cement @ 1152kg or 108 Ghamelas
2. Fine Aggregate @ 1152kg or 94.8 Ghamelas
3. Coarse Aggregate of a mixture of 12mm to 18mm size = 2304kg OR 197 Ghamelas
4. Water @ 520kg

2. Formwork: Formwork (shuttering) is a temporary mould to provide support to fresh concrete when placed in
structural member until the concrete has set. This helps the
structural member to gain sufficient strength to carry its
self-load and load from other members.
There are many types of structural formwork or shuttering
based on its material, their use and the type of structural
members. They can be named based on that. However,
core functioning of the formwork remains the same. They
are accordingly called Footing Forms or Column Forms or
Wall Forms or Floor Forms. The detailing of each is based
on the pressure exerted by wet concrete in each case
I am talking only about Column Forms here.
Refer to the sketch shown here

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Column Forms – Formwork for RCC Column construction

Reinforced concrete column forms are subjected to lateral pressure because of their small cross section, large
heights and relatively high rates of concrete placement. Thus It is necessary to provide tight joints and strong tie
support to the formwork.
As the sizes of concrete column increases, the stiffness of the formwork must be increased by either increasing
thickness of sheathing or vertical stiffeners must be added to prevent sheathing deflection.
3. Transporting: After mixing, concrete shall be transported to the formwork as rapidly as possible by methods
which will prevent the segregation or loss of any of the ingredients or ingress of foreign matter or water and
maintaining the required workability.
During hot or cold weather, concrete shall be transported in deep containers. Other suitable methods to
reduce the loss of water by evaporation in hot weather and heat loss in cold weather may also be adopted.
4. Placing: The concrete shall be deposited as nearly as practicable in its final position to avoid re-handling. The
concrete shall be placed and compacted before initial setting of concrete commences and should not be
subsequently disturbed. Methods of placing should be such as to preclude segregation. Care should be taken
to avoid displacement of reinforcement or movement of formwork. As a general guidance, the maximum
permissible free fall of concrete may be taken as 1.5m.
5. Compaction: Concrete should be thoroughly compacted and fully worked around the reinforcement, around
embedded fixtures and into corners of the formwork.
Concrete shall be compacted using mechanical vibrators. Over vibration and under vibration of concrete are
harmful and should be avoided. Vibration of very wet mixes should also be avoided. Whenever vibration has
to be applied externally, the design of formwork and the disposition of vibrators should receive special
consideration to ensure efficient compaction and to avoid surface blemishes.
6. Curing: Curing is the process of preventing the loss of moisture from the concrete whilst maintaining a
satisfactory temperature regime. The curing regime should also prevent the development of high temperature
gradients within the concrete. Purposes of Curing are as follows:
 Enhance Hydration of Concrete to achieve desired Strength
 Improved durability of concrete by reducing cracks
 Higher serviceability performance by increasing abrasion resistance
 Improved microstructure by developing better hydrate gels and solid mass.
Methods of Curing:
 Moist Curing: Exposed surfaces of concrete shall be kept continuously in a damp or wet condition by
Spraying with Water, Ponding or by covering with a layer of Sacking, Canvas, Hessian or similar materials
and kept constantly wet for at least seven days from the date of placing concrete in case of O.P.C. The
period of curing shall not be less than 10 days for concrete exposed to dry and hot weather condition.
 Membrane Curing: Impermeable membranes such as polyethylene sheeting covering closely the concrete
surface may also be used to provide effective barrier against evaporation or Curing Compounds may be
applied to the surface after concrete has set with the permission of the Engineer in Charge.
7. Stripping Time:
Forms may be struck only after concrete has achieved a certain amount of strength that is generally half of what
concrete should achieve at loading and I.S.456 recommends as follows. (Page no 25 of IS 456 2000)
1. Walls, Columns, and Vertical Faces of Structural Members 16 – 24 Hours
2. Soffit Formwork of Slabs (Props to re-fixed immediately after removal) 3 days
3. Beams (Props to re-fixed immediately after removal) 7 days

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4.
Removal of props
1. For Slabs Spanning up to 4.5m 7 days
2. For Slabs Spanning over 5.5m 14 days
3. For Beams Spanning 6m 14 days
4. For Beams Spanning over 6m 21 days
 The number of props left under, their sizes and disposition shall be such as to be able to safely carry the full
dead load of the slab, beam or arch as the case may be together with any live load likely to occur during curing
or further construction.
 Where the shape of the element is such that the formwork has re-entrant angles, the formwork shall be
removed as soon as possible after the concrete has set, to avoid shrinkage cracking occurring due to the
restraint imposed.
Very Important: This gets us to one of the most important points in Concrete Construction. Given optimum
conditions of Material availability, Labor and all other technical support required, a careful analysis will show that
one floor of a R.C.C Building including Columns Beams and Slab will take at least a month to be completed.
Defects in Concrete and how to make them good
i. Segregation in concrete:
 Definition: Segregation in concrete is a case of particle segregation in concrete applications, in which
particulate solids tend to segregate by virtue of differences in the size, density, shape and other properties
Segregation usually implies separation of: (a) coarse aggregate from fine aggregate, (b) paste from coarse
aggregate, or water from the mix and the ingredients of the fresh concrete no longer remain uniformly distributed.
 Causes:
1) Poorly graded aggregate & excessive water content is the major cause of segregation.
2) A badly proportioned mix, where sufficient matrix is not there to bond and contain the aggregate cause
aggregates to settle down.
3) Insufficiently mixed concrete with excess water content shows a higher tendency for segregation.
4) When height of dropping of concrete is more (ex. In case of concreting long column) it will result in
segregation.
5) If a mixer used for mixing concrete is badly designed or a mixer with worn out blades, then the concrete shows
a tendency for segregation.
6) If a high slump concrete or pump able concrete are not compacted with sufficient care then it is likely to result
in segregation of concrete.
7) Immediate working on the concrete on placing, without any time interval is likely to press the coarse
aggregate down, which results in movement of excess matrix or paste towards the surface.
8) Chances of segregation are more when concrete is to be placed under water.
 How to Avoid Segregation:
1. The concrete mix should be properly designed with optimum quantity of water i.e. not too wet nor too dry.
2. Make sure the concrete is properly mixed at the correct speed in a transit mixture for at least two minutes.
Regularly check the performance of mixer with respect to adequate uniformity of distribution of constituents
in each batch.
3. Transport the concrete mix correctly. Choose the shortest route for transportation of concrete mix.
4. Place the concrete in its final position as soon as possible. Never place a concrete from large heights.
5. Formwork should be water tight so that no paste should leak from the forms. Do not vibrate formwork
6. Do not allow concrete to flow

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7. Use the vibrator correctly and never use the vibrator to spread a heap of concrete over a large area. Also
Vibrate for just the right time-not too long, not too less
8. Use chemical admixtures such as air entraining agent in the mix. Entrained air reduces the danger of
segregation
9. If any segregation is observed in concrete, remixing should be done so to make it homogeneous again
ii. Bleeding:
Definition: Bleeding in fresh concrete refers to the process wherein free water in the mix is pushed upward to the
surface due to the settlement of heavier solid particles such as cement and water. Some bleeding is normal but
excessive bleeding can be problematic.
 Effect of Bleeding on Concrete Stability:
 As mentioned above, water move upwards in bleeding, sometimes with this water certain amount of cement
moves along with water to the concrete surface. When the top surface is worked up with the trowel, the
aggregate goes down and cement paste forms at the top surface this is called ‘Laitance in concrete. Due to the
formation of Laitance, structures may lose its wearing capacity and decreases its life.
 Water while moving from bottom to the top, forms continuous channels. Due to these channels, concrete
becomes permeable and allow water to move, which forms water voids in the matrix and reduces the bond
between aggregate and the cement paste.
 Forming of water at the top surface of concrete results in delaying the surface finishing.
 Concrete becomes permeable and loses its homogeneity.
 Excessive bleeding breaks the bond between the reinforcement and concrete.
 Measures to Control Bleeding:
 Bleeding in concrete is controlled by Adding minimum water content in the concrete mix.
 Encouraging the use of air en-training admixtures in the mix.
 By adding more cement in the mix

iii. Honey Combing of Concrete:

Definition: When concrete is poured into the structural element forms it does not just flow in like water and fill up
the forms to the top. If it is not vibrated properly it may leave voids called “honeycombing.” The exposed
aggregate leaves a honeycomb look and hence the name. ... Honeycombing of concrete
 Causes:
 A lack of integrity at the perimeter form boards at the time the concrete is being poured.
 Improper cement to water ratio that causes poor workability
 Poor consolidation practices or inefficient means of vibration
 Remedies of Honeycomb in concrete:
 Concrete fall should be kept to the minimum.
 Use a mix with appropriate workability for the situation in which it is to be placed.
 Ensure the mix has sufficient fines to fill the voids between the coarse aggregate
 How to Fix Honey Combing: The common approach includes:
 Isolate the affected area by removing layers of honeycombing until suitable concrete is exposed.
 Thoroughly clean the area to be repaired and remove all dirt and loose aggregate. Wet the cleaned area prior
to applying non-shrink grout

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3.a1.4 Tests for Concrete: Tests for checking quality of concrete should be done for the following possible
Purposes.
1. To detect the variation in quality of concrete being supplied for a given specification.
2. To establish whether the concrete has attained a sufficient strength or concrete has set sufficiently for
stripping, stressing, de-propping, and opening to traffic etc.
3. To establish whether the concrete has gained sufficient strength for the intended purpose

Tests on fresh concrete:

 Workability Tests (slump test and others)
 Bleeding
 Air content
 Setting time
 Segregation resistance
 Unit weight
 Wet analysis
 Temperature
 Heat generation

Tests on hardened concrete:

 Compressive strength (cylinder, cube, core)
 Tensile strength: Direct tension
 Modulus of rupture
 Indirect (splitting)Test
 Density
 Modulus of elasticity
 Absorption
 Permeability Tests on Concrete
 Freeze/thaw resistance
 Resistance to aggressive chemicals
 Resistance to abrasion
 Bond to reinforcement
 Analysis for cement content and proportions
 In situ tests: Schmidt Hammer, Concrete pull-out, break-off, cones etc.
 Ultrasonic, nuclear

Remember many of these tests are carried on a day to day basis when the construction period of a
project stretches over many years. This assures constant quality and strength.

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We will detail out two most popular tests • Slump Test •Compressive Strength Test
i. SLUMP TEST FOR CONCRETE:
1. 1 The reasons for the selection of slump test in practice for quality control testing of concrete are
 Slump tests also checks for variation of construction materials in mix, mainly water-cement ratio.
 Slump test is easy and fast to determine quality of concrete before placement based on recommended slump
values for the type of construction.
 Slump test is most economical because it is done at site and does not require any laboratory or expensive
testing machine.
 Slump tests is done before the placement of concrete, so the quality of control is high as rejected mix can be
discarded before pouring into the structural member. So, dismantling or repair of defective concrete members
can be avoided.
The concrete slump test is used for the measurement of a property i.e. Workability / Consistency of fresh concrete.
The test is an empirical test, more specifically, it measures consistency between batches. The test is popular due to
the simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure.
Principle
The slump test result is a measure of the behavior of a compacted inverted cone of concrete under the action of
gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of concrete.
Apparatus
Slump cone, Scale for measurement & temping steel rod - 16 diameter & 600 mm long
Procedure of Concrete Slump test:
1. The mould for the slump test is a hollow frustum of a cone, 300mm of height, base dia. 200mm and top dia.
100mm.
2. The base is placed on a smooth surface and the container is filled with concrete (whose workability is to be
tested) in 3 layers.
3. Each layer is uniformly temped 25 times with a standard 600mm long 16mm dia. steel rod, rounded at the
end.
4. When the mould is completely filled with concrete, the top surface is struck off (leveled with mould top
opening) by means of screening and rolling motion of the temping rod.
5. The mould must be firmly held against its base during the entire operation so that it could not move due to
the pouring of concrete and this can be done by means of handles or foot - rests brazed to the mould.
6. Immediately (within 5 - 10 seconds)
after filling is completed and the
concrete is leveled, the cone is slowly
and carefully lifted vertically - An
unsupported concrete will now slump.
7. The decrease in the height of the
center of the slumped concrete is called
Slump.
8. The slump is measured by placing
the cone just besides the slump
concrete and the temping rod is placed over the cone so that it should also come over the area of slumped
concrete.
9. The decrease in height of concrete to that of mould is noted with scale, usually measured to the nearest 5mm

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Precautions
In order to reduce the influence
on slump of the variation in the
surface friction, the inside of
the mould and its base should
be moistened at the beginning
of every test, and prior to lifting
of the mould the area
immediately around the base of
the cone should be cleaned
from concrete which may have
dropped accidentally.

Types of Slump
The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the slump is termed
as;
1. True Slump - Correct slump - This concrete will be adopted for use & also for further tests.
2. Zero Slumps - Dry range - No variation can be detected between mixes - Concrete not workable.
3. Collapsed Slump - Concrete is too wet - Slump test not appropriate.
4. Shear Slump - Invalid test - Temping not uniform - Fresh sample to be taken - Test repeated.

Applications of Slump Test

1. The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different batches of similar concrete under field conditions and
to ascertain the effects of plasticizers on their introduction.
2. This test is very useful on site as a check on the day-to-day or hour- to-hour variation in the materials being
fed into the mixer. An increase in slump may mean, for instance, that the moisture content of aggregate has
unexpectedly increased.
3. Other cause would be a change in the grading of the aggregate, such as a deficiency of sand.
4. Too high or too low a slump gives immediate warning and enables the mixer operator to remedy the situation.
5. This application of slump test as well as its simplicity is responsible for its widespread use.
Interpretation of results
Degree of
Slump (mm) Use for which concrete is suitable
workability

0 - 25 Very low Very dry mix - Used in road making, vibrated by power operated machines.

Low workability mix - Used for foundations with light reinforcement, Roads
25 - 50 Low
vibrated by hand operated machines.

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Medium workability mix - Manually compacted flat slabs. Normal reinforced

50 - 100 Medium
concrete manually compacted and heavily reinforced sections.

High workability concrete - For sections with congested reinforcement. Not

100 - 175 High
normally suitable for vibration.
ii. Compressive Strength:
 The compressive strength of concrete is required to calculate the strength of the members.
Concrete specimens are cast and tested under the action of compressive loads to determine the strength of
concrete. In simple words, compressive strength is calculated by dividing the failure load with the area of
application of load, usually after 28 days of curing.
2
Thus the compressive strength of concrete is reported in N/mm in SI units.
This is usually called as the characteristic compressive strength of concrete (fck). For normal field applications, the
concrete strength can vary from 10N/mm2 to 60N/mm2
In Indian standards, the Compressive strength of concrete is determined by testing concrete 150mm cubes.
As per IS 516-1959 the code definition,
“The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of the characteristic compressive strength (fck) of
150mm size cubes tested on the 28th day of curing. The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of
the concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fail.
Minimum or specified Compressive Strength of concrete cubes of various Grades of Concrete at 28 days of curing,
are as follows.

 Compressive strength of different grades of concrete from 1 to 28 days

Grade of Minimum compressive strength Specified characteristic compressive strength
Concrete (N/mm2 ) (N/mm2)

as per days

1 3 7 14 28

(16%) (40%) (65%) (90%) (99%)

M15 2.4 6 9.75 13.5 15

M20 3.2 8 13 18 20

M25 4 10 16.25 22.5 25

The reason for testing the cube on the 28th day is that the compressive strength of concrete does not show any
significant rise in strength after the 28th day.
Procedure to determine Compressive Strength of Concrete Cube
 Apparatus:
 Compression testing mould - A cube of 150 mm, Testing Machine:

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The testing machine may be of any

reliable type of sufficient capacity
for the tests and capable of applying
the load at the specified rate. The
bearing faces of both plates shall be
at least as larger as and preferably
larger than the nominal size of the
specimen to which the load is
applied.

 Number of
Specimens:
At least three
specimens,
preferably from
different batches
shall be made for
testing at each
selected age.
Procedure:
Cured specimens
shall be tested
immediately on removal from the water and while they are still in the wet condition.
1. Place the specimen in the testing machine
2. The maximum load applied to the specimen shall be recorded and the appearance of the concrete and any
unusual features in the type of failure shall be noted.
 Calculation:
The measured compressive strength of the specimen shall be calculated by dividing the maximum load (N) applied
to the specimen during the test by the cross sectional Area (22,500 mm2), shall be expressed to the nearest
N/mm2. Average of three values shall be taken as the representative of the batch provided the individual variation
is not more than +/-15 percent of the average.
Difference between Compressive strength & Characteristic strength
Compressive strength is the applied pressure at which a given concrete sample fails.
Characteristic strength: Suppose you take a certain number of samples from a particular batch of concrete.
Characteristic strength would be that compressive strength below which not more than 5% of the samples are
expected to fail. Thus at least 95% of the samples have higher compressive strength than the characteristic
strength

iii. NDT for Concrete: (Just an Introduction) Non-destructive test is a method of testing existing
concrete structures to assess the strength and durability of concrete structure. In the non-destructive
method of testing, without loading the specimen to failure (i.e. without destructing the concrete) we can
measure strength of concrete. Now days this method has become a part of quality control process. This
method of testing also helps us to investigate crack depth, micro cracks and deterioration of concrete.
Non-destructive testing of concrete is a very simple method of testing but it requires skilled and experienced
persons having some special knowledge to interpret and analyze test results

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3.a1.5 R.C.C: Concrete and Steel

i. Introduction to R.C.C.
We have already studied the various grades of Concrete, their ingredients, Production of Concrete and Tests for
Concrete. We shall now be talking about R.C.C i.e. Reinforced Cement Concrete. Any Flexural Member or Spanning
Member (Simple Supported) is subjected to Compression above the Neutral Axis and Tension below the Neutral
Axis as we have studied in TOS II.
Concrete is good in compression but poor in tension as can be seen from the properties of Concrete. Concrete has
limited Shear Strength too.
Maximum Tensile Strength in Concrete is given by fct = 0.7√fckN/mm² i.e. 3.13N/mm² in case of M20 Grade
Concrete. Sometimes fct is also denoted as fcr to symbolize the cracking in concrete due to poor tensile resistance.
The Tensile Strength is also known as Flexural Cracking Strength.
This makes Concrete a poor material for Spanning or Bending Members subjected to Compressive and Tensile
Stresses. Hence we reinforce the Concrete by a small quantity of Steel in the appropriate areas to take care of
these Tensile Stresses. This is Reinforced Cement Concrete.
Generally this reinforcement is provided in the form of Round Bars of Various Diameters
ii. Why only Steel?
1. Steel Forms an excellent Bond with concrete. They act like one material in a Composite Material. (The
Bond action is discussed much later on in these series of lectures)
2. Steel and concrete have approximately same Thermal Coefficients of expansion, thus keeping the
structure uniform during temperature variations. Steel also bears the tensile forces generated while the
concrete expands thermally during fire or other temperature rise.
3. Steel has High Tensile Strength and is easily available in the form of Round Bars
4. Steel bears Compressive Stresses too. That's a bonus!
5. Steel together with concrete results in stability of the structure within affordable costs.

iii. Functions Types and Location of Reinforcement

1. To carry Direct or Bending Tension as in case of Beams, Slabs and Walls of water tanks. Such Steel is
known as Main Steel, this being the primary function of reinforcement. This Steel is provided on the
Tension Face as far away from the Neutral Axis as possible with minimum Cover.(Explained Later)

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2. To Distribute Load along the longer span in a slab, also to bind the Main Steel and keep it in position, take
care of Temperature Stresses and Shrinkage in Concrete. This is provided in the form of Temperature or
Distribution Steel of bars of smaller diameter generally in a Uniform mesh transverse to Main Steel. This
Steel also prevents Cracks in Concrete
3. To Strengthen the Concrete to resist Compression as in the case of Columns. This Steel is called Main Steel
or Longitudinal Bars located at corners and running Longitudinally along the faces
4. To Prevent Buckling of Longitudinal Bars in a Column and this is provided in the form of Links or Lateral
Ties or Spirals.
5. To Resist Diagonal Tension due to Shear, To Resist Shear and to hold Main steel in Position like in Beams.
These are called Shear Stirrups
Check the sketch on the adjoining page

3.a1.6 Types of Steel Used As Reinforcement in R.C.C

Steel is an intermediate form of cast iron and wrought iron. It is an alloy of iron and carbon containing carbon from
0.25 to 1.25%. Steel is highly elastic, ductile, malleable, weld able. When referring to the steel Fe refers to the
Ferrous Metal and the number refers to the specified guaranteed yield stress in N/mm².
Generally there are two types of steel bars available in the market.
1. Mild steel bars
2. Deformed steel bars

1. Mild steel bars (as per IS: 432, part-I -1982) Mild steel bars are used for tensile stress of RCC. These steel bars
are plain in surface and are round sections of diameter from 6 to 50 mm. These rods are manufactured in long
lengths and can be cut quickly and be bent easily without damage. This Steel possesses a well-defined yield
point. This steel is weld able. Mild steel bars can be supplied in two grades a)Mild steel bars grade-I
designated as Fe 250- Grade 60 (Yield Strength 250N/mm²) b) Mild steel bars grade-II designated as Fe 250
Grade 40 (Yield Strength 225N/mm²)
2. High Strength Deformed Bars (I.S. 1786 – 1985).All deformed bars are rods of steels provided with lugs, ribs or
deformation on the surface and are produced in the form of cold twisted deformed bars. These bars minimize
slippage in concrete and increase the bond between the two materials. Deformed bars have more
compressive and tensile stresses than that of mild steel plain bars. These have improved Anchorages and can
be used without end hooks or bent up ends. To limit cracks that may develop in reinforced concrete around
mild steel bars due to stretching of bars and some loss of bond under load it is common to use deformed bars
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 64

that have projecting ribs or are twisted to improve the bond with concrete. These bars are produced in
diameters from 8mm to 50mm. In addition the strength of bonds of deformed bars calculated should be 40 to
80 % higher than that of plain round bars of same nominal size. TMT (Thermo Mechanically Treated) are high
strength deformed bars, produced with the latest technology and are used widely now.
 Features of HSD Bars:
1. Low carbon value: - HSD Bars have lower carbon level, resulting in good ductility, strength and welding ability.
2. Superior Bonding strength: - HSD bars are well known for their excellent bonding strength when used with
concrete.
3. Welding capability: - Since these bars have lower carbon content, they have 100% welding capability than
conventional bars.
4. High tensile strength: - HSD bars feature high tensile strength. They offer great asset in construction process,
where a lot of bending and re bending is required.
5. Wide application range: - These bars have wide application range like in building residential, commercial and
industrial structures, bridges, etc.
6. Satisfactory Malleability: - minimum weight and maximum strength and suitable for both compression and
tension reinforcement.
Two Types of High Strength Deformed bars are
1. Fe 415 - Yield Strength 415N/mm² 2. Fe 500 - Yield Strength 500N/mm²
 Precautions in the use of Steel Reinforcement
1. Steel bars should be clear, free from loose mill scales, dust and loose rust coats of paints, oil or other coatings
which may destroy or reduce bond strength.
2. Steel bars should be stored in such a way as to avoid distortion and to prevent deterioration and corrosion.
3. Steel bars should not be cleaned by oily substance to remove the rust.
4. The bar should be bent correctly and accurately to the size and shape as shown in drawings.
5. Overlapping bars should not touch each other. These should be kept apart with concrete.
6. The overlap if given should be staggered. As far as possible use a full bar
7. The cranks in the bar at the end should be kept in position by using spots.
8. The steel bars should not be disturbed while laying cement concrete.
9. Required cover under steel bars should be given before laying the cement concrete.
10. No overlap is given in the bar having a diameter more than 36 mm, if required, the bar should be welded
We shall be using a Combination of M25 Grade Concrete and Fe 500 steel
Bars available with their areas is given below, 6mm is available only if Fe250
Bar Diameter Area
6mm 28mm²
8mm 50.3mm²
10mm 78.5mm²
12mm 113mm²
16mm 201mm²
20mm 314mm²
25mm 490mm²

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3.a1.7 Typical R. C.C Flexural Section i.e. for a Slab or Beam is as follows

 Cover to steel reinforcement is provided for the following reasons

1. To protect the steel reinforcement bars from environmental effects i.e. corrosion
2. To provide thermal insulation i.e. from Fire
3. To give reinforcing bars sufficient embedding to enable them to be stressed without slipping.
The adjoin table 16 and
16a are taken from
I.S.456 and covers are to
be decided for different
R.C.C elements based on
the exposure to outside
climatic conditions and
for different fire
resistance times

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 66

From I.S.456 as per Durability and fire Resistance Requirements the following is a summary of the covers to various
R.C.C elements we will be dealing with.
i.Slab: 15mm -20mm depending on exposure conditions, size of bar and size of aggregate.
ii.Beam: 25mm
iii.Column: 40mm
iv.Footing: 50mm
v.Retaining Walls: 50 - 60mm

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 67

Suggested Theory Questions: TOS 3: Unit 3a: Concrete Technology and Standard
R.C.C. Section
Write Short Notes on:

1. Requirements of a Good Concrete

2. Grade of Concrete, Different Grades and their Mix Proportion
3. Cement, Grades, Use in Concrete
4. Sand or Fine Aggregate in Concrete, Size and Requirements of good Sand
5. Coarse Aggregate- Size, Requirements of good coarse aggregate
6. Water in Concrete
7. Water Cement Ratio
8. Overall Process in Production of Concrete
9. Mixing and Batching of Concrete
10. Form Work for Concrete
11. Transporting and Placing of Concrete
12. Curing of Concrete - Importance, Methods
13. Stripping - Definition - Stripping Times for various R.C.C elements
14. Segregation and Bleeding in Concrete.
15. Honey Combing in Concrete
16. List of Tests on Fresh Concrete and Hardened Concrete
17. Reasons for Popularity of Slump Test and Procedure of Slump Test

18. Different types of Slump

19. Results and Interpretation of Results of Slump Test
20. Compressive Cube Test - Procedure
21. Compressive Strength and Characteristic Strength of Concrete
22. Segregation, Bleeding and Honey Combing in Concrete
23. Grades of Steel
24. Reasons for Reinforcing Concrete
25. Reasons for Using Steel as the Material for Reinforcing Concrete
26. Different Locations and Functions for Steel in R.C.C
27. What precautions must be taken in the use of Steel in R.C.C
28. Standard R.C.C Section with different terms
29. Cover - Need - List of Covers for different R.C.C Elements

TOS 3 Unit 3a Concrete Technology & Standard R.C.C Section Compiled by Ar.Arthur Cutinho, Ar.Prashant Joshi