21.

MOVING CHARGES
AND MAGNETISM

1. INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters on electrostatics and current electricity, we have studied about the electric force and electric
field. Another important property associated with moving charges is the magnetic force and the magnetic field.
The current flowing in a conductor produces a magnetic field and any charge moving in this field will experience a
magnetic force which will depend on the velocity (both magnitude and direction) as well as on some property of
the field. We will study the properties and laws governing the magnetic field and magnetic force in detail in this
chapter.
There are a wide variety of industrial and medical applications of magnetic fields and forces. Common example, is
the use of electromagnet to lift heavy pieces of metal. Magnets are used in CD and DVD players, computer hard
drives,loud speakers, headphones, TVs, and telephones. We are surrounded by magnets. Right from our doorbells
to cars to security alarm systems and in our hospitals, magnets are being used everywhere.

2. LORENTZ FORCE: DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC FIELD B

If electric field and magnetic field occur simultaneously in a region then the force acting on a point charge q in

the region will depend both on the position of the charge as well as on its velocity. The force F will have two
  
components, viz. the electric force Fe and magnetic force Fm . The force Fe does not depend on the motion of

the charge, but only on its position, while Fm depends both on charge’s velocity and position (see Fig. 21.1). The
 
magnitude of Fe is qE and direction is along E (q is positive).
 
To know the direction and magnitude of Fm we introduced a vector B called magnetic flux density ormagnetic
induction, which characterizes the magnetic field at a particular
 Y
point. Experiments show that the force Fm isproportional to the

magnitude of charge q, to the velocity v of the charge and the B

magnitude of density B , this force being always perpendicular
 
to vector v as well as vector B . Also, if the charge moves along
 +q
the direction of B at a point then the magnetic force on it is zero.
O X
We can summarize all these experimental results with the
following vector equation: F = q( x B)
   Z
Fm = q v xB

That is, the force Fm on the point charge is equal to the Figure 21.1: Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge
2 1 . 2 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

 
charge q times the cross product of its velocity v and the field B (all measured in the same reference frame). Using

formula for the magnitude of cross product, we can write the magnitude of = Fm as Fm q vB sin θ where θ is the
 
angle between the velocity v and magnetic field B .
If angle θ is 90o, then the above relation for magnetic force can be used to define the magnitude of magnetic flux
density B as,
Fm
B =
q v⊥

where v ⊥ is the velocity component perpendicular to vector B .
  
Thus, the total electromagnetic force acting on charge q is given as, F= Fe + Fm
   
or F = qE + q[v × B]

This is called Lorentz force.

The unit of B is Tesla abbreviated as T. If q=1 C, v=1 ms-1, sin θ=1 for θ = 90o, and Fm = 1 N,then B=1 T = 1
Weber-m-2. Thus 1 Tesla is defined as the unit of magnetic field strength in S.I units which when acting on 1 C of
charge moving with a velocity of 1 ms-1 at right angles to the magnetic field exerts a force of 1 N in a direction
perpendicular to that of field and velocity vectors. C.G.S. units of magnetic field strength or magnetic induction is
1 gauss or 1 oersted. 1 gauss = 1 oersted= 10-4T.

Illustration 1: A 2 MeV proton is moving perpendicular to uniform magnetic field of 2.5 T. What is the magnetic
force on the proton? (Mass of proton = 1.6 x 10-27 kg) (JEE MAIN)

mp v 2
Sol: Kinetic energy of proton is K.E. = . 1 MeV=1.6 x 10-13J.
2
1
K.E = 2 MeV = 2 x 1.6 x 10-13J or mv2= 3.2 x 10-13J
2

2x3.2x10−13 2x3.2x10−13
∴V= = = 2 x 107 m s-1
m 1.6x10−27
Now, magnetic force on proton, F= ev B = 1.6 x 10-19 x 2 x 107 x 2.5 = 8.0 x 10-12 N


Illustration 2: A charged particle is projected in a magnetic field = B (3i + 4j)x10−2 T

The acceleration of the particle is found to be,=a (xi + 2j) ms−2 Find the value of x.  (JEE MAIN)

Sol: Magnetic force on a moving charge is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Therefore the dot product of force
and magnetic field vector is zero.
     
As we have read Fm ⊥ B i.e., the acceleration a ⊥ B or a ⋅B =0
8
or (xi + 2 j) ⋅ (3i + 4 j) x10 −2 =
0 ; (3x+8)x102=0 ∴ x= − ms−2
3

3. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD

Suppose in a particular inertial reference frame K, the electric field is zero and the magnetic field has a non-zero

finite value. A point charge is moving with some velocity v in the frame K and thus experiences a magnetic force,
and its velocity changes. Now suppose we have a frame K’ translating with respect to frame K withconstantvelocity

v . In the frame K’,the point charge is initially at rest, and so the magnetic force on it will be zero. Butas its velocity
changes in the K frame, its velocity changes in the K’ frame as well, i.e. it experiences a force in K’ frame as well.
 P hysi cs | 21.3


This initial force on it is the force Fe due to electric field in the K’ frame.Thus the magnetic field in K frame appears
as a combination of electric field and magnetic field in K’ frame. The electric and magnetic fields are thus inter-
dependent. We introduce a single physical entity called electromagnetic field. Whether the electromagnetic field
will appear as electric field or magnetic field depends on the frame of reference. If we confine to a particular
reference frame, we can treat electric fieldand magnetic field as separate entities. A field which is constant in one
reference frame in the general case is found to vary in another reference frame.

4. MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

Magnetic field lines are used to represent the magnetic field in a region. The rules to construct the magnetic field
lines are:-
(a) The
 direction of tangent to a magnetic field line at a point gives the direction of magnetic flux density vector
B at that point.

(b) The density of the magnetic field lines at a point isproportional to the magnitude of vector B at that point. At
points where the field lines are closer together, the magnetic field is stronger.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

•• In case of a bar magnet, the density of magnetic field lines is high at points near the poles, and the
density at pointsnear the center of the magnet is low.
•• If we place a magnetic compass at any point in the earth’s magnetic field, it will align itself in the
direction of the magnetic field lines.
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009 AIR 22)

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

•• Common misconception about magnetic field lines is that it is the path followed by a magnetic
north pole in a magnetic field.
•• This is not correct. It is the instantaneous direction of the magnetic force acting on the magnetic
north pole in the magnetic field.
Vaibhav Gupta (JEE 2009 AIR 54)

5. EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic field is present everywhere near the earth’s surface. The line of earth’s magnetic field lies in a vertical plane
coinciding with the magnetic north-south direction at that place i.e. the plane passing through the geomagnetic
poles. This plane is called the Magnetic Meridian. This plane is slightly inclined to the plane passing through the
geographic poles called the geographic meridian.The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic
meridian at a point is called the declination at that point. The earth’s magnetic poles are opposite to the geographic
poles i.e. at earth’s North Pole, its magnetic south pole is situated and vice versa.
In the magnetic meridian plane, the magnetic field vector of the earth at any point, is generally inclined to the
horizontalat that pointby an angle called the magneticdip at that point. If magnetic field of the earth at that point
is B and the dip is θ,
2 1 . 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

Bv = the vertical component of B in the magnetic meridian plane = B sinθ

BH = the horizontal component of B in the magnetic meridian plane = B cosθ.
BV
= tan θ
BH

6. MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD

6.1 Trajectory of a Charged Particle Moving in Uniform Electric Field
Let a positively charged particle having charge +q and mass m
Charged
enter at origin O with velocity v along X-direction in the region Y P
Plate
where electric field Eis along the Y-direction (see Fig. 21.2).
E
Force acting on the charge +q due to electric field E is given by – – – –
  O´
F = qE y
  +q
 F  qE
Acceleration of the charged particle
= is a = or a ...(i) O v C X
m m 
 Charged
The charged particle will accelerate in the direction of E and get + + + + Plate
deflected from its straight line path. x Screen

During its motion in the region of electric field, along x-axis we

Figure 21.2: Charged particle moving
have ux=v and ax= 0 and x = vt
in electric field
x
or t= …(ii)
v
qE
Along y axis we have, uy = 0, ay = (∴ Initially the particle was moving along x-direction)
m
1 2
y = a t
2 y

1  qE  2
∴ y=  t
2 m 
2
1  qE   x  qEx2
Using Eq, (ii), we get y =     or =y = Kx2 …(iii)
2  m  v  2mv 2
qE
where K= is a constant.Thus the charged particle moves along a parabolic trajectory.
2mv 2

6.2 Trajectory of a Charged Particle Movingin Uniform Magnetic Field


(a) Magnetic force acting on a charged  particle moving with velocity v parallel
x
x
(θ=0) or antiparallel (θ=180o) to B , will be zero. Thus the trajectory of the x
particle is a straight line. x B
x x
  x
(b) If velocity v of the particle is perpendicular to B i.e. θ =90o, then magnetic x
force is F= qvB and the direction of this force is always perpendicular to v. The x x
charged particle moves in a circular trajectory (see Fig. 21.3). x x
  q x x x
(c) If velocity v of the charged particle makes an angle θ with B , the particle 
moves in a helical path. The component v sin θ which is perpendicular to B
drives the charged particle along a circular  path whereas the component v Figure 21.3: Charged particle
cos θ , which is parallel or antiparallel to B , remains unchanged as there is moving in uniform magnetic
no magnetic force along the direction of B . Thus the charged particle moves field in electric field
along a helical path (see Fig. 21.4).
 P hysi cs | 21.5

(d) The magnetic force on the component of velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field provides the centripetal
force to the charged particle to follow a circular trajectory of radius r.

mv 2⊥
qqv
v ⊥⊥ B =
r
mv ⊥
or r =
qB v sin  v
v ⊥ qB
Angular velocity, =
ω =
r m

qB 
Frequency f = B
2πm
Figure 21.4: Charged particle moving in
2πm helical path in uniform magnetic field
Time period T=
qB

Time period T is independent of v.

7.DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON

The Fig. 21.5 shows the simplified version of Thomson’s’ experiment. An electric field E is established
 in the region
between the deflecting plates by connecting a battery across their terminals. The magnetic field B in the region
between the deflecting plates is directed into the plane of the figure.

+
E
B Spot of
Filament light
x x x x x
x x x x x
Screen C

– Screen S
Glass
envelope
v
To vacuum pump

Figure 21.5: Thomson’s experimental set up

Charged particles (electrons) are emitted by a hot filament at the rear of the evacuated cathoderay tube and are
accelerated by an applied potential difference V. After they pass through a slit in screen C, they form a narrow
beam. They then pass through the region between the deflecting plates, headed towards the center of fluorescent
 
screen S, where they produce a spot of light. The crossed-fields E and B in the region between the deflecting

plates can deflect them from the center of the screen. By controlling the magnitude and directions of the fields, E

and B the deflection of the charged particles can be controlled.
 
When both the fields E and B are turned-off the beam of charged particles reaches the screen un-deflected.

When field E is turned-on the beam of charged particles is deflected.
  
Keeping the field E unchanged, field B is also turned-on.The magnitude of B is adjusted such that the deflection
2 1 . 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

of the charged particles becomes zero. In this situation the electric force on the charged particles is balanced by
the magnetic force.
  
q E = −q v ×B
  
or E =− v × B
 
The ratio of magnitudes of E and B in this situation gives the speed of the charged particles.
E
v =
B

When only field E is turned-on, the displacementof the charged particlesin the y-direction, when they reach the
end of the plates, as derived in article 6.1 is

q EL2
y =
2m v 2

where v is the particle’s speed along x-direction, mits mass, qits charge, and L is the length of the plates. The
direction of deflection of charged particles show that the particles are negatively charged.
Substituting the value of v in terms of E and B we get,

q B2 L2
y =
2mE

m B2 L2
or =
q 2 yE

Thus in this way the mass to charge ratio of electrons was discovered.

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

Charged particle motion as a points on wheel

•• 1. Suppose electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and a charged particle is
projected perpendicular to magnetic field, its motion can be assumed as that of the motion of a
particle on a wheel
•• 2. The point could be inside, on or outside the wheel depending on the problem
•• 3. Suppose in this field it is projected in any other way (expect along the magnetic field) its horizontal
motion is still like that of a point on a wheel, while vertical motion will be uniform velocity motion
•• 4. To such problem, just resolve the particle velocity in to along the magnetic field and perpendicular
to it
•• 5. If electric field is not perpendicular, resolve it also into along and perpendicular to magnetic field
and solve accordingly.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012 AIR 134)

8. HALL EFFECT
The Hall Effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across acurrent carrying conductor, lying
in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. The hall voltage is produced in the direction transverse to the
electric current in the conductor. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.Hall Effect allows us to find out whether the
 P hysi cs | 21.7

charge carries in a conductor are positively or negatively charged

i i
and the number of charge carries per unit volume of the conductor.
 d
External magnetic field B , points into the plane of a copper strip +

-
E
of width d, carrying a current I as shown in Fig. 21.6.The magnetic
  
force Fm will act on each drifting electron, towards the right edge B B + -
of the strip. As the electrons accumulate on the right edge, positive + -
  
charges are induced on the left edge and an electric field E is vd vd
+ -
 
produced within the strip, directed from left to right.This field FB

FC FB

exerts an electric force Fe on each electron, towards the left edge + -

of the strip.The hall potential difference V across the width of the


strip,due to the electric field E isV=Ed.
When the electric and magnetic forces balance each other, eE=evdB Figure 21.6: Hall Effect in conductor
or E = vd B
J I
Thedrift speed vd is given as v=
d =
ne neA

BI Cross − sec tion Area

So we obtain n= where  (= ) is the thickness of the strip.
Ve Width

Illustration 3:Copper has 8.0 x 1028 conduction electrons per metre3. A copper wire of length 1 m and cross-
sectional area 8.0 x 10-6 m2 carrying a current and lying at right angle to magnetic field of strength 5 x 10-3 T
experiences a force of 8.0 x 10-2N. Calculate the drift velocity of free electrons in the wire. (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: If v is the drift speed of electrons then the magnetic force on the wire is
o
=F qvBsin
= θ qvBsin90
= qvB
where q is the total charge of electrons in the wire.
n=8.0 x 1028 m-3
l= 1 m; A=8.0 x 10-6m2
Charge on each electron, e=1.6 x 10-19 C
Number of electrons in the copper wire = n x volume of wire = n(A l)
Total charge in the wire, q=n((A l)e or q=8.0 x 1028 x 8.0 x 10-6 x 1 x 1.6 x 10-19=1.024 x 105C

F 8.0x10−2
Using F=qvB sin θ, we have,
= ν = = 1.563 x 10-4m s-1
qBsin θ 1.024x105 x5x10−3 x sin90o

9. MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING WIRE

Suppose in a conductor number of free electrons per unit volume is n, then in an infinitesimal volume dV in the
conductor, the total charge of free electrons will be
dq = ne dV
 
If the magnetic field at the location of the elementary volume is B , and the drift velocity of free electrons is v d then
the magnetic force on the elementary volume will be
  
=dF ne[v d × B]dV
Now we know that the current density is given as
2 1 . 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

 
j = nev d
  
So dF= [ j × B]dV
   
Introducing the vector d  in the direction of current we can write, j dV =∆ j S d =I d  . Here ΔS is the area of
cross-section and d the length of the elementary volume dV.
  
So = dF I [d  × B]
  
The total magnetic force on the conductor= is F I ∫ [d  × B]

For a thin straight wire of length L, if the field B is constant throughout the length of the wire and perpendicular
to it, we can write
F = I L B
   
In vector form we can write, =
F I L ×B , where L is a length vector that has magnitude L and is directed along the
wire segment in the direction of the (conventional) current.
L’
Few important points regarding the force on current carrying conductor -
in magnetic field are given below: L

(a) In a uniform magnetic field the force, dF= IBd sin θ , does not I

depend on the position vector r of the current element.Thus
this force is non-central. (Acentral force is a function of position Figure 21.7: Current carrying conductor in
  
uniform magnetic fieldr
vector r , F = f(r ) )
 
(b) Theforce dF is always perpendicular to the plane containing B
  
and d  .Vectors B and d  may or may not be perpendicular to
each other. I
(c)
As explained above, the total magnetic force on the conductor is
  
=F I ∫ [d  × B]
 I
For uniform magnetic field, B can be taken out from the integral. -
   Fnet = 0
=F I  ∫ d   × B
 Figure 21.8: Current carrying loop in
According to the law of vector addition ∫ d  is equal to the length
 uniform magnetic field
vector L from initial to final point of the conductor as shown in
Fig. 21.7. For a conductor of any arbitrary shape the magnitude

of vector L is different from the actual length L’ of the conductor.
  
∴ F = IL xB
(d) For a current carrying closed loop of any arbitrary shape placed 
in a uniform magnetic field (see Fig. 21.8), I -
B
  
= F I  �  ×B 0
∫ d =

Uniform
field

Here as we add all the elementary vectors d  around the closed -
loop, the vector sum is zero because the final point is same as Fnet = 0
the initial point. net = 0
-

 Figure 21.9: Area vector of closed loop

∴ �∫ d  = 0 is in direction of uniform magnetic field
Thus the net magnetic force on a current loop in a uniform
magnetic field is always zero.
However, different parts of the loop do experience different net forces, although the vector some of all these
 P hysi cs | 21.9

forces comes out to be zero.

So the loop may experience some infinitesimal contraction or
expansion, thus may be under tension. I
Although the resultant of magnetic forces acting on the loop is
zero, the resultant torque due the magnetic forces may not be zero.
Thus the torque on a loop in a uniform magnetic field is not always
-
zero. Fnet = 0
(e) When a current carrying closed loop is placed in a non-uniform  0
-
net

magnetic field, in the general case it will experience non-zero net

force as well as net torque. Figure 21.10: Area vector of closed loop
is perpendicular to uniform magnetic field
Even a conductor of arbitrary shape not forming a loop, will
magnetic field
experience a torque in a non-uniform field.
If the conductor is free to move, it will execute combined
translational and rotational motion.
(f) When a current carrying conductor or closed loop translates or rotates in a magnetic field, the kinetic energy
gained by it is, not due to the work done by magnetic forcesbut, at the expense of the energy supplied by the
electric source which is maintaining current in the conductor/loop.

I1 I1
I2 I2
-
Fnet

- -
Fnet  0 Fnet  0
 =0
-
net  0
-
net

Figure 21.11: Closed loop in non-uniform magnetic field

The net work done by magnetic forces acting on a current carrying conductor is zero.
Though it may appear that,
    
W= ∫ F.dr =∫ [ I ∫ (d  × B)].dr =
∆K

but actually the kinetic energy is supplied by the electric source.

Illustration 4: A wire 12 cm long and carrying a current of 2 A is placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
If a force of 0.8 N acts on it, calculate the value of the magnetic induction. (JEE MAIN)

Sol: This problem can be solved using formula

= F BI sin θ for force on current carrying wire in uniform magnetic
field.
 = 12 cm = 12 x 10-2 m ; I = 2 A ; F = 0.8 N; θ =90o

F 0.8
Using, F= BIlsin θ , we=
get B = = 3.3 T
I  sin θ 2x12x10−12 x sin90o
2 1 . 1 0 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

9.1 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

If the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand are stretched mutually perpendicular to each other and if the
first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the second middle finger points in the direction of the
current in the conductor, then the direction of thumb gives the direction of force on the conductor.

Field

Current

Figure 21.12: Fleming’s Left hand Rule

10. TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP

Let us consider a square loop PQRS having side  and area A=l2 -
B
-
B
(See Figure). Let us introduce a unit vector n̂ normal to the plane I -
F1
of the loop whose direction is related to the direction of current P Q
in the loop by the right-hand
 screw rule. Area of the loop can be
2
written in vector form as A =  n .
ˆ
- -
If current I in the loop is anti-clockwise then the vector n̂ will be 
F2 F4
directed along the perpendicular to the plane of the paper towards M N
the reader as shown in the Fig. 21.13. Suppose the loop is placed

in a uniform magnetic field B directed along the perpendicular I
to the plane of the paper towards the reader, i.e. along the vector S -
F3
R
n̂ .In this situation, the magnitude of magnetic force on each of
    
the branches of the loop will be IB, i.e. F=1 F=
2 F=
3 F=
4 I B . -
B
-
B
The direction of force on each branch can be found by Fleming’s
    Figure 21.13: Zero torque on closed
left hand rule. We can easily see that F1 = − F3 and F1 and F3 have
    loop in uniform magnetic field
same line of action. Similarly F2 = − F4 and F2 and F4 have same
line of action.So, the net force as well as the net torque on the loop PQRS is zero.
-
F1
Now suppose the loop is rotated through an angle θ about the -
B
-
B
lineMN as shown in Fig. 21.14).So the anglebetween vector n̂ and P’ I Q’
 P
B will beθ. In this situation each of the sides Q’R’ and S’P’ makes an Q
  
angle 90o-θ with the magnetic field B so that F= F= I  Bcos θ  
2 4
   
and again we have F2 = − F4 and F2 and F4 have same line of
- -
F2 F4
action. The side PQ shifts to P’Q’ and RS shifts to R’S’ such that M N
 
PQ || P'Q' and RS || R'S' so that F= 1 F=
3 I  B and again we have
   
F1 = − F3 , but the lines of action of F1 and F3 are displaced from
S R
I
each other by a distance of lsinθ. This forms a force couple, and S’
the torque due to it will have magnitude -
B -
-
B
F3
τ = (I  B)  sin θ = I 2 Bsin θ = I A B sin θ
Figure 21.14: 14 Non-zero torque on closed
This torque is directed along the line MN.
loop in uniform magnetic field
 P hysi cs | 21.11

  
In vector form we can write τ= I A ×B
    
Defining magnetic dipole moment of the loop as M = I= A I Anˆ , we can write torque as τ= M×B
 
If the number of turns in the loop is N then we have,
= M NI=A NI Anˆ
Note that although this formula has been derived for a square loop, it comes out to be true for any shape of the
loop.

Illustration 5: A vertical circular coil of radius 0.1 m has moment of inertia as 1 x 10-1kg m2.It is free to rotate along
y-axis coinciding with its diameter. Initially axis of the coil and direction of magnetic field of 1 T are along x-axis.
The coil takes a quarter rotation. Find  (JEE ADVANCED)
(i) Magnetic field strength at the center of the coil. Current of 3.19 A flows through this coil having 200 turns.
(ii) Magnetic moments of the coil.
(iii) Torque at the initial and final positions of the coil.
(iv) Angular speed at the final position.
    dω dω
Sol: The torque on coil is τ = − M × B where M the magnetic moment of coil is. As torque τ = I α = I = I ω,
integrating equation of torque we get the angular velocity. dt d θ

µ NI (4 πx10−7 )(200)(3.19)
B = 0 , we have B = 4x10−6 T
(i) Using =
2R 2x0.1

(ii) Magnetic moment, m = NIA=NI (πR2)= 200 x 3.19 x πx(0.1)2 = 20Am2

(iii) Torqueτ=N1ABsin θ =m sin θ ; initially θ =0 so sin θ =0 and τ=0

Finally, θ =90o so sin θ =sin90o=1 i.e., τ =mB; i.e.τ=20x4x10-6x1=8x10-5Nm

dω dω dω dω dθ dω
(iv)
= Γ I and
= Γ mBsin θ ; I mBsin θ, But
= =x =ω Then, Iωdω=(mB sin θ )d θ
dt dt dt dθ dt dθ

ω π /2
Iω2 90
Integrating, we get I ∫ ωdω = mB ∫ sin θdθ i.e, = −mBcos θ | = mB
0 0
2 0
1/2 1/2
 2mB   2x8x10−5 
i.e.
= ω =    =4 x 10-2 rad s-1
 I   0.1 

Note:
(a) Never use Fleming left-hand rule or right hand rule while solving questions. It becomes cumbersome to
remember them precisely. Instead always find the direction of force by identifying the directions of motion
and the field and then take the cross-product.
 
(b) Also, torque can be directly calculated by formula M × B , where M is the magnetic dipolemoment as discussed
below.

11. MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

S N
Every current carrying loop behave like a magnetic dipole. It has two poles, north
(N) and south (S) similar to a bar magnet. (see Fig. 21.15) Magnetic field lines are
closed pathsdirected from the North Pole to the South Pole in the region outside
the magnetic dipole and from South Pole to North Pole inside the magnetic dipole. Figure 21.15: North and South
Pole of current coil
2 1 . 1 2 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

 
Each loop has magnetic dipole moment defined as M = NI A , where N is the number of turns in the loop, I is the
current in the loop andA is the area of cross-section of the loop.

For the direction of M any one of following methods can be used:
 
(a) The direction of M is from South Pole to North Poles we traverse inside the magnetic M
dipole. For a current loopthe North and the South Pole can be identified by the sense
of current. The side fromwhere the current seems to flow clockwise is the South Pole i
and the opposite side from where it seems to flow anticlockwise is theNorth Pole.
 
(b) Vector M is along the normal to the plane of the loop. The direction of M is related
to the direction of current in the loop by the right hand screw rule. Curl the fingers of
the right hand around the perimeter of the loop in the direction of current as shown
in Fig.21.16. Then thumb extendedperpendicular to the plane of the loop, points in
 Figure 21.16: Right
the direction of M . hand screw rule
The potential energy U of a magnetic dipole placed in a uniform magnetic field is
U= − MBcos θ
  M
or U = − M.B
For a bar magnet we define the magnetic dipole moment as
 
M= m

Here m is the pole strength of the bar magnet and vector  is directed from South Pole
to North Pole.
The unit of magnetic dipole moment is A-m2.
Figure 21.17: Direction of
The magnetic field at a large
 distance x on the magnetic axis of a bar magnet having magnetic moment
magnetic dipole moment M is

 µ0  2M 
B=  
4 π  x3 
The magnetic
 field at a large distance x on the perpendicular bisector of a bar magnet having magnetic dipole
moment M is

 µ0  M 
B= −  
4 π  x3 

Illustration 6: A square loop OABCO of side  carries a current I. It is placed as shown in Fig. 21.18. Find magnetic
moment of the loop. (JEE MAIN) z
A
Sol: The magnetic moment of the loop is M = I A for single turn. The direction

of M is related to the direction of current in the loop by the right hand screw rule. B
As discussed earlier, magnetic moments of the loop can be written as, i
  
( )
O
M = I BCxCO o
y
60
    3 C
Here, BC =  k CO = − cos60o ˆi −  sin60o j =− i − j x
2 2
  Figure 21.18
  −  i −  3 j   or
  I2
∴ M = I ( − k)x = M (j − 3 i)
  2 2  2
  
 P hysi cs | 21.13

Illustration 7:Find the magnitude of magnetic moment of the current carrying C

loop ABCDEFA. Each side of the loop is 10 cm long and current in the loop is
i=20 A. (JEE ADVANCED)
D
Sol: The magnetic moment of the loop is M = I A for single turn. If a loop is B
divided into different parts, the magnetic moment of entire loop is vector sum
of the magnetic moments of its individual parts. A
E
By assuming two equal and opposite currents in BE, two current carrying loops
(ABEFA and BCDEB) are formed. Their magnetic moments are equal in magnitude
but perpendicular to each other. Hence, F

Mnet = M2 + M2 = 2M Figure 21.19

Where M=iA-(2.0)(0.1)(0.1)=0.02 A-m2

= Mnet ( 2)(0.02) A − m2
A
=0.028 A-m2

C D

B E

A F

Figure 21.20

12. BIOT-SAVART LAW

Biot-Savart law is gives the strength of the magnetic field at any point due to a i

current element. If infinitesimalcurrent element of length d  carries a current I,

the magnetic field or magnetic induction dB at any point P is given by Biot-Savart  
dl P
law as O 
  r
  µ0  I d  × r
= dB   ⋅
 4π  r3
 
Here r is the position vector from the center of the element of length d  to

the point of observation P. The direction of d  is along the direction of current I Figure 21.21 : Magnetic field
  due to current element dℓ
through it. If θ is the angle which r makes with the length d  of the conductor,
the magnitude of magnetic induction is given by

 µ I d (r sin θ)
dB = o
4π r3
 µ I d (sin θ)
dB = 0
4π r2
µ0
Here m0 is the permeability of free space and = 10−7 Tesla-meter/ampere.
4π
  
The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing current element d  and radius vector r which joins

d  to P.
 
The total magnetic induction due to the conductor is given by, B = ∫ dB .
2 1 . 1 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

The magnetic intensity H at any point in the magnetic field is related to the magnetic induction
B
as H = or B = µH where µ is permeability of the medium. The unit of magnetic intensity H
µ
is A-m-1
Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule: If a right handed cork screw is rotated so that its tip moves in the
direction of flow of current through the conductor, then the direction of rotation of the head of
the screw gives the direction of magnetic field lines around the conductor.
Right Hand Rule: If we hold the conductor in the right hand such that the thumb is stretched
Figure 21.22:
in the direction of current, the direction in which the fingers curl gives the direction on the
Right hand
magnetic field.
thumb rule

12.1 Application of Biot-Savart Law

Biot-Savart law is used to find the magnetic field due to current carrying conductors.

12.1.1 Magnetic Induction Due to Infinitely Long Straight Current Carrying Conductor
Suppose the current I flows through a long straightcurrent carrying conductor. We intend to find the magnetic field

at point P at perpendicular distance r from the conductor. As shown in Fig. 21.23. the magnitude of field dB at P
due toan infinitesimal element of length d, is given by Biot-Savart law as:
 µ I d sin(90 + α )
dB
= dB = 0
4 πx2

where x is the distance between the current element and point P. The field dB is directed into the plane of the
figure and perpendicular to it.


d xd

x
I
d


dB
r A

Figure 21.23: Magnetic field due to infinitely long straight wire

r
Now from Fig. 21.23. it is clear that, d cos α = x dα and x = , so we can
write, cos α
µ I cos α dα
dB = 0  ……(i)
4π r I
π π
The conductor is infinitely long,so as the angle α varies from − to , 1
2 2 P
r 2
the infinitesimal element covers the infinite length of the conductor, and for

allinfinitesimal elements making-up the conductor the field dB is directed into

the plane of the figure. Thus we can add the magnitudes of dB due to all the O
infinitesimal elements to get the magnitude of total field as, Figure 21.24: Magnetic field
due to finite straight wire
 P hysi cs | 21.15

π /2
µo I µo I
=B
4 π r −π /2 ∫=
cos α d α
2π r

12.1.2 A Straight Conductor of Finite Length

If a conductor of finite length subtends an angle α1on one side and α2on the other side ofperpendicular from point
P as shown in Fig. 21.24 then we can write,
α1
µo I µo I α µo I
=B ∫ cos=
α dα α 1
sin= [sin α1 + sin α2 ]  ….(ii)
4 πr −α 4 πr −α2 4 πr
2

12.1.3 At the End of a Straight Conductor of Infinite Length

π
In this case, the angle α varies from 0 to , and we can write
2
π /2
µo I µo I
=B
4 πr ∫=
cos α dα
4 πr
0 I

12.1.4 At The End of a Straight Conductor of Finite Length


In this case, (see Fig. 21.25) the angle α varies from 0 to α, and we can write r P

α
µ0 I µo I sin α Figure 21.25: Magnetic
4 πr ∫
=B cos
= α dα
4 πr field at end of straight
0
wire of finite length

12.1.5 At a Point Along the Length of the Straight Conductor Near Its End

π π
In this case (see Fig. 21.26) α1 = and α2 =− , and thus equation (ii)gives B=0. Actually
2 2
in this case the value of α does not vary at all i.e. it is constant (at all points of the wire we
π
have α = ), thus dα = 0 and thus equation (i) gives dB = 0. I
2

Illustration 8: Calculate the magnetic field at the center of a coil in the form of a square
of side 4 cm carrying a current of 5A. (JEE MAIN)
r
Sol: Square loop can be considered as four wires each of length . Magnetic field due to
µ0 1
any one wire, at a the center is calculated=
as B1 sin θ1 + sin θ2  P
4π x 
Figure 21.26: Magnetic
A square coil carrying current is equivalent to four conductors of finite length. field along length of
straight wire
Step 1
Magnetic field at O due to conductor BC is A B

µ0 1
=B1 sin θ1 + sin θ2 
4π x  O
45o
45 a
o

Here θ1 =θ2 =450 ; I=5A,x=2 cm=2x10-2m

10−7 x5  10−7 x5x 2 D C

∴
= B1 sin 45o + sin 45o  = = 3.54x10−5 T
−2   −2
2x10 2x10 Figure 21.27
 2 1 . 1 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

By symmetry, magnetic field intensity at O due to each arm will be same.Moreover, the direction of magnetic field
at O due to each arm of the square is same

Step 2
∴ Net magnetic field at O due to current carrying square,
B=4B1 =4 x 3.54 x 10-5Tor B=1.42 x 10-4T

12.1.6 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Current Carrying Circular Arc

If a current I is flowing in a circular arc of radius R lying in the y-z plane with center at origin O and subtending an

angle ϕ at O, then the magneticfield dB at a point Pon x-axiswith coordinates (x, 0, 0) due to a small elementary arc

of length d=  R dθ at a distance r from P is given by Biot-Savart Law as:

 µ0 I d  × r
dB =  … (i)
4π r3
 
where r is a vector from midpoint of d  to P.

As shown in Fig. 21.28 the coordinates of d  are (0, R cosθ, R sinθ), where θ is the angle between the radius of the

arc through d  and the y-axis.

Rd
(0, Rcos, Rsin) BY
I R r

 P BX
X
O
(x, 0, 0)
BZ

Figure 21.28: Magnetic field at a point on the axis of current carrying arc

So we can write r = x ˆi − R cos θ ˆj − R sin θ kˆ  … (ii)

Magnitude
= r x2 + R 2  … (iii)

Let us express d  in Cartesian coordinates system as shown in Fig. 21.29.

d  =− R sin θ dθ ˆj + R cos θ dθ kˆ  … (iv)
Put (ii), (iii) and (iv) in (i) to get

 µ I ( −R sin θ d θ ˆj + R cos θ d θ k) ˆ × (x ˆi − R cos θ ˆj − R sin θ k)

ˆ
dB = 0
4π ( x2 + R 2 )3
 µ0 I
⇒ dB
= (R 2 d θ ˆi + x R cos θ d θ ˆj + xR sin θ d θ k)
ˆ
4 π (x + R 2 )3/2
2
 P hysi cs | 21.17

Resultant magnetic field at P is Y

φ φ φ
 µ0 I -
=B (R 2 ∫ d θ ˆi + xR ∫ cos θ d θ ˆj + xR ∫ sin θ d θ k)
ˆ d =Rd - 
2 2 3/2
4 π(x + R ) 0 0 0 d
 µ0 I
=⇒ B [R 2 φ ˆi + xR sin φ ˆj + xR(1 − cos φ)k]
ˆ I d
2 2 3/2
4 π(x + R ) R
 
Thus B can be resolved into components parallel to the x, y and the z axes.

2
µ0 I R φ O
Bx =
2 2 3/2
4 π(x + R ) Figure 21.29: Vector is in
the YZ plane
µ0 I R x sin φ
By =
4 π(x2 + R 2 )3/2
µ0 I R x(1 − cos φ)
Bz =
4 π(x2 + R 2 )3/2
The field at center of the arc: At center x = 0, so
µ0 I φ
Bx =
4πR
By = 0
Bz = 0
Thus at the center the field is normal to the plane of the arc.
µ0 I
For a semicircular loop, the angle subtended at the center is φ = π, so B =
4r

12.1.7 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Current Carrying Circular Loop

 
The field B on the axis of a current carrying circular loop (see Fig. 21.30) can be obtained from the expression of B
for a current carrying circular arc derived in the previous article by substituting the value of angle ϕ subtended at
the center as 2π.

 µ0 I
=∴ B [R 2 (2π) ˆi + xR sin2π ˆj + xR(1 − cos2π)k]
ˆ
4 π(x + R 2 )3/2
2 Y

 µ0 IR 2 ˆi
P
∴ B = X
2 2 3/2 (x, 0, 0) BX
2(x + R )
 Z
Thus field B is directed along the axis of the circular loop.
Figure 21.30: Magnetic field at a point
µ0NIR 2 on the axis of circular loop
For a coil havingN circular turns, B=
2(R 2 + x2 )3/2
The field at center of the coil:

µ0 NIR 2
At center x = 0, so B0 =
2R3
µ0 NI
∴ B0 =
2R
 2 1 . 1 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

The direction of B at the center of circular current carrying arc or closed circular loop can be found as follows:
If we curl the fingers of the right hand in the direction of the current in the arc/loop, then the stretched thumb
points in the direction of the field at the center.
µ NIR 2
If the point P is at a very large distance from the coil,then x2>>R2, B = 0
2x3
µ NI A
If A is area of one turn of the coil, A=πR2 B = 0
2πx3
Illustration 9: A straight wire carrying a current of 12 A is bent into a semi-circular are of radius 2.0 cm as shown in
Fig. 21.31.(i) What is the direction and magnitude of magnetic field (B) at the center of the arc? (JEE ADVANCED)
(ii) Would the answer change if wire is bent in the opposite way?

Sol: For given arrangement of wire, the magnetic field at the 2.0
center due to the straight sections will be zero. The magnetic cm
field at center will be due to the semicircular wire. Direction O
of field depends on direction of current and determined by
right hand thumb rule.
(i) The wire is divided into three sections: (a) the straight Figure 21.31
section to be left (b) the straight section to the right and
(c) circular arc.

µ0 Idl sin θ
Step 1. Magnetic field due to a current carrying element at a point is given by dB =
4π r2

In the given case, angle between dl and r for the straight section is 0oor π .So sin 0 =sin π =0
Hence magnetic field at the center (O) of the arc due to straight sections is ZERO

Step 2. Magnetic field at the center due to current carrying semi-circular section is

1 µ0 2πI µ0 πI 10−7 x3.142x12

=B =x = =1.89x 10-4 T
2 4π r 4π r 2x10−12
The magnetic field is directed into the plane of the paper.
(ii) Direction of the field will be opposite to the found out in (i).

Illustration 10: A current path shaped as shown in Fig. 21.32 produces a magnetic field at P, the center of the arc.
If the arc subtends an angle of 30o and the radius of the arc is 0.6m, what are the magnitude and direction of the
field produced at P if the current is 3.0 A  (JEE ADVANCED)
A
µ Iφ
Sol: Magnetic field at the center P of arc CD is B = 0 , and due to straight C
4 πR
wires AC and DE is zero.

The magnetic field at P due to the straight segment AC and DE is zero, 30

o

    P E
because d is parallel to r along these paths, this means that d x r =0. D

Each length element d  along path CD is at the same distance from P,
Figure 21.32

hence B at P is due to segment CD which is given by

µ0 I µ0 I π µ0 I
B
= = φ ×=
4 πr 4 πr 6 24r
 P hysi cs | 21.19

13. FORCE BETWEEN PARALLEL CURRENTS

Consider two long wires kept parallel to each other such that the
separation d between them is quite small as compared to their Y
lengths. Suppose currents I1 and I2 flow through the wires in the I1 I2
same direction (see Fig. 21.33). Consider a small element d of -
the wire carrying current I2.The magnetic field at d due to the B -
d X
wire carrying current dF
 µ0 I1 Z
is B
I1 = ˆ 
( − k) ...(i)
2πd d

( B is normal to and directed into the plane of the figure)
 Figure 21.33: Force between parallel currents
 
The magnetic force on this element is dF= I2d  × B= I2d(ˆj) × B( − k)
ˆ

ˆi) µ0 I1 I2 d ( − ˆi) (directed towards the wire carrying current I )


or, dF I2d B( −
= = 1
2πd
Thus the wire carrying current I2 is attracted towards the wire carrying current I1. By Newton’s third law the force
acting on wire carrying current I1 will also be attractive.Thus the two wires are attracted towards each other.
The force per unit length on each of the wires due to the other wire will be,
dF µ0 I1 I2
=
d 2πd
Parallel currents attract each other, and antiparallel currents repel each other.

Note: Memorizing various formula of magnetic field due to ring and wire carrying current would easily help in
calculating magnetic field due to complicated wire systems. Also, be careful about the direction of field in every
problem you solve.

Illustration 11: A current of 10A flows through each two parallel long wires. The wires are 5 cm apart. Calculate the
force acting per unit length of each wire. Use the standard values of constants required.  (JEE MAIN)
F µ0 2I1 I2
Sol: Field of one wire exerts force on other wire and the force per unit length of wire is
= .
 4π d
Force acting per unit length of long conductor due to another long conductor parallel to it and carrying same
current.

dF µ0 2I1 I2 µ dF 10−7 x2x10x10

= ;I1=I2=10A, r=5 cm =5x10-2m, 0 =10-7TmA-1; = =4 x 10-4 N m-1
d 4 π d 4π d 5x10−2

Illustration 12:The wires which connect the battery of an automobile to its starting motor carry a current of 30A
(for a short time).What is the force per unit length between the wires, if they are 70 cm long and 1.5 cm apart? Is
the force attractive or repulsive? (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: Field of one wire exerts force on other wire and the force per unit length of M
F µ 2I I
wire is = 0 1 2 .
 4π d 70 cm
Force depends on direction of current. Parallel currents attract while anti-parallel F1 F2
currents repel. 1.5 cm

dF µ0  2I1 I2 
=   ; I =I =300A; r=1.5cm=1.5x 10-2m
d 4 π  d  1 2
Figure 21.34
2 1 . 2 0 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

dF 10−7 x 2 x 300 x 300

∴ = 1.2Nm−1
d 1.5x10−2
Since current in both the wires flows in opposite direction, so the force is repulsive.

14. AMPERE’S LAW

This law is also called the ‘Theorem on Circulation of Vector B’.

According to this law the line integral or circulation of magnetic field vector B around a closed path is equal to µ0
times the algebraic sum of the currents enclosed by the closed path.
- -
  B.d=Bdcos
�∫ B ⋅ d  =
µ0 Ienc

The closed path is also called Amperian loop. I3

-
I1  B
Ienc is the algebraic sum of all the currents passing through -
d
the area enclosed by the closed path. Current is assumed
positive if it is along the direction associated with the
direction of the circumvention of the closed path through  I2
Direction of
the right-hand screw rule.If we curl the fingers of the Amperian contour
right hand around the closed path, in the direction of Loop circumvention
circumvention, the stretched thumb gives the positive
direction of current. The current in the opposite direction
Figure 21.35: Current enclosed by amperian loop
is negative.

For example in the Fig. 21.35 shown, the current directed out of the plane of the figure is positive, so we have Ienc
 
= I1 - I2; � µ0 ( I1 − I2 )
∫ B ⋅ d =

14.1 Limitations of Ampere’s Circuital Law

Ampere’s law is an important tool in calculating the magnetic field due to a current distribution. However this
usefulness is limited to only a few cases where the magnetic field is having a symmetrical distribution in space. The
Amperian loop is chosen in such a way that the magnetic field has a constant value along the loopand is directed
tangentially at all points of the loop.If such a choice of a loop is not possible, then Ampere’s law cannot be used to
find out the magnetic field. For example this law can’t be used to find the magnetic field at the center of a current
carrying loop.

Note: Ampere’s circuital law holds good for a closed path of any size and shape around a current carrying conductor.

14.2 Applications of Ampere’s Law

14.2.1 Magnetic field due to current carrying circular wire of infinite length
Let R be the radius of the infinite circular wire carrying current I. The magnetic field lines are concentric circles with
their centers on the axis of the wire.

(a) Magnetic field intensity at a point outside the wire

We intend to find magnetic field at a distance r> R from the axis of the wire. We choose a circular path of radius r
and center at the axis of the wire as the Amperian loop. B will be constant and tangential at all points of this loop.
Using Ampere’s law,
 P hysi cs | 21.21

  0
�∫ B.d  = µ0 I or �∫ Bd cos0 = µ0 I

or ∫ d =B(2π r) =µ0 I
B�

µ0 I
∴ B=  …(i)
2πr
Thus, the magnetic field intensity at a point outside the wire varies inversely as the distance of the point from the
axis of the wire.

r r>R

I r R
 r<R

Amperian
Loop

Figure 21.36: Circular cross-section of infinitely long straight wire

1
That is, B ∝
r
µ0 I
At the surface of the wire, r = R, so B=  …(ii)
2πR

(b) Magnetic field intensity at a point inside the wire

We intend to find magnetic field at a distance r< R from the axis of the wire. We choose a circular path of radius r

and center at the axis of the wire as the Amperian loop. B will be constant and tangential at all points of this loop.
Using Ampere’s law,
  0
�∫ B.d  = µ0 Ienc or �∫ Bd cos0 = µ0 Ienc

or B ∫ d =B(2π r) =µ0 Ienc

If the current is uniformly distributed throughout the cross – section of the wire, then we have
I Ir 2
Ienc= ( π r 2 )= B
πR 2 R2
Ir 2 B 1
∴ B(2π r) =µ0 r
r
B

R2

µ0 Ir
∴ B= r=R
2π R 2
Figure 21.37: Variation of field
Thus, B∝r with radial distance r
The variation of B with distance r from the axis of the wire is shown in Fig.21.37.

Illustration 13: Figure 21.38 shows the cross section of a long conducting cylinder with inner radius a=2.0 cm and
outer radius b=4.0 cm.The cylinder carries a current out of the page, and the magnitude of the current density in

the cross section is given by j = cr2, with c=3.0 x 106 A/m4and r in meters. What is the magnetic field B at appoint
that is 3.0 cm from the central axis of the cylindrical? (JEE ADVANCED)
2 1 . 2 2 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

Sol: The magnetic field in this case is symmetric. The field lines are concentric
circles. We choose a circular amperian loop coaxial with the cylinder. First find
 
the current enclosed for region a<x<r where r = 3 cm. Then use � ∫ B ⋅ ds =
µ0ienc

to find B .
r 2
We write the integral as=
ienc ∫=
JdA ∫ cr (2πr dr) a
a b
r
r r4  πc(r 4 − a4 )
2πc r3 dr =
= ∫ 2πc   =
a 4   a 2

The direction of integration indicated in Fig. 21.38 is (arbitrarily) clockwise.

Applying the right-hand rule for Ampere’s law to that loop, we find that we Figure 21.38
should take ienc as negative because the current is directed out of the page but
our thumb is directed into the page.

We next evaluate the left side of Ampere’s law exactly as we did in figure.
 
Then Ampere’s law, �
∫ B ⋅ ds =
µ0ienc ,
µ0 πc
Gives us B(2πr) =− (r 4 − a4 )
2
µ πc
− 0 (r 4 − a4 )
Solving for B and substituting known data yield B =
4 πr

= −
( 4π x10 −7
)(
T ⋅ m / A 3.0 x106 A / m4 ) x (0.030 m) 4
– ( 0.020m)
4
= − 2.0 x 10 −5 T
.

4 (0.030m)π  

Thus, the magnetic field B at a point 3.0 cm from the central axis has magnitude B=2.0 x 10-5 T and forms magnetic
field lines that are directed opposite our direction of integration, hence counterclockwise in figure.

14.2.2 Magnetic Field Inside a Solenoid

A solenoid is an insulated wire wound closely into multiple turnsto form a helix. The length of the solenoid is
assumed to be much larger than its diameter. At points very close to a turn, the magnetic field lines are almost
concentric circles.The fields due to adjacent turns at points near the axis add-up while fields at points away from
the axis cancel each other. If the solenoid is very tightly wound and its length is quite large, then the field inside it
is uniform and parallel to its axis, while field outside it will be zero.

x x x x x

Figure 21.39: Magnetic field lines inside solenoid

 P hysi cs | 21.23

We can apply Ampere’s law to find the magnetic field inside the solenoid. We choose a rectangular Amperian
loop abcd partly inside the solenoid and partly outside it as shown in Fig. 21.40, its length lbeing parallel to the
solenoid’s axis.

d c

Amperian
Loop a b

B
           

Figure 21.40: Rectangular amperian loop

 
There are four sides of the rectangle. We write �∫ B.d  as the sum of four integrals, one for each side:

  b  c  d  a 
�
∫ B.d  = ∫a B.d  + ∫b B.d  + ∫c B.d  + ∫d B.d 
The sides bc and da do not contribute to the line integral as the magnetic field is perpendicular to these sides at
points inside the solenoid and at points outside the solenoid the magnetic field is zero. The side cd is completely
outside the solenoid and hence the magnetic field is zero at all its points. So the only side that contributes to the
line integral is ab.
 
Thus, we get �∫ B.d  = B = µ0 n I

Here I is the current through each turn of the solenoid and n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.
The net current enclosed by the rectangle is n  I.
∴ B = µ0 n I

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

(a) Magnetic field inside a solenoid and coil

(i) Magnetic field is considered uniform throughout the solenoid, while it is not true for coil
(ii) This is because, solenoid is long, while coil is thin.
(iii) Thus, magnetic field lines look very symmetric inside a solenoid, and of nearly equal length,
while in a coil, the path are very different, and by Ampere’s law, their magnitude is different

(b) Magnetic field on the axis at the end of a long solenoid

(i) Think of an infinite solenoid, if you could take the midpoint at the axis of this solenoid then
µ nI
the magnetic field strength at that point from each side would be B = 0 the situation you
2
µ0nI
describe is like taking half of this infinite solenoid (as L>>d) and so B =
2
( µ0 =permeability of free space, n= number of coils in the solenoid, l= current)
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011 AIR 226)
 2 1 . 2 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

Illustration 14:A closely wound solenoid 80 cm long has 5 layers of winding of 400 turns each. The diameter of the
solenoid is 1.8 cm. if the current carries is 8.0 A, find the magnitude of B inside the solenoid near its center.
 (JEE MAIN)
µ0NI
Sol: For solenoid of length  the field at a point inside it is B = where N is the number of turns in solenoid.

Magnetic field induction at a point inside the solenoid is

µ0NI 4 π10−7 x(400x5)x8

=B = = 8 π x10-3T ≈ 2.5 x10-2 T
 (80x10−2 )

Illustration 15: A solenoid is 2 m long and 3 cm in diameter. Ithas 5 layers of winding of 1000 turns each and
carries a current of 5A. What is the magnetic field at its center? (JEE MAIN)
µ0NI
Sol: For solenoid of length  the field at a point inside it is B = where N is the number of turns in solenoid.

Magnetic field at the center of a solenoid is given by,

µ0NI  5x1000 
B= =(4 π x10-7)   x5= 1.57 x 10 T
-2
l  2 

14.2.3 Magnetic field Inside a Toroid

Toroid is a circular solenoid. An insulated conducting wire is tightly wound on a ring (or torus) made ofnon-
conducting material to form a toroid. The magnetic field inside a toroid can be obtained by using Ampere’s law.
We choose a circularAmperian loop of radius rinside the toroid concentric with it.
 
�∫ ⋅ d  =�∫ Bd =B �∫ d =B(2πr) =µ0 Ienc
B

  
B

 



 r 
  
B

Figure 21.41: Magnetic field inside Toroid

If each turn of the toroid carries current I and the total number of turns in the toroid is N, then current enclosed by
the Amperian loop is NI.
µ NI
So 2π r B = µ0 N I or, B = 0
2πr
 P hysi cs | 21.25

Illustration 16: A toroid of 4000 turns has outer radius of 26 cm and inner radius of 25 cm. If the current in the wire
is 10A, calculate the magnetic field of the toroid also in the inner air space of the toroid. (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: For toroid the field at a pointinside it at radial distance r from its
µ NI
center is B = 0 where N is the number of turns in toroid.
2πr
25 + 26
Radius of toroid r = = 25.5cm = 25.510−2 m

cm
2

26
Length of toroid l=2 π r=2 π x (25.5 x 10-2= 51 x 10-2 π m 25
cm
4000
∴ Number of turns /unit length, n=
51 x10−2 π
Field in a toroid is given by

 4000 
B= µ0nI = 4 πx10 −2   x10 ;= 3.14 x 102T
 51 x10−2 π 
 

Field in the air space bounded by the toroid is zero because the field exists inside
the envelope of the winding of the toroid. Figure 21.42

15. MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

Moving Coil Galvanometer is a device used to detect/measure small electric current flowing in an electric circuit.

Principle: When a current carrying loop or coil is placed in the uniform magnetic field, it experiences a torque and
thus starts rotating.

Construction: A moving coil galvanometer is shown in Fig. 21.43. It consists of a coil made of insulated copper
wire wound on a soft-iron cylinder. The coil is suspended by a spiral spring between two cylindrical shaped poles
of a permanent magnet.
The spring exerts a very small restoring torque on the coil. Soft iron core
Theory
Let B = Magnetic field N S
I = Current flowing through the coil
 = Length of coil
b = Breadth of the coil Coil
(xb) = A= Area of the coil Figure 21.43: Moving coil
galvanometer
N = Number of turns in the coil
When current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque, which is given by
τ=NIAB sinθ
where, θ is the angle between the normal to the plane of the coil and the direction of the magnetic field.
Initially, θ = 90o, so τ=NIAB …(i)
This torque is called deflecting torque.As the coil gets deflected, the spring is twisted and a restoring torque is
developed in it which is proportional to the angle of deflection φ
τres=kφ  …(ii)
2 1 . 2 6 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

Here k is a constant for a particular spring.

For equilibrium of the coil,
Deflecting torque= Restoring torque
i.e. NIAB=kφ  …(iii)

kφ
or I=  …(iv)
NAB
or I = Gφ  …(v)
k
where G = is Galvanometer constant
NAB
∴ I ∝ φ  …(vi)
Thus, the current flowing through the coil is directly proportional to the deflection of the coil. Hence we can
determine the current in the coil by measuring its deflection.

Use of a radial magnetic field in the moving coil galvanometer

A radial magnetic field, produced by cylindrical poles of permanent magnet is always parallel to the plane of the
coil of the galvanometer. Thus the angle between the normal to the coil and the magnetic field is always 90o. Thus
torque on the coil is τ = NIAB = kφ or I ∝φ. Thus, when radial magnetic field is used, the current in the coil is always
proportional to the deflection. Hence, a linear scale can be used to determine the currentin the coil.

Use of Galvanometer
(a) It is used to detect electric current in a circuit e.g., Wheatstone Bridge.
(b) It is convertedinto an ammeter by putting a small resistance parallel toit.
(c) It is converted into a voltmeter by putting a high resistance in series with it.
(d) It is used as an ohmmeter.

Sensitivity of a Galvanometer
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if a small current flowing through its coil produces a large deflection in it.

(a) Current Sensitivity

The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is the deflection produced in the galvanometer per unit current
flowing through it.
φ NAB
i.e. Current sensitivity = =
I k
Current sensitivity of galvanometer can be increased either by
(i) Increasing the magnetic field B by using a strong permanent horse-shoe shaped magnet.
(ii) Increasing the number of turns N.
(iii) Increasing the area of the coil A. (but this will make the galvanometer bulky and ultimately less sensitive)
(iv) Using a spring having small value of restoring torque constant k.

(b) Voltage Sensitivity

Voltagesensitivity is the deflection produced in the galvanometer per unit voltage applied to it.
φ φ NBA
Voltage sensitivity = = i.e., voltage sensitivity = (R= resistance of the coil)
V IR kR
 P hysi cs | 21.27

Voltage sensitivity can be increased by

(i) Increasing N
(ii) Increasing B
(iii) Increasing A
(iv) Decreasing k and
(v) Decreasing R.

Advantage of a moving coil galvanometer

(a) A minutely small current in the electric circuit can be detected using an extremely sensitively galvanometer.
(b) A linear scale can be used to read the current, since deflection of the coil is directly proportional to the current.
(c) The external magnetic fields (e.g. horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field) cannot effect the deflection
of the coil of the galvanometer,because the magnetic field of the permanent magnet is very strong. Thus the
galvanometer can be placed in any location.
(d) A dead beat type galvanometer is used.(The coil of a dead beat type galvanometer comes to rest quickly after
deflecting to its equilibrium position, i.e it does not oscillate)

16. CYCLOTRON
Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate positively
charged particles (like protons,α particles, deuteron, S
ions etc.) to acquire enough energy to carry out 
B
nuclear disintegrations. Deflecting High
plate D1
Principle: It works on the following principle: A  frequency
positively charged particle is made to accelerate oscillator
W
through an electric field and using a strong magnetic
Source of
field it is circled back to the region of the electric
positively
field, to accelerate it again and again to acquire
Target charged
sufficiently large amount of energy. D2
particle
Construction and Working: It consists of two
hollow D-shaped metallic chambers D1 and D2 called
dees. These dees are separated by a small gap where N
a source of positively charged particles is placed.
Dees are connected to high frequency oscillator,
which provides high frequency electric field across Figure 21.44: Cyclotron
the gap of the dees which accelerates the particles.
The magnetic field inside the dees is perpendicular to the plane of motion of particles and drives theminto a
circular path. Suppose the particles start from rest and are accelerated towards chamber D2. After completing a
semicircle, when the particles reach the gap of the dees again, thereversal of the polarity of electric field ensures
that the particlesareagain accelerated towards the other chamber D1 by the electric field. Radius of the circular path
increases with increase in speed, thusthe particles follow a spiral path (see Fig. 21.44)

Theory: The magnetic force on the positively charged particle provides the centripetal force to move in a circle of
radius r.
mv 2 mv
∴
= qvB = or r  … (i)
r qB
2 1 . 2 8 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

Time taken by the particle to complete the semi-circle inside the dee,
dis tance πr π mv πm
t= = or t= × or t=  … (ii)
speed v v qB qB
This shows that time taken by the positively charged particle to complete any semi-circle (irrespective of its radius)
is same

(a) Time Period: Let T be the period of the high frequency electric field, then the polarities of dees will change
T
after time .
2
T
The particle will be accelerated if time taken by it to describe the semi-circle is equal to .
2
T πm 2πm
i.e. = t= or T=  … (iii)
2 qB qB
1 qB
(b) Cyclotron frequency: fc= =  … (iv)
T 2πm
qB
∴ Cyclotron angular frequency ω = 2πfc =  … (v)
m
1
(c) Energy gained: Energy gained by the positively charged particle in the cyclotron is given by E = mv 2
2
2
qBr 1  qBr  q2B2r 2
From eqn.(i), we have v= , then E= m x   or E =  … (vi)
m 2  m  2m

Maximum energy gained by the positively charged particle will depend on the maximum value of radius of
its path, i.e the radius of the dees.
 q2B2  2
Emax =  r  … (vii)
 2m  max
 

(d) Limitations of Cyclotron: Cyclotron cannot accelerate uncharged particles like neutron.
(e) Cyclotron cannot accelerate electrons because they have very small mass. Electrons start moving at a very
high speed when they gain small energy in the cyclotron. The frequency of oscillating electric field required
to keep them in phase with the electric field is very high, which is not feasible.
(f) The positively charged particle having large mass (i.e. ions) cannotbe accelerated after a certain speed in the
cyclotron. When the speed of ion becomes comparable to the speed of light,the mass of ion increases as per
the relation
m0
m= ,
v2
1−
c2
where m= mass of ion at velocity v, m0=mass of ion at rest,cis speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)
Time taken by the ion to describe semi-circular path increases as mass increases.So as the mass increases, the
ion does not reach the gap between the two dees exactly at the instant the polarity is reversed and,it is not
be accelerated further.

Uses of a Cyclotron
(a) It is used to produce radioactive material for medical purposes.
(b) It is used to synthesize fresh substances.
(c) It is used to improve the quality of solids by adding ions.
(d) It is used to bombard the atomic nuclei with highly accelerated particles to study the nuclear reactions.
 P hysi cs | 21.29

Note: Sections after this are not in the syllabus of JEE ADVANCED but they are important for understanding the
concepts completely.

Illustration 17:A cyclotron’s oscillator frequency is 10 MHz. What should be the operating magnetic field for
accelerating protons? If the radius of its dees is 60 cm. What is the kinetic energy (in MeV) of the proton beam
produced by the acceleration?  (JEE MAIN)

(e 1.60 x 10−19 C,m0 1.67 x=

= 10−27 kg, 1MeV 1.6 x 10−13 J )
Bq
Sol: The frequency of cyclotron is f = where q is the charge and m is the mass of the charged particle to be
2πm  m v2 
accelerated inside the cyclotron. The kinetic energy of the particle is   in eV .
 2e 
 
Cyclotron’s oscillator frequency should be same as the proton’s revolution frequency (in circular path)
Bq
∴ ƒ= or
2πm

2πmf
B=
q
(2)(22 / 7)(1.67 x10−27 )(10 x106 )
Substituting the values in SI units, we have B = =0.67 T
1.6 x10 −19
The emerging beam of proton moves with the velocity

v = ω r = 2πƒ r = 2 × π × 107 × 0.60

= 3.77 × 107 ms−1

( )
2
−27 7
 m v 2  1.67 × 10 × 3.77 × 10
Thus the kinetic
= energy (in MeV) is   = eV 7.42 MeV
 2e  2 × 1.6 × 10 −19
 

17. MAGNETIC POLES AND BAR MAGNET

Two isolated charges of opposite signs are placed near each other, to form an electric dipole characterized by

an electric dipole moment p .On the other hand in magnetism an isolated ‘magnetic charge’ does  not exist. The
simplest magnetic structure is the magnetic dipole, characterized by a magnetic dipole moment M .A current loop,
a bar magnet and a solenoid of finite length are examples of magnetic dipoles.
   
When a magnetic dipole is placed in an external magnetic field B , a torque act on it, given by τ =MxB


The magnetic field B due to a magnetic dipole at a point along its magnetic axis at (large) distance r from its center,

 µ0 2M
is B =
4π r3

A bar magnet has two poles (North and South) separated by a small distance.
N S
However, we cannot separate these poles apart. If a magnet is broken, the
fragments prove to be dipoles and not isolated poles. If we break up a magnet N S N S N S
into the electrons and nuclei that make up its atom, it will be found that even
these elementary particle a re magnetic dipoles. Figure 21.45: Poles of bar magnet

The poles of the bar magnet are modeled as follows:

(a) There are two types of magnetic charges; positive magnetic charge or North Pole and negative magnetic
charge or South Pole. Every Pole has a strength m. The unit of Pole strength is A-m.
2 1 . 3 0 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

 
(b) A magnetic charge placed in a magnetic field experiences a force, F = mB . The force on positive magnetic
charge is along the field and force on a negative magnetic charge is opposite to the field.
(c) A magnetic dipole is formed when a negative magnetic charge –m and a positive magnetic charge +m are
placed at a small separation d. The magnetic dipole moment is, M=md. The direction of M is from –m to +m.

Geometrical Length and magnetic Length

In bar magnet, the poles are located at points which are slightly inside the two ends. The distance between the
locations of the poles is called the magnetic length of the magnet. The distance between the ends is called the
geometrical length of the magnet.

Magnetic length

N S

Geometric length

Figure 21.46: Geometric and Magnetic length of a bar magnet

o
Illustration18: Calculate the magnetic induction at a point 1 A away from a proton, measured along its axis of
spin. The magnetic moment of the proton is 1.4 x 10-26 A-m2.  (JEE MAIN)

µ0 2M
Sol: On the axis of a magnetic dipole, magnetic induction is given by. =
B ⋅
4π r3

Substituting the values, we get B =

(10 ) (2) (1.4x10 ) = 2.8 x 10 T= 2.8 mT
−7 −26
-3

(10 )
3
−10

18. MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY

For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materialsthe intensity of magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetic
field intensity.
 
I = χmH

The proportionality constant χm is called the magnetic susceptibility of the material. I and H have the dimensions
of A-m-1 and the susceptibility χm is a dimensionless constant. For vacuum χm =0. For paramagnetic materials
χm > 0, and for diamagnetic materials χm < 0 are diamagnetic.

19. CURIES’S LAW

When the temperature increase, due to thermal agitation the magnetization I decreases for a given magnetic
intensity H,which means χm decreases as T increases. According to Curie’s law, the susceptibility of a paramagnetic
c
substance is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature: χm = where c is a constant called the curie
constant. T
 P hysi cs | 21.31

The magnetization of ferromagnetic material also decreases with increase in temperature, and on reaching a certain
temperature,the ferromagnetic properties of the material disappear. This temperature is called Curie point (Tc). At
temperatures above Tcferromagnetic turns into a paramagnetic and its susceptibility varies with temperature as,
C'
χm =
T − Tc
where C’ is a constant.

20. PROPERTIES OF PARA -, DIA- AND FERRO-MAGNETISM

(a) Paramagnetic Substances: Example of such substances are platinum, aluminium, chromium, manganese,
CuSO4 solution, etc. They have the following properties:
(i) The substances, when placed in magnetic field, acquire
a feeble magnetisation in the same sense as the applied
field. Thus, the magnetic inductance inside the substance is N S
slightly greater than outside to it.
(ii) In a uniform magnetic field, these substances rotate until
their longest axes are parallel to the field.
Figure 21.47: Paramagnetic material
(iii) These substances are attracted towards regions of stronger
in strong magnetic field
magnetic field when placed in a non-uniform magnetic field.
(iv) Figure 21.47 shows a strong electromagnet in which one of the pole pieces is sharply pointed, while the
other is flat. Magnetic field is much stronger near the pointed pole than near flat pole. If a small piece
of paramagnetic material is suspended in this region, a force can be observed in the direction of arrow.
(v) If a paramagnetic liquid is filled in a narrow U-tube and one limb is placed in between the pole pieces of
an electromagnet such that the level of the liquid is in line with the field, then the liquid will rise in the
limb as the field is switched on.
(vi) For paramagnetic substances, the relative permeability µr is slightly greater than one.
(vii) At a given temperature the magnetic susceptibility χm does not change with the magnetizing field.
However it varies inversely as the absolute temperature. As temperature increases χm decreases. At
some higher temperature χm becomes negative and the substance become diamagnetic.
(b) Diamagnetic Substances: Examples of such substances are bismuth, antimony, gold, quartz, water, alcohol,
etc. They have the following properties:
(i) These substances, when placed in a magnetic field, acquire feeble
magnetization in a direction opposite to that of the applied field.
Thus, the lines of induction inside the substance are smaller than
those outside to it. N S
(ii) In a uniform field, these substances rotate until their longest axes
are normal to the field.
(iii) In a non-uniform field, these substances move from stronger to
weaker parts of the field.
(iv) If a diamagnetic liquid is filled in a narrow U-tube, and one limb is
placed in between the pole of an electromagnet, the level depresses
when the field is switched on.
Figure 21.48: Liquid column of
(v) The relative permeability µr is slightly less than 1.
paramagnetic substance in strong
(vi) The susceptibility χm of such substances is always negative. It is magnetic field
constant and does not vary with field or the temperature.
2 1 . 3 2 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

(c) Ferromagnetic Substances: Examples of such substances are iron, nickel, steel, cobalt and their alloys. These
substances resemble to a higher degree the paramagnetic substances with regards to their behaviour. They
have the following additional properties:
(i) These substances are strongly magnetized by even a weak magnetic field.
(ii) The relative permeability is very large and is of the
order of hundreds and thousands.
(iii) The susceptibility is positive and very large.
(iv) Susceptibility remains constant for very  small
N S

values of H , increases for larger values of H and
then decreases for very large values of H .
(v) Susceptibility decreases steadily with the rise of the
temperature. Above a certain temperature, known Figure 21.49: Diamagnetic substance
as Curie temperature, the ferromagnetic substances in magnetic field
become paramagnetic. For iron, it is 1000oC, 770oC
for steel, 360oC for nickel, and 1150oC for cobalt.

21. HYSTERESIS
Hysteresis is the dependence of the magnetic flux density B in a
ferromagnetic material not only on its current magnetizing field H, A
but also on its history of magnetization or residual magnetization.
C

When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, and

then the applied magnetizing field is removed, then its magnetization -H0 D H0
H
will not be reduced to zero. It must be driven back to zero by a field O G
in the opposite direction. If an alternating magnetic field intensity is
applied to the material, its magnetization will trace out a loop called
F
a hysteresis loop.
The phenomena in which magnetic flux density (B) lags behind the E
magnetizing field (H) in a ferromagnetic material during cycles of
magnetization is called as hysteresis. Figure 21.50: Hysteresis loop of I vs H

PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS

(a) General advice for this section involves learning of formulae and avoiding silly mistakes. Also it would be
better to go by the usual algorithm of noting down known and unknown quantities and linking them.
(b) Much of manipulation and mathematical complexity is involved here which can’t be avoided.
 P hysi cs | 21.33

FORMULAE SHEET
    
(a) Magnetic Force on a charge moving with velocity v in magnetic field B is F=
m q v × B . Magnitude is
= Fm q vB sin θ .
(b) Charged particle moving in uniform magnetic field

qB
(i) Angular velocity ω = 2πf =
m
2πm
(ii) Time period T=
qB

mv m 2qV 1 2mV
(iii) Radius
= r = =
qB qB m B q

mv ⊥ 2πm
(c) Helical Paths: Radius r = Pitch:=
p v=
⊥T v⊥
qB |q|B
(d) The cyclotron q B= 2πmfosc

   
(e) Crossed Fields: Lorentz Force F= q(E + v × B)

q E x2
(f) Trajectory of a charged particle in electric field y =
2m v 2
  
(g) Magnetic force on current element dF
= I d × B
  
(h) Magnetic force on a conductor in uniform field F= IL × B


(i) Magnetic dipole moment of a current coil having N turns pm = NI Anˆ

  
( j) Torque on a current coil =
τ pm × B

 
(k) Potential energy of current coil U = − pm .B

 µ I d  × r µ I d sin θ R1
(l) Biot-Savart Law dB = 0 , dB = 0 i i
4π r3 4π r2
 µ  Iθ R2
(m) Magnetic field at center of an arc subtending angle θ, B =  0 
 4π  R
µ0 NIR 2
(n) Magnetic field at a point on the axis of a N turn coil B = Figure 21.51
2
(z )
32
2 2
+R
µ NI
(o) Magnetic field at center of N turn coil B = 0
2 R

(p) Concentric coils with equal turns

(i) Similar currents flowing in the same direction

µ0 NI µ0 NI µ0  1 1 
Net magnetic field, =B +
= NI  + 
2 R1 2 R 2 2  R1 R 2 
2 1 . 3 4 | Moving Charges and Magnetism

(ii) Similar currents flowing in the opposite direction

µ0 NI µ0 NI
Net magnetic field, =B − R1
2 R1 2 R 2 i i
µ0  1 1  R2
= NI  − 
2  R1 R 2 

(q) Mutually perpendicular coils Figure 21.52

 µ  2πI
Net Magnetic field, B = 2  0 
 4π  R Y
(r) Dispatched coils
B2
µ0 IR 2
Net Magnetic Field, B= 2 2B1
2 (R 2 + x3 )3/2
R
µ0 IR 2
=
2(x2 + R 2 )3/2
X
µ0 I
(s) Infinite straight wire B = i B1
2πR
µ0 I
(t) Semi-infinite straight wire B =
4 πR

(u) Force per unit length between two parallel currents separated by
dF µ0 I1 I2 Figure 21.53
distance d, =
d 2πd
 
(v) Ampere’s law � ∫ B.d  = µ0 Ienc
µ0 I
(w) Field inside infinite straight wire of circular cross-section B = r
2πR 2
(x) Magnetic Field inside long solenoid having n turns per unit length B = µ0 nI

µ0 NI
(y) Magnetic Field inside toroid having N turns B =
2πr
µ0 2M
(z) Magnetic field due to bar magnet at end-on position B =
4 π d3 Y

(aa) Magnetic field due to bar magnet at broadside-on position

µ M
B= 0
4 π d3 i R
o
90
kφ y=x
(ab) Moving Coil Galvanometer I =
NAB
B
(ac) Magnetic field Intensity H, in vacuum is, H = i
µ0
B X
(ad) Magnetic field Intensity H, in a medium is, H = (0, 0) R
µr µ0
Figure 21.54