Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

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Dynamic evolution of micro-textured regions and

consequent ductility loss during uniaxial tension of Ti6Al4V
alloy

Journal: Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Manuscript ID JMEP-23-12-34662

Manuscript Type: Original Research Article

Date Submitted by the

05-Dec-2023
Author:

Complete List of Authors: saxena, Ashish; Vellore Institute of Technology, Centre for Innovative
Manufacturing Research
Barnwal, Vivek; Vellore Institute of Technology, School of Mechanical
Engineering
Yazar, K.U.; Vellore Institute of Technology, Centre for Innovative
Manufacturing Research
N, Harshavardhana; SRM Institute of Science and Technology (Deemed
to be University), Mechanical Engineering
Mishra, Sushil; Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mechanical
Page 1 of 13 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

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Engineering
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5 Titanium, microtextured regions, Electron Microscopy, ductility,
Keywords:
6 Nonferrous Metals
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 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Page 2 of 13

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4 Dynamic evolution of micro-textured regions and consequent
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6 ductility loss during uniaxial tension of Ti6Al4V alloy
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8 Ashish Kumar Saxenaa, Vivek Kumar Barnwalb, K.U. Yazara*,
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10 N. Harshavardhanac, Sushil Kumar Mishrad,
11 aCentre for Innovative Manufacturing Research, Vellore Institute of Technology,
12 Vellore 632014, India
13 bDepartment of Manufacturing Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering,
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Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632014, India
15 cDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
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17 Kattankulathur- 603203, India
dDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai,
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19 Mumbai 400076, India
20 *Corresponding author email: [email protected]
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23 Abstract
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A hot extruded Ti6Al4V rod was deformed at different temperatures and strain rates
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26 followed by comprehensive microstructure analysis. The study revealed the formation of
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28 micro-textured regions (MTR) during deformation that adversely affected the ductility of the
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30 alloy. This study also highlights the reasons responsible for the evolution of MTRs at different
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temperatures.
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34 1. Introduction
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36 Titanium and its alloys are extensively used in aerospace and biomedical sectors
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because of its excellent combination of high specific strength, fracture resistance and high
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39 corrosion resistance. The most widely used titanium alloys are α-β titanium alloys, and among
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41 all the α-β alloys Ti6Al4V is the most commonly used alloy (Ref 1). Despite several unique
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43 properties, the Ti6Al4V alloy has an unusually high sensitivity towards dwell fatigue loading
44 conditions. The source of this unusual sensitivity is predominantly attributed to very low crack
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46 nucleation life (Ref 2,3), which is dependent on the microstructure and micro-texture of the
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48 alloy. Several authors have reported the heterogeneous nature of micro-texture in titanium
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wrought products (Ref 4,5). The micro-texture is particularly critical in case of titanium alloy
51 due to the inherent elasto-plastic anisotropy of the hexagonal unit cell. Certain orientations are
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53 elastically and plastically soft while certain orientations are very hard (Ref 4). The situation
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55 becomes severe if large regions of similarly oriented grains, known as micro-textured regions
56 (MTRs), occur in the alloy (Ref 6). Numerous studies have elucidated the deleterious effect of
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58 MTRs on the fatigue, dwell fatigue and creep response of titanium alloys including Ti6Al4V
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60 (Ref 5,7).

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3 Often, MTRs are observed to form as a consequence of the thermo-mechanical processing steps
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5 that the material undergoes (Ref 6). When components like gas turbine fan blades are fabricated
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7 from these products, they fail prematurely as crack nucleates within these MTRs. MTRs that
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are held responsible for this are the ones that are hard with respect to the loading direction
10 (LD). However, there are no studies on the impact of soft oriented MTRs on the mechanical
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12 behaviour. Moreover, the possibility of evolution of MTRs as a consequence of the plastic
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14 strain accumulation during a mechanical loading has not been addressed in the literature.
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In the current study, an effort is made to understand the dynamic evolution of MTRs, and the
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17 impact it has on the mechanical response of Ti6Al4V. To this end, the Ti6Al4V alloy is
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19 deformed at three different temperatures and strain rates and a detailed analysis of the micro-
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21 texture is made. As a first step, the study is restricted to monotonic deformation.
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23 2. Material and methods:
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Hot extruded Ti6Al4V alloy in the form of 10 mm diameter rods, was used as the
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27 starting material for this study. The tensile samples as per ASTM E8 standard extracted parallel
28 to the extrusion direction (ED) were tested until fracture at three different temperatures (193,
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30 293 and 473 K) and three different strain rates (5 x 10-2, 5 x 10-3 and 5 x 10-4 s-1) on a servo
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32 hydraulic Zwick Roell UTM. Subsequently, these specimens were sectioned along the Loading
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Direction (LD) and prepared for microstructure and texture examinations. For that, the
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deformed samples were analyzed using electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) technique.
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37 The EBSD scans were taken in a FEI Quanta-3D FEG SEM with 100 nm step size at 20 kV
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39 and post processed by TSL-OIM analysis software.

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3. Results and discussion
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43 3.1. Mechanical test results:
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45 The stress strain response of the tested Ti6Al4V alloy at various strain rates and
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47 deformation temperatures is given in Fig. 1a. As expected, the flow stress decreases with an
48 increase in deformation temperature and decrease in strain rate. Moreover, the alloy showed
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50 limited ductility irrespective of the deformation conditions. Next, Fig. 1 (b and c) shows that
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52 the effect of temperature is more pronounced on yield stress and strain hardening exponent
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compared to strain rate, which is in agreement with previous studies (Ref 8).
55 The effect of strain rate on strain hardening exponent is prominent only when the
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57 variation in strain rate is comparatively high. Since the tested samples exhibited variation in
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59 strain after necking, the local true strain in the necked sample was calculated by measuring the
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 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Page 4 of 13

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3 change in area. Fig. 2a shows the image of one such sample, and corresponding strain
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5 measurements carried out as a function of distance from the fracture surface (Fig. 2b).
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7 Representative plots shown in Fig. 2 (c and d) highlights the strong temperature dependence of
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local plastic deformation in contrast to negligible effect of strain rate.
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12 3.2. Microstructure evolution with strain:
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Fig. 2 (b) is a schematic showing various locations along the length of fractured
15 samples, where microstructure and micro-texture studies were carried out. The inverse pole
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17 figure (IPF) maps at normal direction (ND) of fractured samples, obtained from EBSD, at
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19 different strains and deformation temperatures is presented in Fig. 3. For the base material (as-
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received material), the grain orientation is random with an average grain size of about two
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22 microns. Each row of IPF maps shows the microstructure at increasing strain values up to
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24 fracture strain. An increase in the number of black points, which are non-indexed points, where
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26 the lattice is distorted so much that the Kikuchi patterns could not be indexed is also evident.
27 The fraction of black points increases with both deformation and temperature. While some
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29 grains fragment due to subdivision of grains due to formation of low angle boundaries by
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31 arrangement of dislocations, a few grains are seen to undergo extensive elongation, especially
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at 293 K and 473 K. At 40% strain, which is the highest strain common to all temperatures, the
34 273 K and 473 K samples show many grain clusters, which have near basal orientation with
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36 respect to ND, i.e., <0001> || ND, (encircled in white dashed line). The abnormal size of these
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38 clusters with similar orientations are termed as MTRs, which are commonly observed in
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titanium alloys (Ref 6,7). The available literature (Ref 6,9) suggest that the MTRs are formed
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41 as a consequence of the thermomechanical processing steps. In stark contrast, the starting
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43 extruded material used in the current study was devoid of any MTRs (Fig. 3a). However, what
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45 is observed here is a dynamic evolution of MTRs, i.e., formation of MTRs during the
46 mechanical loading, particularly at room and above room temperatures. Other major difference
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48 in the nature of the MTRs seen in the current study is that these regions have their <0001>
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50 normal to the loading axis, i.e., parallel to ND. To further understand the development of these
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clusters with predominantly near basal orientation, we have looked in detail at the deformed
53 microstructure.
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55 A careful observation of the MTRs reveal that the regions are mainly characterized by
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57 elongated grains. Fig. 4 shows a grain undergoing elongation to accommodate local strain.
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Micrographs of two representative elongated grains present in the 293 K and 473 K specimens
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60 are shown in Fig. 4b and c, respectively. Red lines indicate boundaries with greater than two

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Page 5 of 13 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

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3 degrees misorientation. A careful observation indicates that these types of grains could not
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5 have been formed by the elongation of a single equiaxed grain alone. In fact, the multitude of
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7 boundaries within grains indicates that the elongated grains could have been formed by the
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rotation of smaller grains to a common orientation, i.e., <0001> || ND. Fig. 4a shows a prismatic
10 orientated grain undergoing lattice rotation to a basal orientation (<0001> || ND). This is clear
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12 evidence of the role played by grain rotation during plastic deformation, which is in fact an
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14 instance of the formation of MTRs. This important observation will be discussed further in the
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subsequent section.
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17 The effect of deformation on texture evolution can be seen more clearly in Fig. 5 (a-d), which
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19 exhibits (0001) pole figures for the 40% deformed samples. The role of temperature is brought
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21 out more clearly in Fig. 5 (e-g), where the fraction of near basal and near prismatic grains
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22 (selected with 15° tolerance) as a function of strain for all three temperatures is shown. The as
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24 received sample has higher fraction of prismatic orientations, (<1010> || ND and <1210> ||
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26 ND), than basal orientations. However, the fraction of prismatic orientations decreases, and
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basal orientations increases with increase in deformation. The rate at which the fraction of near
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29 basal oriented grains increases (and near prismatic oriented grains decrease) is significantly
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31 higher at 473 K as compared to the other two temperatures. The reason for this higher fraction
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33 of <0001> || ND is clarified in the next section.
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36 3.2.1. Mechanism of micro-texture evolution

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38 Results presented until now reveal a certain difference in texture in the samples
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40 deformed at different temperatures. The 193 K deformed sample shows a texture close to that
41 of the starting texture, however, there is a clear strengthening of the components near [0, 90,
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43 0], i.e. (01-10) [10-10], and a weak intensity near [90, 90, 90], i.e., (2-1-10) [0001]. It is well
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45 understood that as the temperature decreases critical resolved shear stress (CRSS) of all the
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slip systems in titanium increases rapidly, and hence their activation becomes difficult (Ref
48 10,11). Conversely, twinning is observed to be independent of temperature (Ref 11).
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50 Contradictorily, several authors (Ref 11–13) have reported the occurrence of twinning in
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52 Ti6Al4V at low and room temperature. The very high CRSS of pyramidal slip and the need to
53 accommodate strain along the c-axis, makes twinning a necessity. The sharp reorientations that
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55 can be brought about by twinning was demonstrated by Fitzner et al. (Ref 13) and Leo Prakash
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57 et al. (Ref 12) in Ti6Al4V. Keeping in view these observations, it can be contemplated that
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59 twinning is responsible for the reorientation seen at 193 K. However, conventional EBSD has
60 limitations in capturing the twin boundaries in scenarios where the extent of twinning is so high
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3 that the entire parent grains get consumed (Ref 12). However, the scarcity of slip system
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5 activity results in a very low ductility at 193 K. The deformation carried out at 293 K is
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7 characterised by a clustering of basal poles close to ND. The basal poles are deviated from ND
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by about ± 20° towards transverse direction (TD) and LD, i.e., [0 20 0] and [90 20 0]
10 components. This kind of a split of basal poles towards TD and rolling direction (RD) is
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12 commonly observed in titanium and is often attributed to the combined action of prismatic and
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14 basal slip and twinning mechanisms. In rolling, the split towards RD, which is the direction of
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tension, reorientation towards RD is brought about by compression twinning (Ref 14,15).
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17 Similarly, it is possible that the split towards LD observed here is possibly due to compression
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19 twinning. There is also a disappearance of orientations close to [0, 45, 0]. These orientations
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21 which are generally referred to as ‘white grains’, do not undergo twinning, rather undergoes a
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22 gradual rotation due to deformation by slip towards [0 20 0]. At high temperature, it is observed
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24 that a very strong split-TD type of texture is observed, which is the most common texture
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26 during cold rolling of titanium. At 473 K, it is known that basal slip has a CRSS close to that
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of prism, and hence can get activated in a greater number of grains in addition to the prism slip.
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29 Due to the availability of easy slip deformation modes, twinning would get suppressed. It is
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31 interesting to note that, most of the orientations that were initially present in the material has
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33 reoriented towards the TD line and are deviated by within 45° with respect to ND. As observed
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by Chapuis and Liu (Ref 16), a very similar reorientation can be brought about by basal slip
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36 while the prism slip only causes rotation about the c-axis. Hence, it can be envisioned that the
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38 reorientation of basal poles nearly parallel to the ND is caused by higher basal slip activity.
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40 Furthermore, it is well known that during compression, the active slip plane rotates and gets
41 aligned normal to the compression axis (Ref 17). In the current situation, the compression is
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43 along the ND. Thus, a reorientation of a prismatic grain rotating to a near basal orientation,
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45 (<0001> || ND) was vividly observed in Fig. 4a. Since the basal planes are rotating towards
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ND, this also reinforces our proposition of higher activity of basal slip at 473 K. Since large
48 number of grains undergo basal slip, a higher fraction of <0001> || ND evolves, which appears
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50 as MTRs in the microstructure. This mechanism is most active at 473 K followed by room
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52 temperature. The activation of basal slip also results in a higher amount of cross slip to the
53 prism plane owing to the stacking fault energy (SFE) difference between basal and prism
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55 planes, the later having a lower SFE (Ref 18). This cross-slip is a recovery mechanism and can
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57 result in a very low strain hardening as observed in the mechanical test at 473 K. This rapid
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59 evolution of MTRs during the mechanical testing is a direct consequence of the initial starting
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Page 7 of 13 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

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3 texture coupled with the difference in the intrinsic properties of various deformation
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5 mechanisms in titanium.
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7 3.2.2. Consequence of MTR formation on the mechanical response
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Apart from the impact on strain hardening, the higher activity of basal slip and
10 strengthening of (0001) || ND might have consequences on the ductility. The detrimental role
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12 played by MTRs characterised by <0001> || to the loading axis in fatigue and dwell fatigue is
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14 well documented in the literature (Ref 2,19). However, the MTRs as the ones observed in the
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current study, have their <0001> perpendicular to the LD. These types of MTRs would
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17 generally fall under the category of soft MTRs with respect to the LD, which can hamper the
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19 ductility.
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21 Uniaxial deformation results in an extension along the LD and compression along the
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22 orthogonal directions. Here, extension along the LD would require a proportional compressive
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24 strain along the ND. However, once the basal orientations develop, i.e., <0001> || ND, it
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26 becomes difficult to accommodate the compressive strain along ND due to the very low Schmid
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factor for basal and prism slip systems for these orientation (Ref 20). Due to this restriction of
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29 material flow along the ND, the flow along the LD also gets restricted and fracture would
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31 initiate. This is likely to cause very low ductility observed in the tested samples.
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Conclusions
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36 1. In general, mechanical properties are more sensitive to temperature compared to strain

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38 rate for the tested range of strain rates. More importantly, a colossal loss of ductility
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40 was observed at all temperatures.
41 2. A dynamic evolution of MTRs which are soft in nature with respect to the LD was
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43 observed at ambient (293 K) and 473 K. The inability of such orientations to
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45 accommodate compressive strain along its c-axis is held responsible for the limited
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ductility at these temperatures.
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48 3. The current study suggests two different mechanisms for development of MTR at
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50 different temperatures. On one hand, a combined effect of slip and twinning at ambient
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52 temperature causes evolution of MTR, on the other hand, higher activity of basal slip
53 is responsible for the same at 473 K.
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57 Data Availability statement:
58 The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time as the data
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60 also forms part of an ongoing study.

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32 20. K.U. Yazar, M. Shamitha, and S. Suwas, Texture-Dependent Dwell Fatigue Response
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33 positions along the sectioned specimen showing the strain values and locations of
34 microstructure analysis (c) effect of temperatures on true strain variation at 0.05 s-1 strain rate
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and (d) effect of strain rate on true strain variation at 293 K with respect to distance from
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function of temperature and true strains at a strain rate 0.05 s-1; white dashed lines are used to
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23 Fig. 4. (a) Point-to-point misorientation of an elongated grain at 473 K showing changes in
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26 elongated grains in samples deformed at 293 K and 473 K, respectively; red lines indicate
27 boundaries with greater than two degrees misorientation
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32 Fig. 5 (a) Change in texture from undeformed to 40% deformed samples represented in terms
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34 (<0001> || ND), near prismatic (<1010> || ND) and (<1210> || ND) oriented grains as a function
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